Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Indian scenario of ethanol fuel and its utilization in automotive T

transportation sector
⁎
P. Sakthivela,b, , K.A. Subramanianb, Reji Mathaia
a
Research and Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Sector-13, Faridabad 121007, India
b
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: About 85% of petroleum oil need of India is being met through imports. Indian economy is growing steadily
Ethanol resulting in rapid increase of vehicular population and demand for transportation fuels. Indian Government has
Ethanol-gasoline blend already mandated blending of ethanol in gasoline by 10% to reduce the oil import. Bureau of Indian Standards is
Ethanol production finalizing the specification of 20% ethanol blended gasoline for use as vehicular fuel. In this context, this review
Transportation
presents the current and future scenario of Indian transportation, petroleum oil and bio-fuel sectors including
Engine performance
global progress on utilization of ethanol as an alternative transportation fuel in spark ignition vehicles. The data
Emission
from various standard reference sources were compiled, analyzed and is presented. The review indicates that the
gasoline demand would be around 44 billion liters by the year 2020 and India has a potential to produce ethanol
to the tune of 30 billion liters per annum in addition to existing capacity. Apart from augmenting production of
first generation ethanol, the second generation ligno-cellulosic ethanol and thermo-chemical conversion of
carbon-rich agricultural/petroleum residues are seen as alternative options. The potential of such alternative
feed stocks and ethanol conversion technologies need to be exploited to increase ethanol availability for
blending. The review indicates that ethanol is most suitable fuel for spark ignition engines due to its higher
octane number. Ethanol blending reduces sulphur, aromatics, olefin and benzene content in gasoline and can
reduce vehicular emissions such as hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and particulate matter.

1. Introduction blending in gasoline upto 20% by the year 2017. Bio-fuel would give
multiple benefits including enhancement of indigenous energy source,
India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. The gross boosting of rural economy and strengthening of sustainable energy and
domestic product (GDP) has grown steadily to reach 8.0% during 2015, environment system (MNRE, 2008). In this context, this paper presents
as shown in Fig. 1 (The World Bank, 2017). Though there was a de- the current and future scenario of transport vehicles, petroleum fuel
crease in GDP growth to 7.1% in 2016, India’s economy is poised to consumption and ethanol production potential in India. The paper also
grow in the coming years as the government is taking necessary steps to covers review of progress made by various researchers globally on
improve economics of the country. The economic growth is reflected in utilization of ethanol in automotive engines.
the consumption of primary energy in transportation and non-trans-
portation sectors. India is now the third largest country in terms of 2. Petroleum fuel scenario in India
consumption of crude oil as well as total primary energy consumption
in the world (BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2017). Huge im- 2.1. Consumption of gasoline and diesel
port of crude oil not only indicates energy insecurity but also costs the
governmentexchequer heavily (Mishra, 2017). The government has India imported crude oil of 214 million metric tonnes (MMT) during
taken several policy measures to reduce crude oil import such as pro- financial year 2016–17 at an increase of 5.4% compared to previous
moting use of bio-fuels in the country. Ethanol blended petrol (EBP) year (MoPNG, 2017a). The domestic production of crude oil in 2016–17
program was announced during 2003 for implementation of 5% ethanol was 36 MMT at a decrease of 2.5% compared to previous year. This
blending in gasoline (Planning Commission, 2003). A national bio-fuel indicates that India met about 85% of its oil requirements through
policy was announced by the Government in 2008 targeting the ethanol imports. The consumption of major fuels (diesel and gasoline) for

⁎
Corresponding author at: Research and Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Sector-13, Faridabad 121007, India.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Sakthivel), [email protected] (K.A. Subramanian), [email protected] (R. Mathai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.01.012
Received 12 September 2017; Received in revised form 16 December 2017; Accepted 8 January 2018
0921-3449/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

Nomenclature IS Indian standard

kmph Kilometer per hour
BIS Bureau of indian standards MBT Maximum brake torque
C/H Carbon/Hydrogen MMT Million metric tonnes
CAFC Corporate average fuel consumption MMTPA Million metric tonnes per annum
CAGR Compound annual growth rate MPFI Multi point electronic fuel injection
CO Carbon monoxide NOx Oxides of nitrogen
CO2 Carbon dioxide NRL Numaligarh refinery limited
CR Compression ratio OMC Oil marketing companies
CY Calendar year RON Research octane number
E0 Neat gasoline SAE Society of automotive engineers
E10W 10% hydrous ethanol blended gasoline SI Spark ignition
E5 5% ethanol blended gasoline UDC Urban driving cycle
ECU Electronic control unit US United States
FTP Federal test procedure US DoE US department of energy
GDP Gross domestic product WOT Wide open throttle
HC Hydrocarbon NREL National renewable energy lab
IMEP Indicated mean effective pressure HCCI Homogeneous charge compression ignition engine
IOCL Indian oil corporation limited VOC Volatile organic compounds

transportation sectors is increasing steadily over the years as shown in difference between diesel and gasoline widened after deregulation of
Fig. 2. While gasoline consumption increased by 9%, the diesel con- gasoline price in June 2010. However, the gap narrowed after dereg-
sumption increased by 2% in 2016–17 compared to 2015–16. ulation of diesel prices in October 2014. Use of compressed natural gas
The faster growth of gasoline consumption compared to diesel as fuel in passenger cars, buses and non-transportation applications
during the recent years may be due to (a) increased sale of gasoline cars resulted in reduced diesel consumption. The diesel to gasoline con-
and (b) reduced price gap between gasoline and diesel. The price sumption ratio is decreasing over the years and a steep decline from 4.4

Fig 1. GDP growth of India during recent years (The World Bank,
2017).

Fig. 2. Diesel and gasoline fuel consumption trend (MoPNG, 2017a).

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

to 3.2 (i.e., around 27%) was observed during 2012–2016, as shown in

Fig. 3 (MoPNG, 2017a).

2.2. Sectoral share of fuel consumption

The share of fuels utilization in transportation and non-transporta-

tion sectors is shown in Fig. 4 (PPAC and MoPNG, 2013). While 70% of
diesel is being used as transportation fuel, 30% of diesel fuel finds its
application in non-transport sectors such as agriculture, generating sets
and other industrial segments. Unlike diesel, the entire gasoline is used
for powering transport sector mainly passenger transportation, in par-
ticular two-wheelers and passenger cars. Hence, any effort to substitute
gasoline with alternative fuels would also directly lead to reduced Fig. 4. Share of fuel consumption in transport and non-transport sectors (PPAC and
emission from passenger transportation. This would also result in re- MoPNG, 2013).
duction of pollutants levels in towns and cities as more number of
passenger vehicles are being used in these densely populated locations. in the next 10 years in India, owing to strong growth in vehicle sales.

2.3. Segment-wise share of transport fuel consumption

3.2. Corporate average fuel consumption standard
The share of diesel and gasoline consumption in various segments of
transport sector is given in Fig. 5 (a) and (b) respectively (PPAC and In an attempt to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to make cars
MoPNG, 2013). Diesel fuel is used in heavy duty and light duty com- more fuel efficient, Government of India implemented corporate
mercial vehicles by 40.4% followed by cars & utility vehicles at 31.0%. average fuel consumption standard (MoP, 2015). The first set of man-
The share of consumption of gasoline by two-wheelers and passenger date was implemented in April 2017 and the next set of limits will come
cars are about 61.4% and 34.3% respectively. This indicates that the in to force in April 2022. The corporate average fuel consumption shall
two-wheelers consume almost 2/3rd of total gasoline. Therefore, a be calculated against the weighted average of vehicle weight (based on
significant focus is needed for fuel efficiency improvement and emission number of cars sold in each model) for each car manufacturer. The
reduction from two-wheelers also. weighted average fuel consumption value of each car manufacturer
should be lower than the limit set in the standard.
3. Transport scenario in India In order to meet the 2017 targets, car manufacturers need to reduce
fuel consumption up to 47% compared to 2009–10 levels. The per-
3.1. Growth of vehicle population centage varies depending on the average weight of cars as shown in
Fig. 7. The fuel consumption reduction of around 17% will be required
Fig. 6 shows the population of registered vehicles in India. The data to meet the targets of 2022 compared to 2017 levels. There are various
includes two-wheelers, cars-jeeps-taxis, buses, light motor vehicles technologies being employed for improving fuel efficiency of cars and
(passengers), goods vehicles and other vehicles like ambulances, special major steps include engine friction reduction through hardware
purpose vehicles etc (MoSPI, 2017). There is an exponential growth in changes, high compression ratio engines, gasoline direct injection sys-
vehicle population during the last decade. The vehicle population in- tems, use of low viscosity engine oils, fuel quality improvements etc.
creased from 90 million units to 209 million units during 2006–2015, The blending of ethanol in gasoline could improve the octane number.
which is around 2.3 times higher. Two-wheelers share around 74% of In general, an increase of around three units of research octane number
total vehicle population followed by passenger cars and goods vehicles. is expected when 10% of ethanol is blended with gasoline. This would
As shown in Table 1, the total vehicle sale is 15 million units during not only allow the engine to operate at high compression ratio but also
2010 and it increased to 20 million units during 2015 (SIAM, 2017). reduce fuel consumption due to improved combustion.
The sale of commercial vehicles remains at around 0.7 million units and
the passenger car sales increased from 2.5 to 2.8 million units during 4. Ethanol as a gasoline blend stock
this period. Automotive Mission Plan 2026 of Government of India
envisages minimum three-fold increase of annual domestic vehicle sales Transportation sector is facing three major issues such as depletion
to 62 million units per year in 2026 compared to present scenario, at a of fossil fuels, volatility in crude oil prices and stringent environmental
compound annual growth rate of 12% (IBEF, 2017). These projections regulations. Alternative fuels can address these issues. Among various
indicate that there will be a significant demand for transportation fuels alternatives, use of bio-fuels is actively pursued due to fewer

