2015

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1Motivation

Electric energy demand in Jimma city is over increasing every year. The previously installed
power transformer in distribution network of the city was not capable of carrying this over
increased load. While our visit to EEPCO many malfunction or burnt power transformers were
seen that are stored in the store of the office. Most of these malfunction happened due to
overload and over current. To combat this problem many option are there like protective relay
protection, breaker installation. Of these the most cost effective, simple and efficient project
entitled “automatic load sharing of power transformer using microcontroller in Jimma city” is
chosen.

1.2General Background

Electricity is an extremely handy and useful form of energy. It plays an ever growing role in our
modern industrialized society. So the demand for electrical energy is ever increasing. The
electrical power systems are highly non-linear, extremely huge and complex networks. Such
electric power systems are unified for economical benefits, increased reliability and operational
advantages. However, some of the electrical energy generated is lost in transmission and
distribution due to a widely dispersed power sources and loads. The consumer service
interruptions in Jimma city are mostly due to failure in the distribution network. Distribution
systems have suffered mainly from the following: voltage and current imbalance, poor voltage
regulation, peak power or energy losses, conductor heating or equipment, etc. The phase voltage
and current unbalances are major factors leading to extra losses, equipment overloading.

The transformer is a static device, which converts energy at one voltage level to another voltage
level. The thesis is all about protecting the transformer under overload condition. Due to
overload on the transformer, the efficiency drops and the secondary winding gets over heated
and may burn. So, by reducing the load on the transformer, the transformer is protected. To
minimize these problems, the structures of a distribution network of the city may have to be
modified. This will be done by arranging another transformer through a micro-controller.

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The microcontroller compares the load on the first transformer with a reference value. When the
load exceeds the reference value, the second transformer will share the extra load. Therefore, the
two transformers work efficiently under overload condition and the damage is prevented.

In this thesis three major components are used to control the load current. The first is sensing
unit, which is used to sense the current of the load. The second is control unit; in this
Electromagnetic relay is the main role, and its function is to change the position with respect to
the control signal. The last is microcontroller, which will read the digital signal and perform
some calculation and finally gives control signal to the relay. When designing low-voltage power
systems to supply large load currents, paralleled lower-current modules are often preferred over a
single, large power converter for several reasons. These include the efficiencies of designing and
manufacturing standard modular converters which can be combined in whatever number
necessary to meet a given load requirement; and the enhanced reliability gained through
redundancy.

1.3Statement of Problem

To ensure increased market service value in terms of adequate quality and reliability, reduce cost
of operation and service interruptions, there is a need for an optimal solution or technique. This
technique is to ensure continuous dynamic load balancing along the low voltage secondary
feeder thereby relieving overload in the feeder with minimal service interruption and reduced
real power losses. The main duty of this investigation is how overload due to uneven distribution
of single-phase loads at the secondary side of the distribution network can be minimized using
automatic load sharing in Jimma city.

The existing system is done manually by technician and network annalistby dividing the network
in to two thereby reducing the load and installing individual transformers for each.

Sub-Problem

 Inadequate service quality and reliability;

 Power losses;
 Voltage drop and high cost of operation.

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1.4 Objective

1.4.1 General Objective

This thesis describes about how to use power supply when critical load happened. Using this
module someone can protect the transformer from the over load. This thesis describes howto
connect and disconnect the transformer automatically by sensing load current. Therefore, the
following objectives are proposed to be achieved during the course of this thesis:

 Design of automatic load sharing of power transformer using microcontroller-based relay

scheme
 To test unwanted conditions (over current or overload) and when such conditions arise to
share overload condition in the shortest time possible
 Development of suitable protection and control of Power transformer

1.4.2 Specific objective

 Investigate how rearrangement of consumers load can be carried out among the phases.

 Evolve techniques or system for ensuring continuous dynamic on-line load rearrangement
with minimal service interruptions; reduced power losses, and voltage drop.

 Reduce manual operations approach for improving load balancing on secondary

distribution network feeder.

 Reduce the frequent power outage that severe the reliability of the system.

 Create a simulation model and consequently carryout a study of the proposed technology
and its operation.

 Provide low cost and reliable system

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1.5 Contribution of the thesis

This thesis will contribute a technique for distribution utilities at the low voltage distribution
network that will bring the following point:

 A case study of automatic load sharing of transformer in Jimma city distribution network
 Structural survey on load sharing and benefit of automatic load sharing
 Increase quality and reliability of supply service to the consumers.
 Unbalance will be considerably minimized thereby ensuring that voltage drop and power
losses are reduced. This will result in increase in the life span of the utility installations.
 Maximization of the capabilities of the existing distribution station in terms of the
infrastructures and equipment.
 Resourceful distribution of power flow.

1.6 Methodology

The methodology is diverged in different parts, which are the analyzing and modeling of
automatic power transformer load sharing, case study and the other is simulation of automatic
load using proteus and mikro C compiler. Most of the methodology part is presented in chapter
three.

1.7 Scope of the Thesis

The project is all about automatic load sharing of power transformer under peak load to protect
the transformer during overload condition. By introducing this method it have advantage to
maintain a stable level of short circuit current, reduces the voltage drop and imbalances the
current and it is reverse power protection etc. So the thesis deals from theoretical and
mathematical method, code, until simulation.

1.8 limitations

The project deals with load sharing of transformers to ensure the safety of the power transformer
thereby protecting the distribution system when there exist a state of over load.

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The project does not encompass other power transformer failure reasons like lightning, short
circuit of winding, tree, birds and others. The project also does not try to show the
implementation in substations since it is complicated and it would take a lot of analysis.

1.9 Outline

The first chapter is the overview of the whole project. It introduces the topic, motivation,
objectives, statement of problem, contribution, hypothesis and methodology of the thesis.
Chapter2 the review of articles in the open literature and field survey which are relevant to the
current investigation such as phase unbalance, overload and transformer damage. Chapter 3 is
the design of automatic load sharing of power transformer that contains major designing
component, mathematical model of load sharing and analysis of case study. Chapter 4 presents
the interfacing of microcontroller 16F877A with LCD LM016. This proposed technology is used
for investigation incorporating all the relevant aspect for switching, monitoring, evaluation,
analysis and communication for the purpose of achieving the development. Chapter 5 discuses
the simulation and results of this project. Chapter 6, Conclusion and recommendation for future
work.

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CHAPTER TWO

Literature review and field survey

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will discuss the study about significant effect of overload in Jimma distribution
system and network. At present automatic load sharing power transformer is not available in
Jimma city. Automatic load sharing transformer is operated by the principle of parallel operation
of transformer. This may cause increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary breaker
capacity, the risk of circulating currents running from one transformer to another transformer,
circulating currents that diminish load capability and increased losses. The challenge in
paralleling modular supplies is to insure predictable, uniform current sharing-regardless of load
levels and the number of modules. It provide enhanced system reliability through complete
redundancy such that the failure of one or more modules could be tolerated as long as the total
remaining capacity is equal to or greater than the demands of the load.

2.2 Citation

Automatic transformer load sharing issues and remedies are relevant project topics and a lot of
advanced researches are being carried out in this area. These issues are mainly due to increased
usage of power system utility and unbalanced loads occur in power system. Dynamic loads cause
power quality problems usually by voltage or current variations such as voltage dips,
fluctuations, momentary interruptions.

Various publications define transformer load sharing in different aspects.

The project entitled "power transformer protection using microcontroller designed with
peripheral interface controller (pic 16f877a)".This project is mainly used to protect transformer
from getting worn out due to electrical disturbances. The electrical parameters like current,
voltage of the transformer are fed as base values, using a keypad to the peripheral interface
controller and the output signal is provided to operate a relay comparing the base value with the
operation electrical parameters.

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"Transformer protection and monitoring" this project uses the distance protection function which
is used as back-up protection for faults within the transformer. This solution provides efficient
protection and control in facts installations. The distance protection function can also be used as
back-up protection for faults in the connected lines. The parameters related to line distance
protection are mostly set as primary ohms, which significantly reduce the need to re-calculate the
current and voltage values. This allows the IEDs to be quickly taken into operation.

