Received: 1 December 2018 Revised and accepted: 11 March 2019

DOI: 10.1002/est2.49

REVIEW

Review of energy storage and transportation of energy

Nasrullah Khan1 | Saad Dilshad1 | Rashida Khalid1 | Ali Raza Kalair1 | Naeem Abas2

1
Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, COMSATS University,
Abstract
Islamabad, Pakistan Energy storage and transportation are essential keys to make sure the continuity of
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, energy to the customer. Electric power generation is changing dramatically across
University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus,
the world due to the environmental effects of Greenhouse gases (GHG) produced
Gujrat, Pakistan
by fossil fuels. The unpredictable daily and seasonal variations in demand for elec-
Correspondence trical energy can be tackled by introducing the energy storage systems (ESSs) and
Nasrullah Khan, Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, COMSATS,
hence mitigating the extra GHG emission in the atmosphere. Energy storage tech-
University, Islamabad, Pakistan. niques can be mechanical, electro-chemical, chemical, or thermal, and so on. The
Email: [email protected] most popular form of energy storage is hydraulic power plants by using pumped
storage and in the form of stored fuel for thermal power plants. The classification
of ESSs, their current status, flaws and present trends, are presented in this article.
The present state of fossil fuel reserves, their production, consumption, and as a
consequence of these the CO2 emissions are also discussed. The primary energy
carriers coal, oil and gas are not evenly distributed along the globe. Long distances
are involved in transporting these energy carriers and transportation and delivery of
these key resources to the prime customers is always necessary. The different
methods to transport the energy from the source end to demand end is also dis-
cussed in this article. The assessment of various energy storage methods on the
basis of several factors and present status and development of storage and transpor-
tation of energy in Pakistan is discussed.

KEYWORDS
Batteries, CO2 emission, coal, gas, compressed natural gas, DWT, energy storage, energy transport,
fossil fuels, global warming potential, liquefied natural gas, natural gas, natural gas hydrates, oil,
pumped hydro storage, thermal energy

1 | INTRODUCTION rapid increase in world population and consumer habits to

utilize this energy. According to the International Energy
The socio economic development of a country is measured Agency (IEA), the demand for energy increased by 2.1% in
by energy consumption per capita. Energy is key to the mod- 2017 than 0.9% in 2016. This increase was 0.9% on average
ern mechanical world. Continuous supply of power to the for the past 5 years.1 Similarly, according to the BP Statisti-
machines is compulsory. Supply includes extraction, stor- cal Review of World Energy the primary energy consump-
age, and transportation of energy; the energy is mainly sup- tion growth averaged 2.2% in 2017 than the 1.2% in 2016.2
plied by primary sources like: sun, wind, water, and fossil The world cannot meet this energy demand by only relying
fuels. Fossil fuels are very dear to humanity since long. The on conventional ways of its energy production. The total
demand for energy has increased substantially due to the global energy demand reached to 13 511 Million Tonnes of

Energy Storage. 2019;1:e49. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/est2 © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1 of 49
https://doi.org/10.1002/est2.49
2 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