Fig. 3. Ratio of diesel and gasoline consumption (MoPNG, 2017a).

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

Fig. 5. Segment-wise share of (a) diesel and (b) gasoline consumption

in transport sector (PPAC and MoPNG, 2013).

complexities in terms of production, storage, transportation and utili- ethanol for use in automotive fuel, during the year 2004 [Appendix – A
zation in internal combustion engines. Ethanol is considered to be one in Supplementary material]. Further, IS 2796 specification for 10%
of most suitable alternative fuels due to its better fuel quality and en- ethanol blended gasoline was released during 2014 [Appendix – B in
vironmental benefits (Planning Commission, 2003). The Indian gov- Supplementary material]. The brief on various fuel ethanol related in-
ernment introduced ethanol blending program in 2003. Bureau of In- itiatives in India is given in Appendix – C in Supplementary material.
dian Standards (BIS) released the specification (IS 15464) on anhydrous

Fig. 6. Vehicle population trend over the years

(MoSPI, 2017).

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

Table 1 4.1. Global fuel ethanol production

Growth of Automobile domestic sales in Million Units (SIAM, 2017; IBEF, 2017).
As depicted in Fig. 8, the world production of fuel ethanol touched
Category 2010–11 2015-16 2026-27 Estimated Growth
(Actual) (Actual) (Estimated) in CAGR (%) 98.6 billion liters in the year 2016 (US DoE, 2017; UNEP, 2017). This is
2016–2026 almost double the ethanol produced during 2007 (50 billion liters). The
global ethanol production increased by 4% in 2015 compared to 2014.
Passenger 2.5 2.8 9.4–13.4 12.9
However, ethanol production was stable during 2015 and 2016.
Vehicles
Commercial 0.7 0.7 2.0–3.9 11.1
Vehicles 4.2. Country-wise production of fuel ethanol
Two Wheelers 11.8 16.5 50.6–55.5 11.9
Total 15.0 20.0 62.0 12.0 (Average) The data on country-wise production of fuel ethanol during the year
(minimum)
2015 and 2016 is shown in Fig. 9 (UNEP, 2017). Out of 98.3 billion

Fig. 7. Corporate Average Fuel Consumption (CAFC) Standard (MoP,

2015).

Fig. 8. Global production trend of Fuel ethanol (US DoE, 2017; UNEP,
2017).

Fig. 9. Country-wise fuel ethanol production during the year 2015 and
2016.

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

Fig. 10. Future demand of gasoline fuel and ethanol for

blending.

Table 2
Total Ethanol Manufacturing capacity in India: 2015–16.

S.No. State No. of Production capacity (Million liters

distilleries per year)

1 Andhra Pradesh 10 138.15

2 Bihar 8 122.85
3 Gujarat 10 91.80
4 Haryana 1 12.15
5 Karnataka 17 294.30
6 Maharashtra 69 796.35
7 Punjab 1 16.20
8 Sikkim 1 18.00
9 Tamilnadu 8 86.40
10 Telangana 2 28.35
11 Uttar Pradesh 35 635.25 Fig. 12. Fuel ethanol price for procurement by OMCs (The Hindu Newspaper, 2016;
12 Uttarakhand 1 8.10 IOCL, 2017a).
Total 163 2247.90

4.3. Demand of ethanol for transport sector in India

liters of fuel ethanol produced globally during 2015, US and Brazil India would require around 43 billion liters of gasoline to meet the
contribute for 84 billion liters with a combined share of around 86% demand in 2020 as shown in Fig. 10. This would increase to around 68
followed by European Union, China, Canada and Thailand. The global billion liters for the year 2026 (USDA, 2017). The ethanol demand for
fuel ethanol production during 2016 remained stable compared to blending will also increase due to increase in gasoline demand. The
2015. Production in United States, China and India increased in 2016 ethanol requirement would be 8.74 billion liters and 13.66 billion liters
while Brazil and Europe recorded decrease in ethanol production. In- to meet the target of 20% blending for the year 2020 and 2026 re-
dian production of fuel ethanol has touched 0.9 billion liters during spectively.
2016.
4.4. Ethanol production and consumption scenario

The maximum capacity of total ethanol production from distilleries

Fig. 11. Total ethanol production, Fuel ethanol consumption and

blending.

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

Table 3
Summary of feed stocks and production technologies for ethanol.

Production technology Feed stocks classification Potential feed stocks

Biochemical conversion (Fermentation) Sugar containing feed stocks Sugar cane molasses, sugar cane juice, sugar beet juice,
Starch containing feed stocks Cassava, sorghum, millets
Cellulosic/ligno cellulosic feed stocks Sugar cane tops, Bagasse, wheat straw, rice straw, wood chips, stover
Thermo-chemical conversion (Gasification and synthesis) Biomass/agricultural residues Bagasse, wheat straw, rice straw, forestry wastes
Carbon rich petroleum residues Petroleum coke

Table 4 product for sugar mills.

Feedstock potential and their ethanol yield rate.