Furthermore in 2007 S.M. Bashi et al, “designed and built a microcontroller based system for
power transformer protection”. The system includes facilities for discrimination between internal
fault current and magnetizing inrush current, differential protection, over current protection has
been included. The performances of the proposed system have been examined and from the
experimental readings and observation, it was understood that the proposed system monitors and
controls the transformer when there is any fault (Bashi et al 2007).

2.3 Field survey on overloaded transformers in Jimma City

What Is Over Current?

Over current is any current in excess of the rated current of equipment or the capacity of a
conductor. It may result from overload, short circuit, or ground fault. Current flow in a conductor
always generates heat. When large amount of current passes through the conductor, the
conductor’s temperature increases as the current exceed the rated value and this result in
damaging of insulators, conductors and other electrical components.

Many transformers in Jimma city are damaged (warn out) frequently in different part of the city
due to different reason.

Some of the major reasons for these damages are:

Overload: The city growing and the number of population are increasing from time to time.
This is due to establishment of different organization, hotels, and public centre and university.
All mentioned above need reliable and sustainable power to run their function properly.

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However, most of the transformer mounted in the city are not capable of carrying the over
increasing load of the city. In addition the transformer phases are loaded unequally to satisfy the
customer need as much as possible to meet their desire. So, that overload that comes from the
customer side damages many of the city’s transformers.

Line-line or ground: This happens due to short circuit of the line in distribution network.
Most of the city’s networks are exposed for these faults. Since there are less trimming, sagging,
bird and wind are factors that result in line to line fault over the network. On other hand,
lightening is also the cause to this damage in the case of surge failure.

Insulation failure: overloaded current and age are the causes for the insulation failure. This
occurs when internal temperature of the transformer increased and transformer’s cooling system
is insufficient to cool the system, over heating result in the breakdown of dielectric strength
(insulation) of the transformer.

Oil level decrease: Most of the time oil level of transformer checked by electrician and filled
accordingly. But sometimes due to the existence of a number of transformers in the city, some of
the transformer may not be checked on time. As a result, the transformer oil level drop and the
cooling system fail to function as desired. So the transformer overheats easily and exposed to the
breakdown of transformer’s wound.

Based on the above causes field survey was carried out with the help of distribution network
technicians on some overloaded transformer in Jimma city.

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Collected data from different part of the city’s transformer, mainly gathered from EEPCO

Table 2.1 Collected data from the field

Date Box 1 Box 2

Location of
KVA
TF
IR IS IT IN IR IS IT IN

Kochi
(Bajaj tera)
315 29/07/07
Not Not Not Not Not Not Not Not
measured measured measured measured measured measured measured measured

Police ras
agez
200 29/07/O7 10.5 69 86 76 90 123 26 91

Etv
serategnoch 200 29/07/07 156 114 50 77 156 1 183 37
sefer

Green 200 29/07/07 96 77 112 32 143 126 171 47

For proper function of the transformer it is necessary to consider the following points, consider
the load on each phases, boxes and pillar must be equally loaded (balanced) i.e. IR=IS=IT. The
current in neutral line also have to be zero(no current flow in the neutral line i.e. IN=0). As
shown on the table from collected data all transformer phases are unbalanced. Each phases of
transformer carrying different value of current. And the two boxes of the transformer also
unbalanced. So, the neutral line forced to carry the current due to unbalanced phase.
Consequently, this situation result in overloading of transformer which leads to burning of the
transformer.

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Depending on the collected data above many transformer’s secondary winding are burnt out and
being out of service because of load and poor power distribution network. Transformer’s
winding status can be checked using MEGGER.

MEGGER is an instrument used to measure the insulation of transformer to check up whether

transformers are normal or abnormal. The megger shows the following result if the transformer
is on normal condition.

1. High tension with ground >100MΩ

2. High tension with High tension=0
3. High tension with low tension (voltage) >100MΩ
4. Low tension with neutral=0
5. Low tension with ground >100MΩ
6. Low tension with low tension=0

N.B. When the transformer’s high tension with high tension, high tension with ground and high
tension with low tension are tested the Megger is set (calibrate) at 5KV.

2. When low tension with low tension, low tension with ground and low tension with
neutral the Megger is set (calibrate) at 0.5KV.

For instance, the transformer mounted around ETV serategnoch sefer was burnt on the 29th

June 2015 GC. The following events were investigated during the field survey along with the
technique group

 Transformer oil level decreased (oil over flow)

 Malfunction of one phase
 Transformer body made heat

Gathered data from Megger test of transformer

 Low voltage R-phase with low voltage T-phase=0MΩ

 Low voltage R-phase with low voltage S-phase>100MΩ
 Low voltage S-phase with low voltage T-phase>100MΩ
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 Low voltage R&T-phase with neutral=0MΩ
 Low voltage S-phase with neutral >100MΩ
 Low voltage S-phase with ground =0MΩ

The Megger result shows that the transformer S-phase low voltage side has no output and the
transformer low voltage side grounded with transformer body. Consequently, the transformer
damaged (burnt). It must be replaced by other transformer to give service for the customer.

2.4 Importance of Protection System

Fault impose hazard to both the user and on the system itself and when it comes to user, life is
the concern and when it concerns the system it is merely to provide stable Electrical power
system on top of that prevent damage to the expensive equipment used.

Table 2.2 Protection system

User/Personal safety Prevent injury and accident

Safe guard the equipment from over current, over voltage and frequency drift that can
Equipment
cause damage.

General safety Prevent secondary accident that result from power system fault such as fire

Power supply stability Ensure that continuous and stable electrical power supplied by the system/grid

Ensure that the system is operating at optimal efficiency and reduce equipment
Operation cost
maintenance

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Chapter 3

Design of automatic load sharing of power transformer

3.1 Introduction

Automatic load sharing of transformers is an integral part of the power system control process,
allowing smooth and immediate transfer of electrical current between multiple sources and the
load. Initially transformer 1 is connected to the load, the loads run with this power. If the load on
transformer 1 is increase beyond its rating (or some specified reference value) then controller
will find out that and it will connect the sharing transformer parallel to the main transformer.
And controller will continuously monitor the current flowing in the load and when the load
current decreases below the transformer 1 rating (or reference value) then it will turn off the
sharing transformer.

Current transformer is used for measuring and protecting the load current, and the output of CT
is given to ADC of the microcontroller for converting analog output of CT into digital data. The
CT is used for monitoring purpose.

While most modern-day power supplies can be paralleled for higher currents, the load current
will not share equally between modules without some extra effort in the design process. With
unequal load sharing, the stress placed on the individual modules will be unequal; resulting in
some units operating with higher temperatures contributor to reduced reliability .Therefore, the
challenge in paralleling modular supplies is to insure predictable, uniform current sharing of
modules. Another major goal should be to provide enhanced system reliability through complete
redundancy such that the failure of one or more modules could be tolerated as long as the total
remaining capacity is equal to or greater than the demands of the load.

The design consist of

 Block diagram description (components)

 General criteria of design(parallel operation of transformers)
 Circuit diagram for simulation

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3.2 General block diagram of the project

Power supply
LCD
Microcontroller

Transformer1

ADC

Relay

sharingTransfor
mer2

Load Current transformer

Figure3.1 Block diagram the project

3.2.1 Power supply

Power supply circuit design is one of the important parts of this project, without a power supply
the electronic devices such as microcontroller, relay, LCD etc. display will not function.
Similarly a wrong power supply design will lead to the damaging of the electronic devices used
in this project. The main power supplies needed for this project is 5VDC in order to power on the
relay and other electronic devices such as microcontroller and LCD. The design is done using a
transformer, bridge rectifiers, filter capacitor and a voltage regulator.

Most of the power supply is designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable
low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices.

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AC Transformer Rectifier Smoothing IC regulated DC

regulator
Mains

Figure 3.2 block diagram of power supply

3.2.1.1 Transformer

Power supply input voltage is obtained from the main supply 220VAC outlet and then
connected to the transformer. A step down transformer is used in stepping the 220VAC to a
12VAC.The 12VAC serves as an input voltage to the bridge rectifier.