Oil Equivalent (Mtoe) in 2017 when compared to 11 558 energy like PV and wind power plants can provide the
Mtoe in 2007.2 Hence, the use of new methods like renew- energy supply needed in peak load hours. This extra energy
able energy and storing the surplus energy is necessary to can be stored in a storage system to reduce generation costs.
meet the demand in a sensible way. The energy storage As per statistical surveying firm IHS Markit, the worldwide
means the use of different methods for the foundation of energy storage market is developing exponentially to a
energy, which can be utilized in future when required.3 yearly installation size of 6 gigawatts (GW) in 2017 and
Electrical Energy is imperceptible, universal product more than 40 GW by 2022––from an initial base of just
which is readily available at the lowest possible cost in most 0.34 GW introduced in 2012 and 2013.7
cases in the world and now it has been considered as com- This study is organized as follows: Overview of energy
mon consumer good.4 The storage of electricity is not an and fossil fuels, energy consumptions by fossil fuels, and
easy task, and it is usually done by converting it into other CO2 emissions are discussed in the next subsection. The sig-
forms of energy.5 This energy can be transformed into nificance of energy storage, its detailed classification and
mechanical, chemical, heat and other forms when required. comprehensive review are presented in Section 2. The differ-
The demand for electricity is projected to rise by 40% in the ent methods of transportation of fossil fuels are presented in
final consumption to 2040.6 Almost one third of the increase Section 3. The assessment and comparison of various energy
is in electricity demand is from the industrial electric motors. storage technologies are performed in Section 4. Section 5 is
The rise in income, the introduction of smart connected tech- composed of present energy storage and transportation of
nologies in the market and the installation of new cooling the energy status of Pakistan. In the end, Section 6 summa-
systems are the key factors for the increase of power rizes the concluding remarks and future work.
demand.6
Similarly, electricity demand varies throughout the day,
1.1 | Overview of energy and fossil fuels
and the cost of electricity also varies accordingly. During the
peak load time, electric utilities had some expensive power The overview of energy consumption, fossil fuel reserves
generation plants. Those plants operate with the baseload and production of fossil fuels is briefly discussed here. The
power plant to meet the demand. It also refers to the selec- Figure 1 shows the primary energy consumption in Mtoe on
tion of fuels based on the studies done on economic dispatch left Y-axis and world population for three decades on the
for different types of power plants. In this scenario, a suffi- right Y-axis. The primary energy consumption includes the
cient energy storage system (ESS) is always required to cope consumption of oil, Natural gas (NG), coal, nuclear, hydro,
with the sudden load changes. Mostly in hydraulic power and renewable altogether. Energy consumption was 7162
plants, it is done by using pumped storage and in the form of Mtoe in 1985 which has been increased to 8565 Mtoe in
stored fuel in case of thermal power plants. Hence, by stor- 1995, 10 893 Mtoe in 2005, 13 060 Mtoe in 2015, and
age of energy, this peak hour demand can be met easily 13 511 Mtoe in 2017. The primary consumption growth in
without using costly power generation plants. The renewable the past 10 years has an average of 1.7% per year. Highest

FIGURE 1 The primary energy

consumption and world population
(Source data: BP Statistics,
Worldometers2,8)
KHAN ET AL. 3 of 49

Central America (21.4%), and North America (14.3%). The

share of Asia Pacific, Africa, and the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) are very small and most of the
countries in these regions import oil from other countries.2
The total oil production was 4321 Mt by 2016 and overall
final consumption by fuel includes 47.7% of oil.12
The oil production (Mt) of countries producing most of the
world oil in the past three decades is presented in Figure 3. It
shows that the oil production is higher in Saudi Arabia, United
States of America (USA), and Russian Federation and they
shared 13%, 12.8%, and 12.6% of total production in 2017,
respectively.2 The optimists believe that quantity and produc-
tion of oil will increase in 2100 at the rate of 105 M-b/d and
will decrease to 40 M-b/d by 2400. But, according to pessi-
mists, the oil era has been ended now.13
NG was used by the Chinese to convert sea water to salt.
FIGURE 2 Total proved oil reserves in world in thousand Mt
NG fires were considered as holy fires in Persian regions. It
(Source data: BP Statistics)
is the second dearest fossil fuel so far.14 Total NG proven
percentage increase and decrease were observed in 2004 and reserves in Trillion Cubic Meters (tcm) are presented in
2009, respectively.2 Figure 4. It was dominated by the Middle East, CIS, and the
Fossil fuels are very valued to humans since long and it Asia Pacific with a share of 40.9%, 30.61%, and 19%,
refers to oil, coal and gas. Asphalt, which is a form of coal respectively. NG reserves in the world were 128.1, 163.5,
was used in towers and wall construction more than 193.5 tcm in 1997, 2007, and 2017, respectively.15
4000 years ago. Oil pits were found near Babylon and also on Total production of NG was 3164.6 Mtoe at the end of
the banks of river Issus. Earliest oil wells dug in China in 2017. The production of NG is dominated by USA and
347 AD were 240 m deep.9 Crude oil is flammable liquid Russian Federation with 631.6 and 546.5 Mtoe, respectively.
contains a mixture of complex hydrocarbons. Oil fields are Whereas, production is decreased in Canada in the last
unevenly distributed across the earth and around 50 000 oil decade as shown in Figure 5. Production of NG has been
fields have been discovered so far.10 The average growth of increased significantly in Iran since 2004. USA, Russian
global oil consumption in 2017 was 1.8% Million barrels per Federation, Iran, and China shared 20%, 17.3%, 6.1% and
day (M-b/d).11 4.1% of total production in 2017, respectively.2
Figure 2 shows that total proven oil reserves in thousands Most of the proved reserves of coal are in Asia Pacific
Million tonnes (Mt) at the end of 2017, it shows that oil (40.99%), North America (25%), and CIS (21.57%). Figure 6
reserves are dominated by Middle East (45.69%), South and shows total coal reserves in different regions in the world.2