Feedstock Feedstock Yield Ethanol Ethanol Reference 5. Strategies for meeting the fuel ethanol demand
production yield
route The summary of feedstock options and technologies for production
of ethanol is compiled in Table 3. The sugar containing feed stocks and
Sugar beet 60–75 t/ha Fermentation 100 l/t Mohan (2016)
Sweet sorghum 33 t/ha Fermentation 45 l/t Mohan (2016) starch containing feed stocks can be used for production of ethanol
Cassava 33 t/ha Fermentation 150 l/t Mohan (2016) through fermentation route. The agricultural residues/cellulosic feed
Biomass 270 MMT is the Fermentation 240 l/t Mulay (2015) stocks can be used in both fermentation and gasification routes de-
potential (dry Gasification and 300 l/t NREL (2011)
pending on the yield and cost of production of ethanol. The carbon rich
matter) synthesis
Pet coke 12 MMT per Gasification and 750 l/t NRL (2016)
petroleum residues such as petroleum coke can be used for production
year (dry synthesis of ethanol through gasification followed by synthesis (Baeyens et al.,
matter) 2015; Guo et al., 2015). Presently, the ethanol production at commer-
cial scale is available by fermentation of sugar/starch feed stocks. The
ligno-cellulosic ethanol and thermo-chemical conversions for synthetic
in India is around 2.3 billion liters (ISMA, 2017). The state-wise pro- ethanol are yet to be implemented on a commercial scale. However,
duction capacity of ethanol in India is given in Table 2. All these many initiatives have been undertaken recently for commercial im-
ethanol producing distilleries use sugarcane molasses as feedstock. plementation of such ethanol production plants.
Maharashtra leads the ethanol production with around 800 million li- Molasses is the only feedstock resource presently used pre-
ters followed by Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. Ethanol production from dominantly for fuel ethanol production in India. Grains (such as sor-
grains is about 10% of total ethanol produced and it is completely used ghum, rice, millet etc.,) are also used as raw materials (PSA, 2018).
for potable purpose. There is a need to increase the ethanol production substantially to meet
The data on total ethanol production, fuel ethanol consumption and the targets of ethanol blending in gasoline and the following initiatives
ethanol blend rate are depicted in Fig. 11 (USDA, 2017). The ethanol are recommended.
blend rate indicates percentage of ethanol blended in total gasoline fuel
consumed. About 2.3% ethanol blend in gasoline was made possible
during the calendar year 2015, based on the existing production/ 5.1. Ethanol production from molasses
availability of ethanol. India’s sugarcane production is hovering around
355 million tonnes during the past five years. The total ethanol pro- The molasses are the by-product of sugar processing. Molasses are
duction is also stable during the last four calendar years between 2000 classified into three types such as A-molasses or first molasses, B-mo-
and 2300 million liters. The potable and industry applications require lasses or second molasses and C-molasses or final molasses. A-molasses
substantial portion of ethanol and only the remaining ethanol can be is the first byproduct during processing of sugar and it contains more
used for fuel blending purpose. The total ethanol production was than 70% of fermentable sugar. B-molasses and C-molasses contain
around 2300 million liters during the year 2015, of which about 900 fermentable sugars of about 60% and 32% respectively. Presently, A-
million liters was used for potable purposes and about 715 million liters molasses and B-molasses are further processed for sugar production. C-
was used in chemical industry. The remaining quantity of around 685 molasses or final molasses is the only source for production of ethanol
million liters was used as fuel. This indicates that about only 1/3rd of in India (Mohan, 2016). The data from National Sugar Institute in-
total ethanol produced in the country is being used in fuel application dicates that the average ethanol yield from final molasses is about
(USDA, 2017). 235 liters per tonne. The B-molasses can be diverted for conversion to
ethanol for augmenting the ethanol production. The average ethanol
yield from B-molasses feed stock is about 297 liters per tonne.
4.5. Fuel ethanol price
5.2. Potential feed stocks other than molasses
The price of ethanol purchased by oil marketing companies for
blending purpose is finalized by the government. The price of fuel The summary of various potential feed stocks other than molasses is
ethanol fixed by the government over the years is shown in Fig. 12 (The presented in Table 4. The sugar beet can be cultivated with a produc-
Hindu Newspaper, 2016; IOCL, 2017a). The price of gasoline (in Delhi) tion rate of 60–75 t/ha of land and the ethanol yield from sugar beet is
is also shown for the respective years for comparison. The price of about 100 liters per tonne. India is the second largest producer of sweet
ethanol per liter is 21.5 rupees in 2006 which was increased to 27 ru- sorghum which can be grown in different climatic conditions. The
pees in 2010. The maximum price of 48.5 rupees was fixed in December sweet sorghum stalk contains sugar which can be fermented to produce
2015. However, it was decreased to 39 rupees per liter with effect from ethanol. The estimations have shown ethanol yield of 45 liters per tonne
December 2016, as the government introduced the market linked of sweet sorghum. The Indian cassava farms are observed to be most
ethanol pricing system based on the international sugar price. The productive in the world (Mohan, 2016). It produces high yield and has
purchase price of fuel ethanol is an important factor to establish busi- rich starch content with an ethanol production of 150 liters per tonne.
ness interest among distilleries so that the quantity of fuel ethanol The ethanol yield is higher for cassava compared to wheat, corn or
supply can be increased. Further, fuel ethanol can be a value added sugar cane.

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

Table 5 to meet the increase in ethanol demand for potable and other industrial
Ethanol production potential from biomass. purposes in future. Hence, the ethanol produced from biomass feed-
stock can be used for meeting the demand for transport fuel blending.
S.No. Biomass Ethanol yield Ethanol production Reference
potential rate (liters/ potential (billion Moreover, due to burning of agricultural residues, the pollution levels
(MMT/year) tonne) liters) in the major cities in India were at alarming stage in the recent times.
Hence, fuel ethanol production from biomass is being actively pursued
1 270.0 240.0 64.8 Mulay (2015)
in the country.
2 382.7 338.7 129.6 Raj et al. (2011)
3 175.0 171.4 30.0 Sugumaran et al. Table 5 shows the potential of ethanol production from various
(2017) biomass sources in India.
The gasoline demand is estimated to be about 44 billion liters by the
year 2020. To substitute gasoline by 100%, about 57 billion liters of
Table 6 ethanol is required on energy basis. It is clearly seen from Table 5 that
Comparison of physicochemical properties of gasoline and ethanol. even considering the conservative estimate, ethanol production can be
around 30 billion liters. This indicates that there is a potential for
Property Unit Gasoline Ethanol
blending of ethanol in gasoline upto 50% by the year 2020.
3
Density at 15 °C kg/m 750–765 785–809.9
Kinematic viscosity mm2/s 0.5–0.6 1.2–1.5 5.4. Upcoming ethanol production plants in India
Carbon fraction mass % 87.4 52.2
Oxygen fraction mass % 0 34.7
Hydrogen fraction mass % 12.6 13.0 A bio-refinery joint venture is planned between Chempolis Limited
Lower calorific value kJ/kg 44.0 26.9 and Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL) for production of ethanol from
Latent heat of vaporization kJ/kg 380–400 900–920 cellulosic biomass (NRL, 2016). Hindustan Petroleum Corporation
Research Octane Number – 91–100 108.61–110 Limited (HPCL) is setting up a second generation ethanol bio-refinery
Vapor flammability limits vol% 0.6–8 3.5–15
for producing ethanol to the tune of 30 million liters per annum using
Laminar flame speed at 100 kPa, 325 K cm/s ∼33 ∼39
Reid vapor pressure at 37.8 °C kPa 53–60 17 agricultural residues as a feedstock. Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs)
of oil and gas sector have planned to setup 12 second-generation bio-
Distillation
Initial boiling point °C 45 78 refineries across 11 states in the country. These bio-refineries are ex-
T10 °C 54 78 pected to produce ethanol to the tune of 350–400 million liters per
T50 °C 96 78 annum (MoPNG, 2017b).
T90 °C 168 79 The petroleum refineries can use petroleum coke which is a low
Final boiling point °C 207 79
value byproduct, for production of ethanol with a yield of 750 liters per
tonne. Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) has planned for such a
The cellulosic feed stocks such as biomass have a large potential of production facility at its Paradeep refinery with a capacity of 1350
around 270 MMT in India for ethanol conversion (Mulay, 2015). The million liters of ethanol using 1.8 MMTPA of raw petroleum coke
yield of ethanol per tonne of biomass through fermentation process is (Wang, 2015). IOCL has initiated a project on conversion of off-gas
around 240 liters. Ethanol can also be produced from thermo-chemical streams of the refinery to ethanol using the microbial route. This plant
conversion route through gasification followed by synthesis. Biomass as is expected to be commissioned by 2019 at Panipat refinery of IOCL,
well as carbon rich petroleum residues such as petroleum coke can be with a capacity of around 40 million liters of ethanol production per
used for ethanol production in this route. The yield of ethanol per tonne annum (IOCL, 2017b). Successful commissioning and operation of these
of biomass through thermo-chemical route is around 300 liters. plants would provide a significant boost in increasing availability of
A survey on generation of crop residues and its surplus availability ethanol.
in India was undertaken by Indian Market Research Bureau (IMRB in-
ternational) with the support from National Institute for 6. Fuel quality characteristics of ethanol
Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST). This project was
sponsored by Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment In general, ethanol offers the following advantages to consider it
Council (TIFAC), Government of India (Sukumaran et al., 2010). The actively as an alternative transportation fuel.
survey indicated that the total crop residue generated in India is around
630 MMT per annum. The total availability of surplus residue is around • Engine does not require major modification up to 10% ethanol blend
165 MMT after considering the other uses. The sugarcane tops are the in gasoline
major crop residue available as surplus at around 80 MMT. In general, • Better miscibility with gasoline
the crop residues are used as feed or fuel in rural areas. The residues of • It can be used as an octane booster for gasoline
sugarcane, wheat and rice crops are consumed as fodder and also used • No additional infrastructure would be required for fuel distribution
in other industries such as paper industry. Hence, the potential of sur- • Being a liquid at ambient temperature and pressure, can be stored
plus availability of residues (165 MMT) needs to be exploited for aug- and transported safely
menting the ethanol production.
The detailed comparison of physicochemical properties of gasoline
and ethanol is given in Table 6 (Stein et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2016;
5.3. Potential of ethanol blending Mayer et al., 2016; Masum et al., 2013).