Figure 3.3transformer

3.2.1.2 Bridge rectifier

When four diodes are connected the circuit is called as bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is
applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the output is taken from the
remaining two corners. Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a
positive potential, at point A and a negative potential at point B. the positive potential at point A

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will forward bias D3 and reverse bias D4. The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1
and reverse D2. At this time D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass
through them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and will block current flow. The path for current
flow is from point B through D1, up through RL, through D3, through the secondary of the
transformer back to point B.

One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that with a given
transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice that of the
conventional full-wave circuit.

Figure 3.4 Output of rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not suitable for
electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

3.2.1.3 Filter

Filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to remove
unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both. The most
common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects of their design.

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Figure 3.5 filter

3.2.1.4 IC Regulator

An IC regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage

level. A voltage regulator may be a simple “feed-forward” design or may include negative
feedback control loops. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual
supplies. Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they can pass.

Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection')
and overheating ('thermal protection').It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages.

Figure 3.6 IC regulators

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all electronic circuits.

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3.2.2 The Electromagnetic Relay

The relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls, automobiles,
and appliances. It allows the isolation of two separate sections of a system with two different
voltage sources. It used to opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In the
original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of
contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output
circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form
of an electrical amplifier.

This is a device consisting of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core. When electricity is
applied to the coil of wire it becomes magnetic, hence the term electromagnet. The A, B and C
terminals are an SPDT switch controlled by the electromagnet.

Figure 3.7 Electromagnetic relay

When electricity is applied to V1 and V2, the electromagnet acts upon the SPDT switch so that
the B and C terminals are connected. When the electricity is disconnected, then the A and C
terminals are connected. It is important to note that the electromagnet is magnetically linked to
the switch but the two are NOT linked electrically.

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Basic operation

The EMRs have three components: the coil, spring and contacts. A digital +5V can control a
220Vac transformer 2, without any physical contact between them. When current flows through
the coil, a magnetic field is created around the coil (the coil is energized), which causes the
armature to be attracted to the coil. The armature’s contact acts like a switch and closes or opens
the circuit. The relay serves as the protective device of the entire system. The relay receives trip
signal from the microcontroller and thereby connect the transformer 2 secondary from the input
ac to the load.

Over current relay

An "Over current Relay" is a type of protective relay which operates when the load current
exceeds a preset value. The ANSI Device Designation Number is 50 for an Instantaneous over
Current (IOC), 51 for a Time over Current (TOC). In a typical application the over current relay
is used for over current protection, connected to a current transformer and calibrated to operate at
or above a specific current level. When the relay operates, one or more contacts will operate and
energize a trip coil in a Circuit Breaker and trip (open) the Circuit Breaker.

3.2.3 Current Transformers

Current Transformers (CT) are instrument transformers that are used to supply a reduced value
of current to meters, protective relays, and other instruments. CT’s provide isolation from the
high voltage primary, permit grounding of the secondary for safety, and step-down the
magnitude of the measured current to a value that can be safely handled by the instruments. The
protection of the transformer against over current is concerned with the detection and
measurement of fault, where the measurement can be dangerous and indeed impossible to
measure if the actual load and fault currents are very large. A professional way of avoiding these
difficulties is to use the current sensor.

The current transformer is used with its primary winding connected in series with line carrying
the current to be measured and therefore the primary current is dependent upon the load
connected to the system and is not determined by the load connected on the secondary winding

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of the current transformer . The primary winding consists of very few turns and therefore there is
no appreciable voltage drop across it. The secondary winding of current transformer has large
number of turns, the exact number being determined by the turn’s ratio.

3.2.3.1 Current Transformer operation

The instrument current transformer CT steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value and is
used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is done by constructing the
secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary coil, which contains only a
few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high values of current can be obtained. A
current transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an external load.
Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing current
when under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux in the
magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer, inducing an
excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load.

The current sensor is capable of measuring up to 50A.The monitored current values are
displayed on the LCD display and as soon the voltage transformer is overloaded the current
transformer sends the information through the ADC and the microcontroller energizes the relay,
thereby the load is shared by transformer 2. Over current protection circuit An ammeter cannot
be used in measuring the load current in this project because an analogue signal most be fed into
the ADC of the microcontroller for monitoring the load current. A current sensor was found to be
the suitable current sensing device for this purpose. The current sensor used can measure up to
50A.The ACS750 is power up with 5VDC and gives out voltage to indicate the direction and
current value. The output of the current sensor is fed to Micro-controller ADC unit for taking the
necessary action.

3.3 Power Transformer

Power transformers are used for conversion of voltage and current from high to low and vice
versa. A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils.

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A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding.

This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the
secondary, an electric current primary circuit through the transformer to the load.

For transmission and distribution networks to transfer large amounts of alternating current
electricity over long distances with minimum losses and least cost, different voltage levels are
required in the various parts of the networks. For example, the transfer of electricity efficiently
over a long transmission line requires the use of high voltages. At the receiving end where the
electricity is used, the high voltage has to be reduced to the levels required by the consumer.
Transformers enable these changes in voltage to be carried out easily, cheaply and efficiently.
Step down transformer that converts 15kv to 220v AC supply is normally used.

A transformer consists of two coils electrically separate but linked by a common magnetic circuit
of low reluctance formed by a laminated soft iron core. If one coil (the primary coil) is connected
to an AC supply, an alternating magnetic flux is set up in the iron core. This alternating magnetic
flux passes through the secondary coil and induces and alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
The magnitude of the secondary voltage is directly proportional to the ratio of the number of
turns in the secondary and primary windings and to the primary voltage.

3.3.1 Parallel operation of transformer

For supplying a load in excess of the rating of an existing transformer, two or more transformers
may be connected in parallel with the existing transformer. The transformers are connected in
parallel when load on one of the transformers is more than its capacity. The reliability is
increased with parallel operation than to have single larger unit. The cost associated with
maintaining the spares is less when two transformers are connected in parallel.

It is usually economical to install another transformer in parallel instead of replacing the existing
transformer by a single larger unit. The cost of a spare unit in the case of two parallel
transformers (of equal rating) is also lower than that of a single large transformer.

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In addition, it is preferable to have a parallel transformer for the reason of reliability. With this at
least half the load can be supplied with one transformer out of service.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Transformer:

For parallel connection of transformers, primary windings of the Transformers are connected to
source bus-bars and secondary windings are connected to the load bus-bars. Various conditions
that must be fulfilled for the successful parallel operation of transformers:

1. Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio (both primary and secondary Voltage Rating is
same).

2. Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.

3. Identical Position of Tap changer.

4. Same KVA ratings.

5. Same Phase angle shift (vector group are same).

6. Same Frequency rating.

7. Same Polarity.

8. Same Phase sequence.

Some of these conditions are convenient and some are mandatory. The convenient are: Same
voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio, Same Percentage Impedance, Same KVA Rating, Same Position of
Tap changer. The mandatory conditions are: Same Phase Angle Shift, Same Polarity, Same
Phase Sequence and Same Frequency. When the convenient conditions are not met paralleled
operation is possible but not optimal.

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1. Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio (on each tap):

If the transformers connected in parallel have slightly different voltage ratios, then due to the
inequality of induced emfs in the secondary windings, a circulating current will flow in the loop
formed by the secondary windings under the no-load condition, which may be much greater than
the normal no-load current. The current will be quite high as the leakage impedance is low.
When the secondary windings are loaded, this circulating current will tend to produce unequal
loading on the two transformers, and it may not be possible to take the full load from this group
of two parallel transformers (one of the transformers may get overloaded).

If two transformers of different voltage ratio are connected in parallel with same primary supply
voltage, there will be a difference in secondary voltages. Now when the secondary of these
transformers are connected to same bus, there will be a circulating current between secondary’s
and therefore between primaries also. As the internal impedance of transformer is small, a small
voltage difference may cause sufficiently high circulating current causing unnecessary extra I2R
loss. The ratings of both primaries and secondary’s should be identical. In other words, the
transformers should have the same turn ratio i.e. transformation ratio.

2. Same percentage impedance and X/R ratio:

If two transformers connected in parallel with similar per-unit impedances they will mostly
share the load in the ration of their KVA ratings. Here Load is mostly equal because it is possible
to have two transformers with equal per-unit impedances but different X/R ratios. In this case the
line current will be less than the sum of the transformer currents and the combined capacity will
be reduced accordingly.