FIGURE 3 Trends of oil production

for past three decades in different countries
(Source data: BP Statistics)
4 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

and USA was very close up-to 1993, the production as well
as consumption got a boost in China. This boost in produc-
tion and consumption was due to the large number of coal
fueled power plants in China.

1.2 | Energy consumption and CO2 emissions

Consumption of fossil fuels depends upon the need of energy
of any country, sometimes they import to fulfill it or use the
local resources. The consumption of energy from fossil fuels
and CO2 emissions are closely related to each other. The trend
is CO2 emissions are most in the countries which are consum-
ing more fossil fuels. The oil consumption was highest in
Asia-Pacific (35%) and North America (23%) by 2018.17 NG
consumption was highest in North America (23%), Asia-
Pacific (20%), and Europe (16%) by 2018.18 Consumption of
coal was only increased by 1% in 2017 and highest growth
FIGURE 4 Proved reserves of NG in tcm was observed in 2013. Growth in consumption of coal was
(Source data: BP Statistics)
highest in India (18 Mtoe) and China (4 Mtoe).19
The Figure 8 shows the trend in consumption of oil from
The share of coal in primary energy is only 27.6% because different countries. It shows that consumption of oil has
of the higher Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions, and it is been led by United States for long and it is also increasing in
recommended to reduce its consumption for a better envi- China for past two decades. The other most oil consuming
ronment in the future. Total proved reserves of coal are 1 countries are India, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Japan,
035 012 Mt by the end of 2017.16 These proven reserves of and South Korea.
coal are considered sufficient to meet 134 years of global The NG consumption trend for the past three decades is
production.16 shown in Figure 9. It shows that consumption of NG is dom-
Trends in production of coal are very significant for inated by the United States and Russia Federation since
China and therefore shown in right Y-axis in Figure 7. 1985. It has also increased significantly in China and Iran
Whereas, the left Y-axis is used for the rest of the countries. for last 10 years. The consumption of NG of USA, Russian
China is producing the highest amount of coal since last two Federation, China, and Iran was 635.8, 365.2, 206.7, and
decades. The share of China in total world coal production is 184.4 (Mtoe), respectively, by the end of 2017.2
46.6%, whereas share of USA, India, and Indonesia 9.9%, The coal consumption for the past three decades in differ-
7.8%, and 7.2%, respectively.2 Production of coal in China ent countries is shown in Figure 10. It shows a significantly

FIGURE 5 Trends in NG production

(Mtoe) for past three decades in different
countries
(Source data: BP Statistics)
KHAN ET AL. 5 of 49

(global warming, ozone layer depletion, pollution, and dras-

tic changes in environment like acid rain and drought, and
so on). According to the AR5 report by an intergovernmen-
tal panel on climate change (IPCC), the world's GHG emis-
sions were almost 49 ± 4.5 Gt of CO2 in 2010, and it is
continuously rising. The CO2 is responsible for 78% of
GHG emission in planet earth, whereas all other gases
account for only 22% of GHG emissions. Therefore, it is
considered as a significant source of climate change on earth
today.20,21
The IEA and BP statistics revealed that a large amount of
CO2 emissions had entered the atmosphere, mostly from
developed countries like China and the USA, and so on2,22
According to BP Statistics, by the end of 2017, the CO2
emissions of China, USA, India, Russia, and Japan has
FIGURE 6 Total proved coal reserves in world in Mt reached to 9232.6, 5087.7, 2344.2, 1525.3, and 1176.6
(Source data: BP Statistics) MtCO2, respectively.2 The other countries who are also
responsible for CO2 emission are Germany, South Korea,
increasing trend in China and therefore, right Y-axis is used Iran, Canada, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Mexico, Brazil, and
for it. However, the left Y-axis is used for the rest of the South Africa with their combined emissions of 5099.2
countries. It shows that consumption of coal is increasing MtCO2 which is less when compared to China alone and
exponentially in China as it was only 814.1 Mtoe in 2002 almost equal to the United States. The graph in Figure 11
compared with 1892.6 Mtoe in 2017 and the highest peak shows the trends of CO2 emission of only five countries
was observed in 2013. The consumption of coal was maxi- which are emitting the maximum amount of CO2 in the
mum during 2005 in the United States, and during 2017 in atmosphere. It shows the United States was emitting more
India, it was 545.7 and 424 Mtoe, respectively. The China, CO2 than all other countries since 2004, then in 2005 China
USA, and India are using coal for most of their electricity crossed the United States in CO2 emissions and in United
production, hence its consumption is more in these coun- States the CO2 emissions have decreased since 2007. There-
tries. The consumption of an enormous amount of coal for fore, the world must take preventive steps like the use of
electricity is not very common in the rest of the world yet.2 clean energy, environmental friendly methods for electricity
The increasing impact of burning fossil fuel for electricity production and storage of energy, and so on to reduce the
has imposed a serious threat on world environment like CO2 emissions in the atmosphere.23