India can certainly leverage all available options, biomass in parti- (a) Heating value: The heating value of ethanol is one third of gasoline.
cular, for increasing the production of ethanol. The major ligno-cellu- Hence, engine needs relatively more amount of fuel to be supplied
losic biomass feedstock are rice straw, wheat straw, sugarcane top, to deliver same power output compared to a gasoline fueled engine.
bagasse, corn wastes such as stalk, stems and sorghum stalk Schifter et al. reported a reduction in heating value by 8% when
(International Energy Agency (IEA), 2010). Ethanol is used in potable 20% ethanol is blended with gasoline. Table 7 shows an increase in
and industry applications, other than fuel. The current requirements of fuel consumption with increase in ethanol content in gasoline
ethanol for potable and industry purposes are being fully met. The during engine operation with stoichiometric air fuel ratio (Schifter
potential of alternative feed stocks other than biomass can be exploited et al., 2011).

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(b) Oxygen Content: As ethanol has about 35% of fuel embedded (g) The laminar flame propagation speed of ethanol combustion is
oxygen, the combustion efficiency is high and can achieve high higher than gasoline. This would increase rate of heat release and
combustion temperature. availability of high temperature gas in the combustion chamber.
(c) The heat of vaporization: The latent heat of vaporization of ethanol Hence, the thermal efficiency of the engine increases.
is high compared to gasoline. This means that ethanol requires (h) Distillation: Around 10% of fuel vapor is required for ease of
more amount of heat for vaporization. This helps in reducing the starting the engine at ambient conditions. This distillation tem-
temperature of the charge and results in higher volumetric effi- perature (T10) is 78 °C for ethanol compared to 54 °C for gasoline.
ciency. Due to the charge cooling effect, the tendency for pre-ig- Hence, availability of fuel vapor during cold start is an issue with
nition is also limited (Mayer et al., 2016). ethanol compared to gasoline.
(d) Density: Ethanol has slightly higher density compared to gasoline.
Thus, for the same injection duration, more quantity of ethanol is Bharat Stage-IV (BS-IV) emission standards and fuel specification
injected to the system. Further, as the density is high, the atomi- were implemented nationwide since April 2017. These standards are
zation shall be difficult and slightly higher injection pressure is being complied by vehicle manufacturers and Oil marketing companies.
required to eliminate this issue. Further, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRT&H) has
(e) Kinematic viscosity of ethanol is higher compared to gasoline. issued a notification for implementation of BS-VI fuel specification with
Hence, it is difficult to break the molecules during the injection and effect from April 2020 (MoRTH, 2016). In this scenario, ethanol
atomization would be poor. This may result in poor air-fuel mixture blending in gasoline can be beneficial for meeting certain requirements
formation. Higher injection pressure will help the fuel to atomize of BS VI fuel as depicted in Table 9.
better. The blending of ethanol reduces the sulphur content of the gasoline
(f) Octane number: Ethanol has RON of 110 compared to 91 of gaso- as ethanol contains no sulphur. The distillation (E-70) and RVP limits in
line. This allows the engine to operate at high compression ratio BS VI specification allows the blending of ethanol more than 5%. The
without knocking. Further, the ignition timing can be advanced to RON and MON requirements of premium grade gasoline fuel are 95 and
increase the engine peak combustion temperature. Balki et al. stu- 85 respectively. Ethanol blending is the easiest way of increasing the
died the effect of increasing the compression ratio on engine per- octane number of the fuel. Ethanol can be blended at any level with
formance. As shown in Table 8, the brake thermal efficiency of the gasoline and the blend shall meet the BS VI specification. However, as
engine was higher with ethanol compared to gasoline (Balki and the oxygen content is limited to 3.7%, the blending can be done up to
Sayin, 2014). 10% v/v only. There is a need to increase the limit of oxygen content in
order to allow blending of ethanol more than 10% v/v when ethanol
Table 7 production increases.
Effect of ethanol content on heating value and engine fuel consumption.

Ethanol Content (%) Net Heating Value (MJ/kg) Fuel Consumption (kg/hr)
7. Storage, transportation and dispensing of ethanol blends

0 42.55 1.342 Proper storage and transportation facilities are essential while using
6 −2.7% +0.4% ethanol or ethanol blended gasoline as a fuel, particularly at a com-
10 −4.1% +3.5%
15 −5.9% +4.5%
mercial level. The major advantage of ethanol is that it is available as
20 −8.0% +6.6% liquid in ambient conditions and it doesn’t require pressurization or
cooling to increase storage density unlike gaseous fuels. However, it is
(−) sign denotes decrease and (+) sign denotes increase compared to base value at 0% important that the fuel quality of neat ethanol or blended fuels should
ethanol content. not deviate from requirements stipulated by the fuel standards
(Anitescu and Bruno, 2012). Ethanol, being a single compound, has a
Table 8 very different chemistry compared to that of petroleum based fuels.
Effect of ethanol on engine efficiencies. When anhydrous ethanol is used as a fuel, there is a challenge due to
Compression Ratio Combustion efficiency (%) Brake thermal efficiency (%)
absorption of water. This may lead to ethanol separation when blended
with gasoline. As ethanol has corrosive property which affects metals,
Gasoline Ethanol Gasoline Ethanol the compatibility of various materials used in the storage, transporta-
tion and dispensing system has to be addressed. It is a must to remove
8.0:1 97.27 99.04 23.9 28.3
all foreign contaminants such as dirt, rust, and other solid particles
8.5:1 97.57 99.26 29.2 29.6
9.0:1 97.48 98.97 29.8 30.1 present in the ethanol as well as gasoline. The storage tanks used in
9.5:1 97.18 98.71 26.8 30.2 dispensing station need to be cleaned and dried before storing ethanol
or ethanol blended fuels.

Table 9
Impact of ethanol blending on gasoline fuel quality.

S.No. Parameter BS IV BS VI Difference between BS IV Impact of ethanol blending in gasoline

and BS VI

1 Sulphur content, ppm maximum 50 10 (−) 40 • Sulphur content reduces proportionately, as ethanol contains no sulphur
2 Distillation, Evaporation @70 °C
(E-70), % volume
10–45 10–58 (+) 13 • Increase in E-70 allows blending of ethanol in gasoline at any level
3 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) @
38 °C, kPa
60 67 (+) 7 • Increase in RVP allows the blending of ethanol in gasoline at any level
4 Research Octane Number of 95 95 No change • Ethanol blending increases both RON and MON

5
Premium gasoline fuel
Motor Octane Number of 85 85 No change
• Can be blended with both BS IV and BS VI regular gasoline fuels
Premium gasoline fuel
6 Oxygen content, maximum, %
mass
2.7 3.7 Increase • Increase in oxygen content allows blending of ethanol up to 10%. However, further
increase of ethanol would increase oxygen content beyond 3.7%