A difference in the ratio of the reactance value to resistance value of the per unit impedance
results in a different phase angle of the currents carried by the two paralleled transformers; one
transformer will be working with a higher power factor and the other with a lower power factor
than that of the combined output. Hence, the real power will not be proportionally shared by the
transformers.

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The current shared by two transformers running in parallel should be proportional to their MVA
ratings. The current carried by these transformers are inversely proportional to their internal
impedance.

From the above two statements it can be said that impedance of transformers running in parallel
are inversely proportional to their MVA ratings. In other words percentage impedance or per unit
values of impedance should be identical for all the transformers run in parallel.

When connecting single-phase transformers in three-phase banks, proper impedance matching

becomes even more critical. In addition to following the three rules for parallel operation, it is
also a good practice to try to match the X/R ratios of the three series impedances to keep the
three-phase output voltages balanced. When single-phase transformers with the same KVA
ratings are connected in a Y-∆ Bank, impedance mismatches can cause a significant load
unbalance among the transformers

Let’s examine following different type of case among Impedance, Ratio and KVA.

If single-phase transformers are connected in a Y-Y bank with an isolated neutral, then the
magnetizing impedance should also be equal on an ohmic basis. Otherwise, the transformer
having the largest magnetizing impedance will have a highest percentage of exciting voltage,
increasing the core losses of that transformer and possibly driving its core into saturation.

Case 1: Equal Impedance, Ratios and Same kVA:

The standard method of connecting transformers in parallel is to have the same turn ratios,
percent impedances, and kVA ratings.

Connecting transformers in parallel with the same parameters results in equal load sharing and
no circulating currents in the transformer windings.

Example: Connecting two 2000 kVA, 5.75% impedance transformers in parallel, each with the
same turn ratios to a 4000 kVA load.

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Loading on the transformers-1 =KVA1=[( KVA1 / %Z) / ((KVA1 / %Z1)+ (KVA2 / %Z2))]X
KVAl

kVA1 = 348 / (348 + 348) x 4000 kVA = 2000 kVA.

Loading on the transformers-2 =KVA1=[( KVA2 / %Z) / ((KVA1 / %Z1)+ (KVA2 / %Z2))]X
KVAl

kVA2 = 348 / (348 + 348) x 4000 kVA = 2000 kVA

Hence KVA1=KVA2=2000KVA

Case 2: Equal Impedances, Ratios and Different kVA:

This Parameter is not in common practice for new installations, sometimes two transformers
with different kVAs and the same percent impedances are connected to one common bus. In this
situation, the current division causes each transformer to carry its rated load. There will be no
circulating currents because the voltages (turn ratios) are the same.

Example: Connecting 3000 kVA and 1000 kVA transformers in parallel, each with 5.75%
impedance, each with the same turn ratios, connected to a common 4000 kVA load.

Loading on Transformer-1=kVA1 = 522 / (522 + 174) x 4000 = 3000 kVA

Loading on Transformer-1=kVA2 = 174 / (522 + 174) x 4000 = 1000 kVA

From above calculation it is seen that different kVA ratings on transformers connected to one
common load, that current division causes each transformer to only be loaded to its kVA rating.
The key here is that the percent impedance are the same.

Case 3: Unequal Impedance but Same Ratios & kVA:

Mostly used this Parameter to enhance plant power capacity by connecting existing transformers
in parallel that have the same kVA rating, but with different percent impedances.

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This is common when budget constraints limit the purchase of a new transformer with the same
parameters.

Understand that the current divides in inverse proportions to the impedances, and larger current
flows through the smaller impedance. Thus, the lower percent impedance transformer can be
overloaded when subjected to heavy loading while the other higher percent impedance
transformer will be lightly loaded.

Example: Two 2000 kVA transformers in parallel, one with 5.75% impedance and the other
with 4% impedance, each with the same turn ratios, connected to a common 3500 kVA load.

Loading on Transformer-1=kVA1 = 348 / (348 + 500) x 3500 = 1436 kVA

Loading on Transformer-2=kVA2 = 500 / (348 + 500) x 3500 = 2064 kVA

It can be seen that because transformer percent impedances do not match, they cannot be loaded
to their combined kVA rating. Load division between the transformers is not equal. At below
combined rated kVA loading, the 4% impedance transformer is overloaded by 3.2%, while the
5.75% impedance transformer is loaded by 72%.

Case 4: Unequal Impedance & KVA Same Ratios:

This particular of transformers used rarely in industrial and commercial facilities connected to
one common bus with different kVA and unequal percent impedances. However, there may be
that one situation where two single-ended substations may be tied together via bussing or cables
to provide better voltage support when starting large Load.

If the percent impedance and kVA ratings are different, care should be taken when loading these
transformers.

Example: Two transformers in parallel with one 3000 kVA (kVA1) with 5.75% impedance, and
the other a 1000 kVA (kVA2) with 4% impedance, each with the same turn ratios, connected to a
common 3500 kVA load.

Loading on Transformer-1=kVA1 = 522 / (522 + 250) x 3500 = 2366 kVA

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Loading on Transformer-2=kVA2 = 250 / (522 + 250) x 3500 = 1134 kVA

Because the percent impedance is less in the 1000 kVA transformer, it is overloaded with a less
than combined rated load.

Case 5: Equal Impedance & KVA Unequal Ratios:

Small differences in voltage cause a large amount of current to circulate. It is important to point
out that paralleled transformers should always be on the same tap connection.

Circulating current is completely independent of the load and load division. If transformers are
fully loaded there will be a considerable amount of overheating due to circulating currents.

The Point which should be Remember that circulating currents do not flow on the line, they
cannot be measured if monitoring equipment is upstream or downstream of the common
connection points.

Example: Two 2000 kVA transformers connected in parallel, each with 5.75% impedance, same
X/R ratio (8), transformer 1 with tap adjusted 2.5% from nominal and transformer 2 tapped at
nominal. What is the percent circulating current (%IC)

%Z1 = 5.75, So %R’ = %Z1 / √[(X/R)2 + 1)] = 5.75 / √((8)2 + 1)=0.713

%R1 = %R2 = 0.713

%X1 = %R x (X/R)=%X1= %X2= 0.713 x 8 = 5.7

Let %e = difference in voltage ratio expressed in percentage of normal and k = kVA1/ kVA2

Circulating current %IC = %eX100 / √ (%R1+k%R2)2 + (%Z1+k%Z2)2.

%IC = 2.5X100 / √ (0.713 + (2000/2000)X0.713)2 + (5.7 + (2000/2000)X5.7)2

%IC = 250 / 11.7 = 21.7

The circulating current is 21.7% of the full load current.

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Case 6: Unequal Impedance, KVA & Different Ratios:

This type of parameter would be unlikely in practice. If both the ratios and the impedance are
different, the circulating current (because of the unequal ratio) should be combined with each
transformer’s share of the load current to obtain the actual total current in each unit. For unity
power factor, 10% circulating current (due to unequal turn ratios) results in only half percent to
the total current. At lower power factors, the circulating current will change dramatically.

Example: Two transformers connected in parallel, 2000 kVA1 with 5.75% impedance, X/R ratio
of 8, 1000 kVA2 with 4% impedance, X/R ratio of 5, 2000 kVA1 with tap adjusted 2.5% from
nominal and 1000 kVA2 tapped at nominal.

%Z1 = 5.75, So %R’ = %Z1 / √[(X/R)2 + 1)] = 5.75 / √((8)2 + 1)=0.713

%X1= %R x (X/R)=0.713 x 8 = 5.7

%Z2= 4, So %R2 = %Z2 /√ [(X/R)2 + 1)]= 4 / √((5)2 + 1) =0.784

%X2 = %R x (X/R)=0.784 x 5 = 3.92

Let %e = difference in voltage ratio expressed in percentage of normal and k = kVA1/

kVA2

Circulating current %IC = %eX100 / √ (%R1+k%R2)2 + (%Z1+k%Z2)2.

%IC = 2.5X100 / √ (0.713 + (2000/2000)X0.713)2 + (5.7 + (2000/2000)X5.7)2

%IC = 250 / 13.73 = 18.21.

The circulating current is 18.21% of the full load current.