FIGURE 7 Trends in production of

coal in different countries in past three
decades
(Source data: BP Statistics)
6 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

FIGURE 8 Trends in consumption of

oil in different countries
(Source data: BP Statistics)

2 | CLASSIFICATION OF E SS S technologies increases from 140 GW in 2014 to 450 GW in

2050.24 According to the last report for ESSs by Electric
The ESSs systems are getting emergence and researchers are Power Research Institute (EPRI), total installed grid con-
finding the possible low cost, efficient, and long term stor- nected capacity of ESSs was 140 976 MW in 2014.24,25
age applications. The major problem which needs a proper Almost 99.3% of which was stored in the form of pumped
solution for using ESS technologies is their investment cost hydro storage (PHS) and the rest of  1% was covered by
and cost of operating should be within the acceptable limits. all other types of technologies.
Additionally, they should not cause any problem to the envi- The amount of ESSs is increasing and up-till now the
ronment. The ESSs can be broadly classified as; mechanical global installed grid connected capacity of ESSs was almost
storage system, electro-chemical energy storage (ECES), 175 823 MW in 2018.26 In which, the PHS was approxi-
chemical energy storage, and thermal ESSs. The detailed mately 169.557 GW, which is 96% of the total installed
classification of ESS is given in Figure 12. The classification capacity of all energy storage methods utilized in the world.
is made based on the form of stored energy. The share of all other sources has increased to  4%.
The IEA estimated that global warming could be reduced Although the amount of energy storage devices is growing,
below 2
C, if the installed capacity of energy storage there is still a need for a sharp increase in the future. The

FIGURE 9 Trends in consumption of

NG in different countries
(Source data: BP Statistics)
KHAN ET AL. 7 of 49

F I G U R E 1 0 Trends in
consumption of coal in different countries
(Source data: BP Statistics)

detailed pie chart of installed ESSs is demonstrated in Figure use of baseload power by utilizing cheap power during off-
13A,B. All other forms of ESSs; ECES, mechanical storage peak hours and producing power and helping the base load
(except PHS), chemical (hydrogen), and thermal energy stor- plants to meet the high load demand in peak hours.28
age have an operating capacity of 2051, 1338, 18, and The operational grid connected capacities (MW) in the
2859 MW, respectively.26 countries having maximum energy storage are shown in
A typical electrical ESS consists of the storage unit and a Figure 14. China is leading the world with the total installed
power conversation unit. The DC voltages are used to operate capacity of 32 064 MW, most of this is from PHS plants in
the energy storage unit and the inverter is used to convert the China. Japan and the USA have the installed capacity of
DC voltage from the stored power to AC voltages. This AC 28 466 and 25 210 MW, respectively.
power is added to the grid through the AC transmission sys-
tem. In some electrical ESSs rectifier converts the AC power
2.1 | Significance of ESSs
to DC to be stored in storage systems. This is how a basic
electrical ESS works.27 The reliability of the grid can be Energy can be easily stored in the form of electrical power.
enhanced by exploiting ESS, and it can enable the efficient Hence, electrical energy storage (EES) plays an important

F I G U R E 1 1 The CO2 emission

(MTCO2) trend of countries with maximum
emissions
(Source data: BP Statistics)2
8 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 2 Classification
of ESSs based on the form of
stored energy

role to store electrical energy for different purposes. EES has

the excellent capability for handling the problems faced in
electricity production like its profoundly changing load
demand, production cost, and effect on climate by electricity
production. The storage requirement for electricity is due to
the two main primary properties; first the electric is con-
sumed at the same time as it is generated and sufficient elec-
tricity must be provided to meet the varying demand.