110
P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

As the multi-product pipelines possess significant quantity of con- efficiency. The above positive effects neutralize the negative effect
taminants including water, the transportation of ethanol or ethanol caused due to lower calorific value (Singh et al., 2016).
blends poses a challenge. The shipment of ethanol-gasoline blends Studies conducted at part load conditions on the same engine have
through pipelines is not a common practice followed worldwide. To shown reduction in CO upto 15% with ethanol blends upto 20% at low
enable pipeline transportation, it needs to be completely dehydrated, load and low speed condition. A marginal decrease in CO was observed
which may involve additional cost. Further, as ethanol has a capacity to upto 10% blends of ethanol in gasoline. HC emission was decreased
pick up dirt in the pipeline system, compatible corrosion inhibitor ad- upto 20% at high load and high speed conditions with ethanol blends.
ditives may be added in the ethanol-gasoline blends. The NOx emission decreased by 40% with ethanol blends compared to
The ethanol can be transported via road and rail in the same way base gasoline while running on part load conditions. NOx emission
done for petroleum fuels. Blending of ethanol at refinery level is not so formation depends on equivalence ratio, peak combustion temperature
preferred due to the problems associated with subsequent transport and and engine operating conditions. The reduction in NOx during part load
storage of blends. Ethanol transportation through pipelines is limited to operation is mainly due to high latent heat of vaporization, low com-
USA and Brazil. The major drawbacks are the insignificant volume of bustion peak temperature and reduced equivalence ratio (Ramadhas
ethanol available for transportation and ethanol does require corrosion et al., 2016).
inhibitors. India is yet to use pipeline for transportation of ethanol or In case of spark ignition engines, the thermal NOx formation is
ethanol blended gasoline. Blending at marketing terminals is preferably predominant compared to Prompt NOx. The trend is same for both
followed worldwide. gasoline and ethanol. Higher flame speed in the case of ethanol com-
Ethanol is stored separately in a tank satisfying the requirements. bustion at higher engine speeds and loads, improves the combustion
Online blending system is used for blending of ethanol with gasoline and hence more NOx emission was recorded by many of the studies.
during filling of tanker trucks. The recommended metals for the use However, at low/part load conditions, where the equivalence ratio is
with ethanol and ethanol/gasoline blend applications include carbon more towards leaner side, the NOx emission was same for both ethanol
steel, stainless steel, bronze and aluminum. The recommended elasto- and gasoline (Masum et al., 2013).
mers include Buna-N (for hoses & gaskets), Fluorel, Fluoro silicone, Al-Hasan M reported an experimental work carried out on a four
Neoprene (hoses & gaskets), Polysulfide rubber and Viton. The re- cylinder spark ignition engine having carburetor based fuel induction
commended polymers include AcetalPolypropylene, Polyethylene, system. An improvement of power upto 8.3% with 20% ethanol
Teflon and Fibre reinforced plastics (CONCAWE, 2016). blended gasoline (E20) is reported with a penalty on fuel consumption
In United States, ethanol blended gasoline is marketed under two of around 5.7%. The brake thermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency
labels/grades – E15 and E85. US DoE recommends periodic checking of of the engine were increased by 9.0% and 7.0% respectively with E20
ethanol blended gasoline for physicochemical properties at a minimum compared to base gasoline. Further, CO and HC emissions were reduced
interval of one or two months, to avoid damage of vehicle. The typical by 46.5% and 24.3% respectively with E20 compared to base gasoline,
checking include the properties such as electrical conductivity, hydro- owing to complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel (Al-Hasan, 2003).
carbon content, particulate content, water content and Reid vapor Hsieh et al. reported a study on a 1.6 liter, MPFI gasoline engine
pressure (US DoE, 2016). using ethanol-gasoline blends upto 30%. While power and fuel con-
sumption were increased for ethanol-gasoline blends, CO and HC
8. Utilization of ethanol as a fuel for spark ignition engines emissions were decreased up to 90% and 80% respectively compared to
base gasoline. The increasing NOx emission trend was mostly due to the
Sustaining a clean environment has become an important issue in an effect of fuel embedded oxygen and also mainly due to the equivalence
increasingly industrialized world. For several reasons, ethanol is con- ratio near stoichiometric. This increase in NOx emission was dominated
sidered to be a most promising alternative fuel for internal combustion by the effect of equivalence ratio rather than ethanol content (Hsieh
engines and is being actively pursued globally. The subsequent part of et al., 2002).
this paper presents the review of global progress on utilization aspects Chassis dynamometer test results on Honda Civic passenger car
of ethanol/ethanol blends as a fuel for spark ignition engines. This in- were reported by Canakci et al. At 80 kmph, E10 fuel has shown 18%
clude the effect of ethanol blends on engine performance, regulated reduction of CO due to the higher oxygen content and leaning effect.
emissions, unregulated emissions, combustion, cold start character- The CO2 emission reduction of 11.3% was recorded and the lower C/H
istics, engine oil performance and catalytic converter. ratio is cited for this effect. But in some cases, due to low calorific value
of ethanol blends, CO2 emission increases. There was a reduction of
8.1. Engine performance and emissions NOx emission by 15.5% due to the decreased combustion temperature.
A decrease of 32% in HC emission was recorded during the experiment
Ethanol is widely attempted as a fuel for spark ignition engines due with E10 fuel. The major sources for hydrocarbon emission are given
to its higher octane number. Higher octane number allows the engine to below:
operate at increased compression ratio thereby improving the thermal
efficiency of the engine. Further, there are limited issues when ethanol (a) Misfires/incomplete combustion
is blended with gasoline unlike with diesel where the miscibility is of (b) Exhaust valve leakage
great concern. (c) Cold start & warm up i.e., the liquid fuel effects with respect to
Singh et al. conducted a study on a four cylinder passenger car vaporization
engine with multi point electronic fuel injection (MPFI) system using (d) Fuel stored in crevice volume, oil films and deposits (Canakci et al.,
ethanol-gasoline blends (upto 20%) at wide open throttle (WOT) op- 2013).
erating conditions. It was observed that the engine has shown im-
provement of power and torque upto 2.5% compared to base gasoline. Various studies were conducted by the researchers on the use of
Further, the reduction in CO and HC emissions were found to be 65% ethanol-gasoline blends on passenger car engines. Few studies were also
and 38% respectively with an increase of NOx emission upto 109% with undertaken on two-wheeled vehicles/engines. Overall, the emissions
ethanol blends. At high load conditions, the fuel supply is more and the such as HC and CO were reduced while CO2 increased with the use of
equivalence ratio is close to stoichiometric condition for the ethanol ethanol. The brake thermal efficiency increased with the penalty on fuel
blends. Further, the engine is allowed to operate at the MBT as there is consumption. The NOx emission trend is found to be varying with re-
limited knock. Higher latent heat of vaporization of ethanol provides a spect to engines, operating conditions and fuel blends. A compilation on
cooling effect to the charge thereby increasing the volumetric the effect of emission characteristics of the engines with different

111
 Table 10
Summary of engine emission characteristics with different blends of ethanol.

Sl. No. Author (Year) Engine Specification Fuel Blends Test Conditions Test Results Net effect on emissions
P. Sakthivel et al.

CO (%) CO2 (%) HC (ppm) NOx (ppm) CO CO2 HC NOx

1 Gravalos et al. Single Cylinder, Carburetted, 4-Stroke, Air Cooled, Spark Ignition, E0 1200 rpm and 100% 14 8.1 1010 85 ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑
(2013) Bore: 56 mm, Stroke:58 mm. Displacement: 143cc, throttle
Power = 2.2 kW, CR = 6:1
E2 12 8.9 1120 110
E7 11.7 9.5 1010 125
E12 10 9.8 950 140
E17 9.8 10.3 900 170
E22 8.2 10.7 800 225
Difference −5.8 2.6 −210 140
between E22 and
E0.
Change % −41 32 −21 165

2 Hsieh et al. (2002) 1.6L, Multi Point Injection, Bore: 76 mm, Stroke: 88 mm, Ports % change in ↓ ↑ ↓ ↕
arrangement DOHC and Compression Ratio: 9.5 emissions compared
to E0
E5 3000 rpm and 40% −25 0 −8 0
Throttle
E10 −65 8.125 −39 −50
E20 −96 8.75 −75 100
E30 −99 21.5 −99 50
E5 3000 rpm and 60% −22 5 −20 75
Throttle

112
E10 −35 14.375 −33 10
E20 −50 18.75 −42.5 60
E30 −77 27.5 −60 535
E5 3000 rpm and 80% −15 3.8 −13 −65
Throttle
E10 −22 6.875 −19 50
E20 −45 14.375 −37.5 −30
E30 −65 20 −48 420
E5 3000 rpm and 100% −15 3.125 −12.5 −50
Throttle
E10 −24 5.625 −20.5 83
E20 −46.5 13.125 −37.5 −20
E30 −67 22.5 −47.5 175

3 Elfasakhany (2016) 147.7cc Single Cylinder, 4-Stroke Gasoline Engine, Stroke: 44.4 mm E0 2600 rpm and 100% 9.2 8.62 380 – ↓ ↓ ↓ –
and Bore: 65.1 mm, Compression Ratio: 7:1 throttle
E1.5 5.68 5 281
E3.5 5.4 5.3 275
E5 5.2 5.68 264
Difference −4 −2.94 −116
between E5 and E0
Change % −43 −34 −31
E0 3400 rpm and 100% 3.94 12.15 255
throttle
E1.5 3.6 8.72 240
E3.5 3.38 8.92 236
E5 2.77 9.42 220
(continued on next page)
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120
 Table 10 (continued)

Sl. No. Author (Year) Engine Specification Fuel Blends Test Conditions Test Results Net effect on emissions

CO (%) CO2 (%) HC (ppm) NOx (ppm) CO CO2 HC NOx

P. Sakthivel et al.

Difference −1.17 −2.73 −35

between E5 and E0
Change % −30 −22 −14

4 Yang et al. (2012) 4-Stroke Motorcycle of 100cc displacement being tested on chassis (g/km) (g/km) (g/km) (g/km) ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑
dynamometer.
E0 ECE Test Cycle 5.8 57.7 0.82 0.22
E3 4.68 59.4 0.78 0.23
Change % −19.4 2.49 −5.15 5.47