3. Same polarity:
Polarity of transformer means the instantaneous direction of induced emf in secondary. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two transformers are opposite to each other
when same input power is fed to the both of the transformers, the transformers are said to be in
opposite polarity.

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The transformers should be properly connected with regard to their polarity. If they are
connected with incorrect polarities then the two emfs, induced in the secondary windings which
are in parallel, will act together in the local secondary circuit and produce a short circuit.

Polarity of all transformers run in parallel should be same otherwise huge circulating current
flows in the transformer but no load will be fed from these transformers. If the instantaneous
directions of induced secondary emf in two transformers are same when same input power is fed
to the both of the transformers, the transformers are said to be in same polarity.

4. Same phase sequence:

The phase sequence of line voltages of both the transformers must be identical for parallel
operation of three-phase transformers. If the phase sequence is an incorrect, in every cycle each
pair of phases will get short-circuited.

This condition must be strictly followed for parallel operation of transformers.

5. Same phase angle shift:(zero relative phase displacement between the

secondary line voltages):

The transformer windings can be connected in a variety of ways which produce different
magnitudes and phase displacements of the secondary voltage. All the transformer connections
can be classified into distinct vector groups.

Group 1: Zero phase displacement (Yy0, Dd0, Dz0)

Group 2:180° phase displacement (Yy6, Dd6, Dz6)
Group 3: -30° phase displacement (Yd1, Dy1, Yz1)
Group 4: +30° phase displacement (Yd11, Dy11, Yz11)

In order to have zero relative phase displacement of secondary side line voltages, the
transformers belonging to the same group can be paralleled. For example, two transformers with
Yd1 and Dy1 connections can be paralleled.

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The transformers of groups 1 and 2 can only be paralleled with transformers of their own group.
However, the transformers of groups 3 and 4 can be paralleled by reversing the phase sequence
of one of them. For example, a transformer with Yd1 1 connection (group 4) can be paralleled
with that having Dy1 connection (group 3) by reversing the phase sequence of both primary and
secondary terminals of the Dy1 transformer.

Dy1 and Dy11 can only be paralleled by crossing two incoming phases and the same two
outgoing phases on one of the transformers, so if there is a DY11 transformer, B&C phases on
the primary and secondary can be crossed to change the +30 degree phase shift into a -30 degree
shift which will parallel with the Dy1, assuming all the other points above are satisfied.

6. Same KVA ratings:

If two or more transformer is connected in parallel, then load sharing % between them is
according to their rating. If all are of same rating, they will share equal loads. Transformers of
unequal kVA ratings will share a load practically (but not exactly) in proportion to their ratings,
providing that the voltage ratios are identical and the percentage impedances (at their own kVA
rating) are identical, or very nearly so in these cases a total of than 90% of the sum of the two
ratings is normally available.

It is recommended that transformers, the kVA ratings of which differ by more than 2:1, should
not be operated permanently in parallel. Transformers having different kva ratings may operate
in parallel, with load division such that each transformer carries its proportionate share of the
total load To achieve accurate load division, it is necessary that the transformers be wound with
the same turns ratio, and that the percent impedance of all transformers be equal, when each
percentage is expressed on the KVA base of its respective transformer. It is also necessary that
the ratio of resistance to reactance in all transformers be equal.

For satisfactory operation the circulating current for any combinations of ratios and impedances
probably should not exceed ten percent of the full-load rated current of the smaller unit.

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7. Identical tap changer and its operation:

The only important point to be remembered is the tap changing switches must be at same
position for all the three transformers and should check and confirm that the secondary voltages
are same. When the voltage tap need change all three tap changing switches should be operated
identical for all transformers. The OL settings of the SF6 also should be identical. If the
substation is operating on full load condition, tripping of one transformer can cause cascade
tripping of all three transformers.

In transformers Output Voltage can be controlled either by Off Circuit Tap Changer (Manual tap
changing) or By On – Load Tap Changer-OLTC (Automatic Changing).

In the transformer with OLTC, it is a closed loop system, with following components:

(1) AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator- an electronic programmable device). With this AVR the
Output Voltage of the transformers can be set. The Output Voltage of the transformer is fed into
the AVR through the LT Panel. The AVR Compares the SET voltage & the Output Voltage and
gives the error signals, if any, to the OLTC through the RTCC Panel for tap changing. This AVR
is mounted in the RTCC.

(2) RTCC (Remote Tap Changing Cubicle): This is a panel consisting of the AVR, Display for
Tap Position, Voltage, and LEDs for Raise & Lower of Taps relays, Selector Switches for Auto
Manual Selection… In AUTO MODE the voltage is controlled by the AVR. In manual Mode the
operator can Increase / decrease the voltage by changing the Taps manually through the Push
Button in the RTCC.

(3) OLTC is mounted on the transformer. It consists of a motor, controlled by the RTCC, which
changes the Taps in the transformers.

Both the Transformers should have same voltage ratio at all the taps & when you run
transformers in parallel, it should operate as same tap position. If there is OLTC with RTCC
panel, one RTCC should work as master & other should work as follower to maintain same tap
positions of Transformer.

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However, a circulating current can be flown between the two tanks if the impedances of the two
transformers are different or if the taps of the on-load tap changer (OLTC) are mismatched
temporarily due to the mechanical delay. The circulating current may cause the malfunction of
protection relays.

Other necessary condition for parallel operation

1. All parallel units must be supplied from the same network.

2. Secondary cabling from the transformers to the point of paralleling has approximately
equal length and characteristics.

3. Voltage difference between corresponding phase must not exceed 0.4%

4. When the transformers are operated in parallel, the fault current would be very high on
the secondary side. Supposing percentage impedance of one transformer is say 6.25 %,
the short circuit MVA would be 25.6 MVA and short circuit current would be 35 kA.

5. If the transformers are of same rating and same percentage impedance, then the
downstream short circuit current would be 3 times (since 3 transformers are in Parallel)
approximately 105 kA. This means all the devices like ACBs, MCCBs, switch boards
should withstand the short-circuit current of 105 kA. This is the maximum current. This
current will get reduced depending on the location of the switch boards, cables and cable
length etc. However this aspect has to be taken into consideration.

6. There should be Directional relays on the secondary side of the transformers.

7. The percent impedance of one transformer must be between 92.5% and 107.5% of the
other. Otherwise, circulating currents between the two transformers would be excessive
[3].

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Table 3.1 Summary of Parallel Operation of Transformer:

Transformer Equal Unequal Overloading Circulating Recomm.

ParallelConnection Loading Loading Current Current connection
Types

Yes No No No Yes
Equal Impedance &
Ratio ,Same KVA

No Yes No No Yes
Equal Impedance &
Ratio But different KVA

Unequal Impedance But

No Yes Yes No No

Same Ratio& KVA

Unequal Impedance &

No Yes Yes No No

KVA But Same Ratio

Yes No Yes Yes No

Unequal Impedance &
Ratio But Same KVA

No No Yes Yes No
Unequal Impedance &
Ratio & different KVA

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The combinations that will operate in parallel:

Following Vector group of Transformer will operate in parallel.

Table 3.2 operating combinations

Operative Parallel Operation

Sr.No Transformer-1 Transformer-2

1 ∆∆ ∆∆ or Yy

2 Yy Yy or ∆∆

3 ∆y ∆y or Y∆

4 Y∆ Y∆ or ∆y

Single-phase transformers can be connected to form 3-phase transformer banks for 3-phase
Power systems. Four common methods of connecting three transformers for 3-phase circuits are
Δ-Δ, Y-Y, Y-Δ, and Δ-Y connections.

An advantage of Δ-Δ connection is that if one of the transformers fails or is removed from the
circuit, the remaining two can operate in the open-Δ or V connection. This way, the bank still
delivers 3-phase currents and voltages in their correct phase relationship. However, the capacity
of the bank is reduced to 57.7 % (1 3) of its original value.

In the Y-Y connection, only 57.7% of the line voltage is applied to each winding but full line
current flows in each winding. The Y-Y connection is rarely used.

The Δ-Y connection is used for stepping up voltages since the voltage is increased by the
transformer ratio multiplied by 3.

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The combinations that will not operate in parallel:

Following Vector group of Transformer will not operate in parallel.