5 Koç et al. (2009) Single cylinder, Fuel Injection based, Stroke of 80.26 mm and Bore E0 1500 rpm and 100% 0.835 – 155 1100 ↓ – ↓ ↓
of 88.9 mm, Max Power of 15 kW@5400 rpm, Compression Ratio: throttle
5–13. Operated on Compression Ratio: 10:1
E50 0.72 132 1000
E85 0.625 115 975
Difference −0.21 −40 −125
between E85 & E0
Change % −25 −26 −11
E0 3000 rpm and 100% 0.814 70 1575
throttle
E50 0.804 50 1440
E85 0.74 54 1070
Difference −0.074 −16 −505

113
between E85 & E0
Change % −9 −23 −32

6 He et al. (2003) MPFI Gasoline engine with Bore of 90.82 mm and Stroke of E0 2000 rpm 3.5 – 2000 2125 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
76.95 mm and CR 8.2, Rated Power is 66 kW @ 5000 rpm, Max
Torque speed is 3000 rpm
E10 3.3 1750 2000
E30 3 1625 2000
Difference −0.5 −375 −125
between E30 & E0
% change −14 −19 −6
E0 3000 rpm 4.9 1750 3300
E10 4.7 1625 3250
E30 4.8 1300 3200
Difference −0.1 −450 −100
between E30 & E0
% change −2 −26 −3

7 Iliev (2015) 4 Stroke, 4 Cylinder Stroke 86 mm and Bore 86 mm, Compression g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh ↓ – ↓ ↑
Ratio: 10.5:1
E0 1000 rpm and 100% 288 – 2.75 1
throttle
E5 255 2.7 1.5
E10 225 2.65 2
E20 160 2.44 4.5
E30 145 2.2 6
E50 143 2 3.1
(continued on next page)
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120
 Table 10 (continued)

Sl. No. Author (Year) Engine Specification Fuel Blends Test Conditions Test Results Net effect on emissions

CO (%) CO2 (%) HC (ppm) NOx (ppm) CO CO2 HC NOx

P. Sakthivel et al.

Difference −145 −0.75 2.1

between E50 & E0
% change −50 −27 210
E0 6500 rpm and 100% 323 1.75 2.4
throttle
E5 304 1.7 3.2
E10 268 1.6 4.4
E20 195 1.4 6.4
E30 149 1.3 8.2
E50 146 1.2 6
Difference −177 −0.55 3.6
between E50 & E0
% change −55 −31 150

8 Yoon and Lee PFI, 4-cylinder SI engine with swept volume of 1591 cc. Bore g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
(2012) 77.0 mm, Stroke 85.44 mm, Compression Ratio: 10.5. Max Power:
69kW@6200 rpm and Max Torque: 152.88Nm @ 4200 rpm
E0 1500 rpm and 100% 6.25 – 0.63 5.9
throttle
E100 4.9 0.3 3.8
Difference −1.35 −0.33 −2.1
between E100 &
E0
% change −22 −52 −36

114
E0 3500 rpm and 100% 17.5 0.67 17.5
throttle
E100 12.8 0.39 13.4
Difference −4.7 −0.28 −4.1
between E100 &
E0
Change % −27 −42 −23

9 Schifter et al. 0.5 liter, Single Cylinder, Bore: 86 mm and Stroke: 86 mm, E0 2000 1025 900 ↓ – ↓ ↑
(2011) Compression Ratio: 10.5:1, Max Power 25 kW@6000 rpm
E6 1850 950 1050
E10 1625 900 1300
E20 1125 725 2050
Difference −875 −300 1150
between E20 & E0
Change % −44 −29 128

10 Ozsezen and 1396 cc Water cooled, 4 stroke, MPI, Compression Ratio: 10.4:1, g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Canakci (2011) Torque 130 Nm @4300 rpm and Power 66 kW @5600 rpm
E0 40 kmph, 100% throttle 0.25 9.75 24.8 9.2
E5 0.24 10.64 29.9 10.49
E10 0.23 10.3 27.5 9.7
Difference −0.02 0.55 2.7 0.5
between E10 & E0
Change % −8 5.6 10.9 5.4
E0 100 kmph, 100% 0.3 10.75 13.75 9.6 ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
throttle
E5 0.326 11 12.1 9
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

(continued on next page)

 Table 10 (continued)

Sl. No. Author (Year) Engine Specification Fuel Blends Test Conditions Test Results Net effect on emissions

CO (%) CO2 (%) HC (ppm) NOx (ppm) CO CO2 HC NOx

P. Sakthivel et al.

E10 0.324 11.5 11.25 9.2

Difference 0.024 0.75 −2.5 −0.4
between E10 & E0
Change % 8 7 −18 −4

11 Park et al. (2010) 0.494 liter, MPI CVVT, Compression Ratio: 10.1, Bore: 82 mm and g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh g/kWh – ↓ ↓ ↓
Stroke: 93.5 mm
E0 1500 rpm; λ=1.5 – 626 14 7.5
E85 587 9.6 4
Difference −39 −4.4 −3.5
between E85 & E0
Change % −6 −31 −47
E0 2000 rpm; λ=1.5 620 8.7 8.9
E85 587 8.4 6
Difference −33 −0.3 −2.9
between E85 & E0
Change % −5 −3.45 −32.6

12 Catapano et al. Bore: 83 mm, Displacement: 435.5 cc, Max Power = 147.1 kW @ E0 1500 rpm; 50% Load; 1.05 13.6 350 1500 ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
(2016) 1800 rpm, Max Torque = 320.4 Nm @1400 rpm Fuel injection pressure:
100 bar
E10 0.8 13.62 350 1400
E50 0.6 13.69 225 1500

115
E85 0.92 13.30 170 800
Difference −0.13 −0.3 −180 −700
between E85 & E0
Change % −12 −2.2 −51 −47

Note: (−) sign indicates decrease in emission compared to baseline and (+) sign indicates increase in emissions. ↓decreases; ↑increases; –No data; ↕ increase/decrease w.r.t blend composition. All fuel blends given against reference (Gravalos et al.,
2013) contain methanol (1.9%), propanol (3.5%), Butanol (1.5%) and Pentanol (1.1%) other than ethanol content as mentioned. The ethanol fuel blends given against reference (Elfasakhany, 2016) contain equivalent amount of isobutanol also.
Unless the units are specifically mentioned against a reference, the units for emissions shall be – CO (%), CO2 (%), HC (ppm) and NOx (ppm). The emission values are interpreted from the plots presented in the papers.
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120
P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

ethanol blend levels and engine operating conditions are given in 8.3. Cold start characteristics
Table 10.
With the introduction of BS VI emission standard for automotive Iodice et al. carried out a study on a Euro III motorcycle equipped
vehicles from April 2020, the CO and HC emissions are to be reduced by with electronic fuel injection system using chassis dynamometer. The
49% and 70% respectively for BS VI two-wheelers compared to BS IV study reported that the cold start HC and CO emissions were reduced
models, as shown in Table 11 (MoRTH, 2016). The ethanol blending in for up to 20% ethanol-gasoline blends. The reduction in cold start
gasoline will help reducing the CO and HC emissions significantly. emissions was due to the leaning effect which enhances the combustion
Ethanol blending upto 10% is allowed in BS VI commercial gasoline and also due to higher Reid vapor pressure which promotes the air fuel
fuel specification. Particulate emission limit is introduced for both BS mixing. However, E30 increases cold start emissions. This is due to
VI passenger cars and two-wheelers equipped with direct injected ga- lower volatility of the fuel as the Reid vapor pressure is less for E30
soline engine. Ethanol addition will reduce particulate emission due to compared to E20. This overtakes the benefit of leaning effect. Further,
better combustion and in-cylinder oxidation of soot particles. the presence of higher ethanol vapor in the mixture of gasoline-ethanol
mix is another reason for high cold start emissions (Iodice and Senatore,
2014).
8.2. Combustion aspects