Table 3.3 non operative combination

Inoperative Parallel Operation

Sr.No Transformer-1 Transformer-2

1 ∆∆ ∆y

2 ∆y ∆∆

3 Y∆ Yy

4 Yy Y∆

To check Synchronization of Transformers:

Synchronization of Transformer can be checked by either of following steps: Checked by

synchronizing relay & synchro scope.

If Secondary of Transformer is not LT Then synchronizing relay should be checked&

Commission the system properly. After connecting relay, it must be charged with only 1 supply
& check that relay is functioning properly.

Synchronizing should be checked of both the supply voltages. This can be checked directly with
millimeter between L1 phases of Transformer 1 and L1 phase of Transformer 2. Then L2 Phase
of Transformer 1 and L2 Phase of Transformer 2. Then L3 Phase of Transformer 1 and L3 Phase
of Transformer 2. In all the cases MultiMate should show 0 voltages theoretically.

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These checks must be done at synchronizing breakers only. The breaker out going terminals
must also be checked if they are connected in such a way that L1 Terminals of both the Breakers
comes to same Main Bus bar of panel .Same for L2 & L3.Best way to check synchronization on
LT is charge complete panel with 1 source up to outgoing terminals of another incoming breaker
terminal. Then just measure Voltage difference on Incoming & out going terminals of Incoming
Breaker. It should be near to 0.

To check circulating current Synchronize both the transformer without outgoing load. Then
check current. It will give you circulating current.

3.3.2 Advantages of Transformer Parallel Operation:

1) Maximize electrical system efficiency:

Generally electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If numbers of
transformers run in parallel, only those transformers which will give the total demand by running
nearer to its full load rating for that time can be switched on. When load increases other
transformer can be switched on connected in parallel to fulfill the total demand. In this way the
system can run with maximum efficiency.

2) Maximize electrical system availability:

If numbers of transformers run in parallel, any one of them can be shut down for maintenance
purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without total interruption of
power.

3) Maximize power system reliability:

If nay one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to fault other parallel transformers is
the system will share the load hence power supply may not be interrupted if the shared loads do
not make other transformers over loaded.

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4) Maximize electrical system flexibility:

There is a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it is predicted

that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of connecting
transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand because it is not economical from
business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer by forecasting the increased
future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money.

Again if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from
system to balance the capital investment and its return [5].

3.3.3 Disadvantages of Transformer Parallel Operation:

 Increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary breaker capacity.

 The risk of circulating currents running from one transformer to another Transformer.
Circulating currents that diminish load capability and increased losses.
 The bus ratings could be too high.
 Paralleling transformers reduces the transformer impedance significantly, i.e. the parallel
transformers may have very low impedance, which creates the high short circuit currents.
Therefore, some current limiters are needed, e.g. reactors, fuses, high impedance buses,
etc
 The control and protection of three units in parallel is more complex.
 It is not a common practice in this industry, since Main-tie-Main is very common in this
industry [5].

Conclusions:

 Loading considerations for paralleling transformers are simple unless kVA, percent
impedances, or ratios are different. When paralleled transformer turn ratios and percent
impedances are the same, equal load division will exist on each transformer. When
paralleled transformer kVA ratings are the same, but the percent impedances are
different, then unequal load division will occur.

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 The same is true for unequal percent impedances and unequal kVA. Circulating currents
only exist if the turn ratios do not match on each transformer. The magnitude of the
circulating currents will also depend on the X/R ratios of the transformers. Delta-delta to
delta-wye transformer paralleling should not be attempted.

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CHAPTER 4

Interfacing of microcontroller 16f877A with LCD lm016

4.1 microcontroller16F877A

The PIC16F877A is a product of Microchip. It features all the modules that modern
microcontrollers normally have. For its low price, wide range of application, high quality and
easy availability, it is an ideal solution in applications such as the control of different processes
in industry, measurement of different values etc. A list below includes only some of its key
features.

The available exciting range of inexpensive controller board is ideal for standard embedded
applications and incorporating into machinery, control systems and robots. PIC16F877A
Controller board features the powerful Microchip PIC16F877A Microcontroller, one of the most
popular microcontrollers on the market. It is combined easily to use and ready to run board
complete with all the necessary components for plugging directly into your system.

The PIC16F877A Microcontroller includes 8kb of internal flash Program Memory, together with
a large RAM area and an internal EEPROM. An 8-channel 10-bit A/D convertor is also included
within the microcontroller, making it ideal for real-time systems and monitoring applications. All
port connectors are brought out to standard headers for easy connect and disconnect. In-Circuit
program download is also provided, enabling the board to be easily updated with new code and
modified as required, without the need to remove the microcontroller.

The PIC16F877A Controller is the ideal solution for use as a standard controller in many
applications. The small compact size combined with easy program updates and modifications
make it ideal for use in machinery and control systems, such as alarms, card readers, real-time
monitoring applications and much more. This board is ideal as the brains of your robot or at the
center of your home-monitoring system. Save time and money, by simply building your ancillary
boards and monitoring circuits around this inexpensive and easy to use controller [2].

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Features

 Includes Powerful Microchip PIC16F877A Microcontroller with 8kb Internal Flash

Program Memory
 Operating Speed at 10MHz
 Direct In-Circuit Programming for Easy Program Updates
 Up to 28 I/O points with easy to connect standard headers
 Internal EEPROM
 8 Channel 10-bit A/D Convertor
 One 16-bit Timer with Two 8-bit Timers
 Power and Programming LED
 Reset Button
 Ideal as an Interchangeable Controller for Real-Time Systems

Pin out Description

Most pins of the PIC16F887 microcontroller are multi-functional as seen in figure above. For
example, designator RA3/AN3/Vref+/C1IN+ for the fifth pin of the microcontroller indicates
that it has the following functions:

 RA3 Port A third digital input/output

 AN3 Third analog input
 Vref+ Positive voltage reference
 C1IN+ Comparator C1 positive input

Such pin functionality is very useful as it makes the microcontroller package more compact
without affecting its operation. These various pin functions cannot be used simultaneously, but
can be changed at any point during operation [2].

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Table 4.1pin description

Pin identifier Description

RA[0–4] 5 bits of bidirectional I/O (PORTA)

RB[0–7] 8 bits of bidirectional I/O (PORTB)

RC[0–7] 8bits of bidirectional I/O (PORTC)

Vss, Vdd Power supply ground reference (ss: source) and

positive supply (dd: drain)

OSC1, OSC2 Oscillator crystal inputs

Figure 4.1 Microcontroller 16F877A

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Central Processor Unit (CPU)

CPU is manufactured in RISC technology as this fact may be crucial when deciding which
microcontroller to use. RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer, which gives the
PIC16F877A two great advantages:

 The CPU is capable of recognizing and executing only 35 simple instructions. By the
way, to program other microcontrollers in assembly language it is necessary to know
more than 200 instructions by heart.
 The execution time is the same for almost all instructions, and lasts 4 clock cycles. The
clock frequency is stabilized by a quartz crystal. The exceptions to the rule are jump and
branch instructions the execution time of which is 2 clock cycles. It means that if the
microcontroller’s operating frequency is 20MHz, the execution time of each instruction
will be 200nS, i.e. the program will execute 5 million instructions per second!
Memory
 The PIC16F887 features three types of memory: ROM, RAM and EEPROM. Each
deserves to be separately discussed here due to their specific functions, features and
organization.
ROM Memory
 ROM memory is used to permanently save the program being executed. This is why it is
often called ‘program memory’. The PIC16F887 has 8Kb of ROM. Since the ROM
memory is made with FLASH technology, its contents can be changed by providing a
special programming voltage (13V).
EEPROM Memory
 Similar to program memory, the contents of EEPROM is permanently saved, even when
the power goes off. However, unlike ROM, the contents of EEPROM can be changed
during the operation of the microcontroller. This is why this memory is perfect for
permanently saving some of the results created and used during the operation.
RAM Memory
 This is the third and the most complex part of microcontroller memory. In this case, it
consists of two parts: general-purpose registers and special-function registers (SFR).

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 Even though both groups of registers are cleared when power goes off and even though
they are manufactured in the same manner and act in a similar way, their functions do not
have many things in common.