As the charge cooling effect with ethanol blends is high, the oc- 8.4. Effect of compression ratio
currence of pre-ignition phenomena is greatly reduced. Further, due to
the same reason, the mega knock and intermittent pre-ignition are Yücesu et al. investigated the performance of a single cylinder en-
avoided. However, with higher blends of ethanol, pre-ignition can gine equipped with MPFI system with E0, E10, E20, E40 and E60
occur due to issues related to vaporization and air-fuel mixing. This is blends. The engine fuel system was modified to ensure equivalence
also due to wall-wetting effect of ethanol. In general, the ethanol ratio at 1.0. The effect due to higher octane number of ethanol is
combustion is smoother and the co-efficient of variation in indicated dominant up to E10. Beyond that the effect due to lower heating value
mean effective pressure is minimal (Mayer et al., 2016). of ethanol is overtaking the benefit of high RON. An increase of about
Dirrenberger P et al. made an attempt to estimate the laminar 14% torque was observed when the compression ratio was increased to
burning velocity of different fuels such as gasoline, ethanol etc., using 13:1 from 8:1 for E40 and E60 fuels. A decrease of 15% BSFC was re-
heat flux method with a flat flame adiabatic burner at the ambient corded with E40, when compression ratio was increased to 11:1 from
pressure. The study reported that E15 does not influence laminar 8:1. The BSFC benefit was not available beyond 11:1 (Yücesu et al.,
burning velocity compared to neat gasoline. However, a detailed kinetic 2006).
model with better prediction model is required for the investigation. Costa et al. increased the compression ratio of a flexible fuel MPFI
Also the effect with high blends of ethanol on laminar burning velocity engine from 10:1 to 12:1. An ECU and software applicable for engine
is not known (Dirrenberger et al., 2014). development were used to optimize the equivalence ratio and ignition
During a wide open throttle operation of a passenger car engine, timing for all engine configurations & fuel types. Equivalence ratio was
longer burn duration was observed with ethanol-gasoline blends com- maintained at 1.0 and spark timing was set minimum advance for best
pared to neat gasoline at high loads. This may be due to the higher torque or knock limited, whichever occurs first. At higher CR, the ad-
speed of the engine and high latent heat of vaporization. Further, at vance in spark was possible due to higher RON of ethanol blends. This
high speeds, residual gases available in the cylinder reduce the flame helped in increasing the brake torque. The WOT torque improvement
speed. At part loads, there was a marginal increase in the combustion was so significant for E40 and E60 mainly due to higher RON. The
duration for ethanol blends upto 20% compared to neat gasoline. No increase in CR results in high temperature and pressure of air fuel
change in IMEP and peak pressure was observed at part loads. At WOT charge at the end of compression. This decreases the timing advance
operation, IMEP increased by 2.2% and peak pressure increased by requirement for maximum brake torque. The other fuels such as neat
3.5% with ethanol blends compared to base gasoline. A higher peak gasoline suffer combustion at high compression ratio. However, for
heat release rate (7%) was observed with E20 compared to base gaso- ethanol blended fuels, the ignition timing advance has to be restricted/
line during WOT condition and there was no effect of fuel at part loads optimized to avoid detonation, particularly at high compression ratio.
(Singh et al., 2016; Ramadhas et al., 2016). The higher heat release rate of ethanol blended fuels results in attaining
of MBT quickly (Costa and Sodré, 2011).

Table 11
Impact of Ethanol blending on BS VI Emission Compliance.

S.No. Parameter BS IV BS VI Difference between BS IV and BS VI Impact of ethanol blending

Emission norms for gasoline passenger cars

1 CO emission (g/km) 1.0 1.0 No Change • Ethanol blending reduces CO
2 HC emission (g/km) 0.1 0.1 No Change • Reduces HC
3 NOx emission (g/km) 0.08 0.06 (−) 25% • Need optimization to reduce NOx at all
operating conditions
4 Particulate mass (PM) emission (g/km) No Limit 0.0045 For gasoline direction injection
vehicles only
• Reduces PM
5 Particle number (PN) (#/km) No Limit 6 × 10 11
• Reduces PN
Emission Norms for motorcycles (eg. Class 2-1)
1 CO emission (g/km) 1.97 1.00 (−) 49% • Ethanol blending reduces CO
2 HC emission (g/km) 0.33 0.10 (−) 70% • Reduces HC
3 NOx emission (g/km) 0.34 0.06 (−) 82% • Need optimization to reduce NOx at all
operating conditions
4 Particulate mass emission for gasoline direction
injection vehicles (g/km)
No Limit 0.0045 g/km PM mass emission limit is
introduced in BS VI
• Reduces PM

116
P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

8.5. Study on E20 in Indian vehicles (material compatibility and durability) emission, a product of partial oxidation of ethanol was 5.87 mg/km
with E85 blend. The other unregulated emissions such as aromatic
Bawase, M. and Saraf, M., conducted a study on fleet of four- hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs – benzene, toluene
wheelers (both BS III and BS IV) including field trials (25000 km) with etc) have decreased with increase in ethanol content (Jin et al., 2017).
E0 and E20 fuels. The study reported that the E20 fuel has shown re- Experimental data on unregulated emissions from three motorcycles
duction in HC and CO emissions; no difference in CO2 emissions; in- with E0 and E10 fuels over UDC test cycle were presented by Li et al.
crease in aldehyde emissions and no trend in NOx emission. The rating The formaldehyde emission increased from 0.226 to 0.260 mg/km with
of engine parts does not indicate any difference among the test fuels. E10 for a motorcycle A (110 cc). Motorcycle B and C recorded increase
The material compatibility tests have shown negative impact on few from 0.483 to 0.534 mg/km and 0.364 to 0.462 mg/km respectively.
polymeric materials – fluoroelastomers, Polyvinyl chloride/Nitrile bu- There was no acetaldehyde emission from E0. However, E10 fuel re-
tadiene rubber blend, epichlorohydrin and Polyamide-66 with E20 fuel corded acetaldehyde emission of 3.542, 1.586 and 2.448 mg/km for
compared to E0. About 6.5% increase in fuel consumption was in- motorcycle A, B and C respectively. Carbonyl emissions are formed due
dicated with E20 fuel (Bawase and Saraf, 2017). It may be noted that to interaction of hydrocarbon with OH radicals. The hydroxyl structure
few changes in material selection and optimization of engine for of ethanol allows formation of carbonyls easily. Ethanol with two
ethanol blended gasoline shall help in overcoming these issues, parti- carbon atom can be directly dehydrogenated with higher rate of reac-
cularly for higher blends. tion to form acetaldehyde. Unlike carbonyls, VOC emissions were found
to be decreasing with ethanol content due to complete combustion (Li
8.6. Enrichment of ethanol-gasoline blend with other alternative fuel et al., 2015).

Blending of butanol with ethanol-gasoline blends is explored to 8.9. Use of hydrous ethanol
improve the net heating value of the fuel blend. Li et al. reported a
study on use of water containing acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) gaso- The purification of ethanol through the distillation process is energy
line blends in a port-injected SI engine. The blend of 29 vol.% ABE, as well as cost intensive process. The cost of the hydrous ethanol is
1 vol.% water and 70 vol.% gasoline has shown higher engine torque up found to be at least 40% less compared to anhydrous ethanol. In this
to 8%, decrease in CO emission upto 35%, decrease in HC emission up context, efforts are being made to use hydrous ethanol as a fuel with
to 78% and lowering of NOx emission up to 39% (Li et al., 2016). certain engine system modifications. However, extensive studies are
Addition of hydrogen is found to be useful in reducing the cyclic essential before adapting hydrous ethanol as a fuel. The hydrous
variation occurs during the combustion of ethanol under part load ethanol contains high levels of water (upto 30%) and has lower calorific
conditions. Zhang et al. tested an engine at 1400 rpm and un-throttled value.
condition. The hydrogen enrichment has improved the flammability Wang et al. carried out studies on use of hydrous ethanol in a 4-
range of the ethanol blend and an increase of upto 6% thermal effi- cylinder MPFI SI engine running on various test fuels such E0, E10
ciency was observed with 3% hydrogen. The key benefit is that the (anhydrous ethanol based) and E10W (hydrous ethanol based). Higher
engine power increases even at lean conditions, HC and CO emissions peak pressure at all operating condition was observed for E10W. The
reduces with an increase in NOx emission (Zhang et al., 2016). water in ethanol enhances air fuel mixture formation leading to faster
flame propagation and combustion. Further, the formation of free ra-
8.7. Neat ethanol (E100) operation of SI engines dicals like H, O, OH, HO2 are promoted due to water content, which
also enhances the combustion process. Hence, the heat release rate is
Two issues are of major concern when 100% ethanol is used as a higher with E10W compared to E0 and E10 at all operating conditions.
fuel. One is the higher latent heat of vaporization and other is the low NOx emission with E10 and E10W were found to be higher when
vapor pressure which results in increased CO and HC emissions. Direct compared to E0. However, E10W reduced the NOx level compared to
injection of ethanol with heating was explored by Huang et al. on a E10. This may be due to the reason that the water in the hydrous
spark ignition engine. The ethanol temperature was increased by 40 °C, ethanol absorbs heat to evaporate, reducing the peak combustion
the CO and HC were reduced by as much as 43% and 51% respectively. temperature and hence NOx reduces slightly. In general, HC emission is
This was mainly due to the increase of evaporation rate, decreased less in ethanol blends compared to E0. At low loads, as the temperature
impingement of ethanol and over-cooling of charge (Huang and Hong, would be less, E10W recorded slightly high HC emission compared to
2016). E10. However at high loads, due to available temperature for the for-
To improve the cold start performance of the 100% ethanol oper- mation of various radicals during combustion enhances the combustion
ated SI engine, the gaseous fuels such as di-methyl ether can be in- of fuel blends. Hence, low HC emission was recorded for E10W at high
troduced along with the intake air. The performance tests undertaken loads (Wang et al., 2015).
by Liang et al. on four-cylinder SI engine have shown higher thermal Chuepeng et al. compared the performance of hydrous ethanol and
efficiency upto 10% with 2% DME. The HC emission was reduced by anhydrous ethanol on a port injected four-cylinder spark ignition en-
45% with a slight increase in NOx emission (Liang et al., 2012). gine. The combustion stability under lean operating conditions is found
to be poor for hydrous ethanol compared to anhydrous ethanol which
8.8. Unregulated emissions burn faster. Experimental results have shown that the calibration of fuel
injection to supply 10% more hydrous ethanol was required to match
The ethanol blended gasoline results in increase of carbonyl emis- the performance similar to anhydrous ethanol (Chuepeng et al., 2016).
sions in the engine exhaust predominantly formaldehyde and acet- A down-sized turbo-charged SI engine with a direct injected ethanol
aldehyde. The U.S. Department of human and health services classified was evaluated by Baêta et al. The experimental results have shown that
formaldehyde as human carcinogen and acetaldehyde as probable the thermal efficiency of the prototype engine was found to be 44%
carcinogen. There was no significant trend on 1–3 butadiene, which is when it is tested with two-stage compressor enabling the downsizing to
an intermediate HC specie and also a carcinogen, present in ethanol 1.4 liter from 2.4 liter conventional engine. The extreme downsizing has
engine exhaust (Karavalakis et al., 2014). achieved a reduction of 28% fuel consumption (Baêta et al., 2015).
Jin et al. reported an emission study on a 2.4 liter gasoline direction
injection engine equipped passenger car tested over FTP-75 cycle. The 8.10. Effect of ethanol on performance and durability of catalytic converter
formaldehyde emission increased steadily from 0.45 mg/km to
1.22 mg/km with E0 and E85 blends respectively. Acetaldehyde Durability studies were performed by Almeida et al. on an electronic

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P. Sakthivel et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 132 (2018) 102–120

fuel injection system based passenger car vehicle equipped with cata- • About 0.7 billion liters of ethanol was blended with gasoline during
lytic converter. The durability test involved mileage accumulation upto the year 2014-15 at an average blend rate of 2.3%. The requirement
30000 km, using E22 as a fuel. Average exhaust gas temperature with of ethanol will be 4.4 billion liters and 6.3 billion liters in the year
E22 as was found to be 750 °C compared to 810 °C for gasoline opera- 2020 and 2025 respectively to meet 10% blend targets. In case of
tion, under standard ignition timing (Almeida et al., 2014). However, higher ethanol-gasoline blend (E20), the ethanol requirement will
experiments conducted by Setlur et al. on a 110 cc fuel injection based steeply increase to 8.7 billion liters and 12.7 billion liters in the year
unmodified motorcycle showed an increase in exhaust gas temperature 2020 and 2030 respectively.
with E10 and E20 fuels compared to neat gasoline (Setlur et al., 2016). • The potential feed stocks other than molasses, to produce ethanol in
The exhaust gas temperature was found to be an important parameter Indian context are sugar beet, sweet sorghum, cassava, biomass and
for deciding the converter efficiency. The fuel type did not influence the petroleum coke (synthetic ethanol). Biomass alone has a large po-
conversion efficiency of the catalyst at the end of aging period. High tential for ethanol production of around 30 billion liters per annum.
exhaust gas temperature helps to improve the performance of the cat- This indicates a potential for ethanol blending in gasoline upto 50%
alyst, it is not desirable when it comes to durability or aging. in the year 2020. Hence, implementation of 85% ethanol blended
gasoline vehicle or 100% ethanol (E100) fuelled vehicle in Indian
8.11. Effect of ethanol on lubricating oil performance transportation sector may not be feasible. However, this scenario
may improve when ethanol is produced on a large scale using new
The higher latent heat of vaporization of ethanol can cause wall feedstocks.
wetting which may affect the engine oil life due to fuel dilution. • There are primarily two production routes available for ethanol –
Further, the combustion products such as acetic acid due to burning of biological conversion (fermentation) and thermo-chemical conver-
ethanol may also contribute for oil degradation. However, the lower sion (gasification and synthesis). The commercial viability for large
level of ethanol fuel blends does not influence the lubricant perfor- scale production including cost of production is the deciding factor.
mance. Investigations were carried out to study the influence of ethanol However, both the routes may be exploited in near future.
on engine oil degradation, under real operating conditions by Besser • Ethanol is an octane booster and ethanol blending with gasoline will
et al. The passenger car was tested on a chassis dynamometer for 80 h result in enhancement of the blend’s octane number. The higher
with E5 fuel and SAE 15W-40 engine oil. No buildup of iron and copper laminar flame propagation helps in increased thermal efficiency.
was found in the engine oil used in the above study. Failure assessment The oxygen content of the fuel improves the combustion efficiency.
results of engine components after 80 h of operation show no sign of The distillation characteristics are favourable for proper air-fuel
significant wear and there was no severe corrosion on the engine parts mixing. However, the engines may need an optimization particu-
(Besser et al., 2014). larly with higher ethanol blends to negate the low heating value.
• Ethanol transportation through pipelines is limited to USA and
Brazil. The major drawbacks are the insignificant volume of ethanol
8.12. Advanced combustion techniques available for transportation and ethanol will need corrosion in-
hibitors. India is yet to use pipeline for transportation of ethanol or
Maurya et al. investigated the effect of engine parameters such as ethanol blended gasoline. Presently, ethanol is stored in tanks at
engine speed and intake air temperature at various compression ratios marketing terminals and blended online while filling tank trucks.
and observed the operating range under HCCI for ethanol. The max-
imum improvement in combustion efficiency and power was observed
• Utilization of ethanol in spark ignition vehicles would lead to de-
crease in CO, HC, particulate matter emissions due to fuel embedded
at low speed and high load conditions. The HCCI operating range was oxygen. NOx emission depends on engine operating parameters.
found to be increasing with increase in compression ratio (Maurya and Fuel economy improvement is only possible with enhanced com-
Akhil, 2016). Filho et al. built a prototype stratified charge ignition pression ratio of the engines and optimization of ignition timing.
engine for using E25 as a fuel and analyzed the performance and Aldehyde emissions particularly formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are
emissions. Experiments with a pre-chamber installed direct ethanol higher with ethanol. Suitable engine and exhaust catalyst im-
injector have shown a significant reduction of CO, CO2 and NOx provements are essential to reduce these emissions. The compat-
emissions. THC emission was recorded higher as the ethanol injection ibility of fuel system components with ethanol is of concern. Proper
resulted in the wall wetting of the pre-combustion chamber walls (Filho material selection and use of corrosion inhibitor additives in the fuel
et al., 2016). blends are essential.
The above studies on utilization of ethanol reveal that there is a
significant progress made on the use of ethanol in gasoline engines as a
• In the BS VI scenario, ethanol blending in gasoline can be beneficial
for meeting octane and sulphur requirements of BS-VI gasoline.
neat fuel or blend. E100 operation need a significant modification and Ethanol blended gasoline will also be helpful to meet the BS-VI
design changes in the engine. While low level blends do not need much vehicular emission targets such as CO, HC and particulate matter.
optimization, mid-level blends require substantial engine optimization
to increase the brake thermal efficiency and to reduce the fuel penalty. Appendix A. Supplementary data
Design changes such as increasing compression ratio, optimizing spark
timing, air-fuel mixing optimization etc., shall ensure high combustion Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
efficiency and thermal efficiency with the reduction in BSFC. The in- online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.01.012.
crease in NOx emission is inevitable owing to high temperature com-
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