4.2 Liquid Crystal Display Interface

The alphanumeric 16character X 2line LCD requires 8data lines and also 3 control signals. By
using 2 ports, port 0&3 data pins are connected to LCD as data bus. Port0 can be basically used
as I/O port i.e. it can be programmed as an input or as an output port. That means if it is
programmed as output port, suppose if it is required to read data from LCD immediately it is not
possible. Before reading the data it is required to make the port as an input port.

Data reading from LCD gives an erroneous reading & should not be implemented. Because of
this port5 is made as input / output port depending on the situation. The control signals are
connected to port 3 pins.

They are EN bar & RS bar, RW bar. At different instance such as data write / command write /
data read etc. Various signals are to be provided as indicated by the by the LCD
manufacturers. To interface the LCD, to the Micro controller it require an 8 bit and also three
control signals differentiate the data from the control words send to the LCD.

The Microcontroller has to send the necessary control words followed by the data to be
displayed. Depending on the operation to be performed the control words are selected and passes
to the LCD. The data to be displayed on the LCD is to be sent in the ASCII format. Thus all the
character to be displayed are converted into ASCII form and then sent to the LCD along with
different control words.

The control word differentiated the various operations and is executed. It is also possible to read
the LCD data if required. The control signals to the LCD are also provided by the Micro
controller. This is also done through pins 2.5,2.6&2.7.Through program necessary control
signals are passed to the LCD by using the bits of the port. The remaining can be used for some
other purpose if there is a need. The software controls the necessary ports and performs the task
it is designed for. The soft ware and associated hardware perform the LCD interface.

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4.2.1 Pin Description

Vcc, Vss and Vee While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground respectively, Vee is used
for controlling LCD contrast. RS, register select. There are two very important registers inside
the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction command
code register is selected, allowing the user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at
home, etc., If RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on
the LCD.

R/W, read/write R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read information
from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing. EN, Enable the LCD to latch information
presented to its data pins uses the enable pin. When data is supplied to data pins, a high-to-low
pulse must be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins.
The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of the
LCD’s internal registers.

To display letters and numbers, ASCII codes are sent for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers 0-9

to these pins while making RS=1.

Figure 4.2 Shows the LCD display from proteus software

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CHAPTER FIVE

Simulation and result

Two most known software’s are used for simulation of the project that is compatible to design
component of automatic load sharing of power transformer. For construction of the schematic
diagram of the project proteus is used and compilation of the C code is done by mikro C.

5.1 Proteus

Proteus is a single application with many service modules offering different functionality
(schematic capture, PCB layout, etc.). The wrapper that enables all of the various tools to
communicate with each other consists of three main parts.

Application Framework: This is the framework or container which hosts all of the functionality
of Proteus. ISIS, ARES, 3DV all open as tabbed windows within this framework and therefore
all have access to the common database.

Common Database: The common database contains information about parts used in the project.
A part can contain both a schematic component and a PCB footprint as well both user and
system properties.

Live Net list: Together with the common database the maintenance of a live net list allows all
open modules to automatically reflect changes. The most obvious example of this is wiring in
ISIS producing rats nest connections in ARES but it goes much further than that. The new Bill of
Materials module contains a live viewer and the 3D Viewer and Design Explorer are also linked
into the live net list.

5.2 Mikro C

MIKRO C can be used to create source files; automatically compile, link and covert using
options set with an easy to use user interface and finally simulate or perform debugging on the
hardware with access to C variables and memory.

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Unless you have to use the tolls on the command line, the choice is clear. MIKRO C Greatly
simplifies the process of creating and testing an embedded application. The Mikro C Software
8051 development tools listed below are the programs you use to compile your C code, assemble
your assembler source files, link your program together, create HEX files, and debug your target
program. Mikro C for Windows™ Integrated Development Environment: combines Project
Management, Source Code Editing, and Program Debugging in one powerful environment.

5.3 Simulation

Figure 5.1 Simulation block diagram of the whole scheme of the project

5.3.1 Schematic Explanation and discussion

Firstly, the required operating voltage for Microcontroller 16F877A is 5V. This regulated 5V is
generated by first stepping down the 220V to 12 V.

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The step downed Ac voltage is being rectified by the Bridge Rectifier. The diodes used are
1N4007. The rectified Ac voltage is now filtered using a ‘C’ filter.

Now the rectified, filtered D.C. voltage is fed to the Voltage Regulator. This voltage
regulator allows us to have a Regulated Voltage which is +5V.voltage regulators i.e. 7805 is
used. These voltage regulators regulate 5v for microcontroller, LCD and current transformer.
The rectified; filtered and regulated voltage is again filtered for ripples using an electrolytic
capacitor 100μF.

The LCD is interfaced to Microcontroller. The data pins of LCD are connected to Port B. The
control pins of LCD are connected to Port 2 as shown in schematic. One of the port A pin is
connected to the relay to check the status of the transformer one (main transformer)i.e. whether it
is overloaded or not. Relay is used to turn on & off the transformer two when the transformer
one is overloaded.

At first the main supply is connected to the load feeding the necessary current, here the current
sensor reads the current value and sends a signal to the microcontroller for conversion(PIC
16F877A has preinstalled ADC) and computation of the given value. If the value is less than the
rated value of the secondary current value or some specified value the lcd displays the info and
microcontroller keeps monitoring the current until there is an overload. As soon as another load
is connected to the network ,the single transformer cant handle this overload so microcontroller
through current transformer detects the overload and sends a trip signal back to the relay to
connect the sharing transformer and ease the overloading.

5.4 Results

When the utility load is increased beyond the rated capacity of the transformer one (main
transformer) and interrupted; the microcontroller detect the signal that get from the loads through
current sensor. Then the microcontroller calculates the received signal compare with the
reference voltage; then send signal to the relay (transfer switch). The relay connect transformer
two to share the overload power. However, when the utility load became below rated value of
transformer one microcontroller send signal to disconnect transformer two and the load is run
only by transformer one.

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1. When utility power is interrupted due to over current and overload, the transfers switch senses
and starts up the transformer TF2 which acts as a backup transformer.

2. If the utility power remains absent, the transfer switch disconnects the load from the utility and
connects it to the Transformer TF1.

3. The transfer switch continues to monitor utility power, and when it is restored, switches the
load from the Transformer TF2 back to the Main transformer TF1. Once the Transformer TF2 is
disconnected, it goes through a cool-down routine and is automatically shut down.

4. Initially TF1 is connected to the load, the loads run with this power. Due to any reason this
power is interrupted, then it is identified by the controller and it immediately switches ON to the
TF2 through the relay.

5. The result is displayed on LCD.

5.5 cost analysis

The main objective of this thesis is to analysis cost effective power load sharing system and to
minimize extra cost which may be maintenance cost and withdrawal cost by investigating low
operational cost, by providing profit for the EEPCO and for the commercial and industrial
organization. Automatic load sharing will require high capital cost and almost zero operational
cost comparing to the oldest system because the system is working with coupling of two
transformers together.

In Jimma city, ‘Kochi Bajaj Tera’ there is a single transformer which feeds about 414 customers
who may use single-phase, and three phase electric power and majority of customers are using
single-phase electric power.

Coming to this point, it is possible to determine the bankruptcy of EEPCO due to overload power
system.

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Maintenance cost
The operation of single transformer is not efficient because the customer’s need increased day to
day in Jimma city. So the system need operational and maintenance cost throughout the year.

The expense of maintenance in the system can be summarized in the below table.

Table 5.1 maintenance cost

No. Equipment expense per month(Birr) expense per year(Birr)

1 Pole mounted fuse 2400*3=7200 86400
2 HRC fuse 210*3*4=2520 30240
3 Arrestors 760*3*2=4560 54720
4 Protection materials 200*3*4=2400 28800
5 Others 500*4=2000 24000
Total 18680 224160

This number indicates that the annual expense of EEPCO in one transform due to overload
condition is much greater as the customer increases annually.

Interruption cost loss

The calculation of cost in kWh per year is different for various customers who are domestic,
commercial, and industrial customers. For domestic customer, the first 50 kW is multiplied by
0.2birr, for commercial customers the first 50kw is multiplied by o.5778birr, and for industrial
customer the first 50 kW is multiplied by 0.6004Birr.

Assume the interruption occurs 3hrs with 15 days per month averagely and different loads take
variety amounts at different time depending up on the customer service need

In Jimma city, around Kochi bajaj tera there are one transformer with its rate of 315kva and the
customers are about 414 in number from this number there are four milling house, two bakery,
three hotels, and others.

 Bulbs = 4bulbs*414*60w*0.2birr*15dad*3hr*12month = 10729.92birr

 Electric mitad = 200cust*4kw*4*02*3hr*12month = 23040birr
 Stove = 300cust*1kw*1hr*15day*0.2*12month = 10800birr/year
 Hotels = 4*25kw*3*15day*0.5778*12 = 312001.2birr/year

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 Mill house =7*15kw*3kw*0.6004*12 = 34040.688birr/year
 Bakery = 2*15*3hr*15days*0.5778*12month = 9360.36birr/year
 Government = 3*12*3*10day*0.5778*12month = 7488.288
 Others 40*3kw*3*15*0.5778*12month =37441.44birr

This can be summarize in table form.

During overload condition there is an interruption of power at different time annually on a single
old transformer. The summarization of cost loss during power interruption is shown below.

Table 5.2 cost of power interruption

No. Services Cost loss per month(Birr) Cost loss per year(Birr)
1 Bulb 894.19 10729.92
2 Electric mitad 1920 23040
3 Stove 900 10800
4 Hotels 2600.1 31201.2
5 Milling house 2836.89 34042.68
6 Bakery 780.03 9360.36
7 Governmental offices 624.024 7488.288
8 Others 3120.12 37441.44
Total 164103.888

Total bankruptcy=maintenance cost + interruption cost loss =

224160+164103.88=388263.888Birr per annual

Price of automatic load sharing power system

The cost analysis of the new operation system can be calculated by determining the price of two
transformers and all equipment.

Table 5.3 total cost

No Equipment Capital cost (Birr)

1 Main transformer 321634
2 Sharing transformer 321634
3 Microcontroller 960
4 Relay 620
5 Current transformer 420
Total cost

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CHAPTER SIX

Conclusions and recommendation

6.1Conclusion

The project describes about how to use power supply intelligently under peak loads. The project
automatically connects and disconnects the sharing transformer thus protecting the main
transformer from overload. Current transformer plays an important role by sensing the current
through the load and sending feedback signal to the microcontroller through ADC.
Microcontroller is so programmed that as soon as the load exceeds a particular current limit it
will soon generate a control signals and the signal is fed to the electromagnetic relay. The
switching process occurs in the Electromagnetic Relay which automatically connects the
transformer in parallel in accordance to the load sensed by the CT.

Through the transformer current analysis it can be seen that the current of the transformer rises
as load increases, whenever the load current goes above the transformer rated current, the
microcontroller detects an overcurrent and it sends a trip signal to relay thereby the load is shared
automatically by transformer two and protecting the transformer one from burning. As the load
current goes below the rated current of the transformer, the microcontroller detects normal there
by sending an on signal to the relay to disconnect the sharing transformer. The results indicate
that the microcontroller based transformer automatic load sharing achieves numerous advantages
1) fast response, 2) better isolation, 3) accurate detection of the fault. Finally, the results of
simulation meet the aim and objectives of the project and automated with no manual interface
required.

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6.2Recommendation for Future Work

Any work and investigation on transformer load sharing is very advantageous and challenging.
Based on the present time, it can be observed that the Jimma city population is increasing
rapidly. Therefore demands on electricity will be high and these will lead to demands of highly
sophisticated protection devices, which will be incorporated in transformer load sharing
schemes. Based on the work done in this project which automatic load sharing of transformer
using microcontroller, some improvements need to be made in the future work. It was noticed
that use of switching semiconductor device such as thyristor can be used instead of relay, highly
advanced microcontroller such as 16bit PIC microcontroller or a digital signal processor can be
used for high speed analogue to digital (ADC) conversion of the transformer voltage and current.

The future scope of the project is particularly in Substation. In substations particularly during the
peak hours there is a need for the operation of additional transformer to supply the additional
load requirement. The project automatically connects the transformer under critical loads. Thus
there is no need to operate both transformers under normal loads, particularly during off peak
hours. Thus power is shared intelligently with the transformers in parallel.

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REFERENCES

Books

[1] Badri ram and D N Vishwakarma (1995); power system protection and switch gear New
delhi: Tata Mc Graw hill

[2] Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice Gillispie Mazidi; The 8051 Microcontroller and
Embedded Systems; Chung-Ping Young Taiwan

[3]Loading Considerations When Paralleling Transformers Application Guide(2007);

Nashville, TN, USA

[4]Electrical Machines, Second Edition

[5] Stevenson, W.D. Elements of power system analysis.

Website

http://www.asciitable.com/ Interfacing LCD with 8051 Microcontroller using Mikro C C - 16F877A.htm

http://embedded-microcontroller-project

http://Transformer_protection_monitoring_and_control.pdf

https://sites.google.com/site/coolembeddedlaboratory/home

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APPENDIX

C Code for the whole thesis

sbit LCD_D7 at RB2_bit;

sbit LCD_D6 at RB3_bit;

sbit LCD_D5 at RB4_bit;

sbit LCD_D4 at RB5_bit;

sbit LCD_EN at RB6_bit;

sbit LCD_RS at RB7_bit;

sbit LCD_D7_Direction at TRISB2_bit;

sbit LCD_D6_Direction at TRISB3_bit;

sbit LCD_D5_Direction at TRISB4_bit;

sbit LCD_D4_Direction at TRISB5_bit;

sbit LCD_EN_Direction at TRISB6_bit;

sbit LCD_RS_Direction at TRISB7_bit;

//************************temperature variables****************

float current ;

char cur[5];

//**************************************************************

void READ_current()

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{

adc_init();

current = ADC_Read(porta.ra0);

current = current * 0.01887;

delay_ms(1500);

if (current >= 1.3)

trisc = 0;

else if (current < 1.3)

trisc = 1;

floattostr(current,cur);

lcd_out(2,5, Ltrim(cur));

Lcd_Chr_Cp(' ');

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Lcd_Chr_Cp('v');

Lcd_Chr_Cp(' ');

void relay(void)

ADC_Init();

Lcd_Init(); // Initialize LCD

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR); // Clear display

lcd_cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

lcd_out(1,4,"dkfj");

lcd_out(2,6,"SENSOR");

delay_ms(1000);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR); // Clear display

while(1)

unsigned int curr;

int hundreds,tens,ones;

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unsigned char buffer[10];

TMOD = 0x20; //Timer-1, 8-Bit Auto Reload Mode

TH1 = 0xFD; //9600 Baud Rate When Crystal Used is 11.0592MHZ

SCON = 0x50;

TR1 = 1; //Start Timer

MYDATA = 0xFF; //Making P1 as Input Port

INTR = 1;

RD_ADC = 1; //Set RD high

WR_ADC = 1; //Set WR high

lcdcmd(0x38);

Delay(1);

lcdcmd(0x0E);

Delay(1);

lcdcmd(0x01);

Delay(1);

lcdcmd(0x80);

lcdstr("detect ");

lcdcmd(0x0C);

while(1)

lcdcmd(0xC0);

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WR_ADC = 0; //Send WR Pulse

Delay(1);

WR_ADC = 1; //Low-High Pulse means Start of Conversion

while(INTR == 1); //Wait until End of Conversion

//When Conversion Gets Completed the INTR Pin Goes Low we get out of the Loop

RD_ADC = 0; //Send RD Pulse

Delay(2);

lcdcmd(0x80);

lcdstr("underloaded");

Delay(2);

lcdcmd(0x80);

lcdstr(" ");

lcdcmd(0x80);

lcdstr("disconnected");

Delay(2);

relay=0;

lcdcmd(0xC0);

Delay(2);

sprintf(buffer,"%d.%d%d amps",hundreds,tens,ones);

lcdstr(buffer);

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SerTX_str(msg);

SerTX_str(buffer);

SerTX(13);

SerTX(13);

Delay(10);

Delay(10);

RD_ADC = 1;

void main() {

adc_init ();

lcd_init();

lcd_out (1,1,"overloaded");

while(1)

READ_current();

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