2.1.1 | Continuously varying load demand

The load demand and its trend are also changing day by day.
The imbalance between the supply and the demand and sud-
den load changes can cause the power system to loss its syn-
chronism. The stability of power system is jeopardized due
to the imbalance of voltage, frequency, and rotor angle sta-
bility.29,30 Load balancing is done on the prediction of load
changes in a day or a month and, most of the time batteries
are used for load balancing. A 17 MW/14 MWh battery
bank was commercially utilized for frequency regulation in
Bewag, Germany and 10 MW/40 MWh at California Edison
Chino substation, United States for load leveling and instan-
taneous frequency control.31,32

2.1.2 | Centralized nature of electricity

The second major drawback of electricity is the highly cen-
tralized nature of its production. The generation is mostly very
far away from its consumers. Hence, transmission medium is
needed to supply the power to the consumer end. Therefore,
sometimes congested power flow is concentrated in specific
transmission lines and causing bottleneck situation for that F I G U R E 1 3 A, The total grid connected operational capacity
line.33,34 Transmission lines are always needed and failure of (MW) of installed ESSs. B, Grid connected operational capacities of all
some line causes the interruption in the supply of power. other forms of ESSs (MW)26
KHAN ET AL. 9 of 49

F I G U R E 1 4 The grid connected

operational capacity (MW) of ESSs of
different countries (Data Source)26

2.1.3 | Renewable energy resources and the form of batteries. Therefore, they supply their surplus
energy storage electricity to the grid. Hence, in the advanced age of renew-
able energy technologies the need of EES is necessary and
The renewable energy resources have benefits over the con-
can play a vital role in forming low carbon energy systems
ventional fuel based methods like free energy and low GHG
by achieving CO2 reduction from burning fuel.
emissions, and so on. However, at the same time they pos-
sess some constraints involved due to the dependency on
nature like sun and air, and so on. They are majorly based
on getting power from nature and due to the high cost for 2.1.4 | Low carbon electricity production
making such systems, they cannot cope with the peak power The developed technologies to produce low carbon electric-
demand of electricity in the world. The fluctuations in the ity are mainly based on solar and wind energy. Although,
power output are very high in terms of seasonal, monthly some other techniques are also referred to low carbon elec-
and daily basis. Hence, these sources cannot be considered tricity production are nuclear and fuel based technologies
as a primary energy source. The renewable energy resources
when employed with carbon capture and storage (CCS). The
have some tremendous advantages over conventional fuel
nuclear technology also lacks in load following flexibility
based methods when utilized with ESSs.35,36
and in history it is deployed along with noteworthy growths
Therefore, a suitable method of storing energy is always
of PHS.47 The changes in the output of a nuclear power
necessary to adjust their nature-based power output fluctua-
plant can also increase the electricity production cost as well
tions with daily changing demand for energy. Energy from
as accelerate the aging of the equipment.48 Therefore, if
these sources must be stored when they are producing sur-
nuclear technology is being deployed in the future without
plus energy and this energy can be released when required.
Therefore, energy storage technologies are an integral part further increase in storage technologies, the load following
of making a distributed grid, which can add some power flexibility of nuclear technology should be considered.
from a renewable energy resource. EES techniques have Hence, the amendments for increasing flexibility can add
become a vital tool due to the addition of more renewable much cost in plant manufacturing and operation, which will
energy by utilities as well as from customers in the form of also increase the electricity production cost. The deployment
net metering. The net metering was common in developed of CCS technologies in the world is not enough despite its
countries only. But now developing countries like India,37 significant research and growth over the years. Hence, fossil
Pakistan,38 and Malaysia39,40 have also started net metering fuel based technologies are still producing a high carbon
and increased numbers of customers are attracting towards level electricity.49 The impact can be seen by the increase of
it. Hetter et al41 has discussed the status of net metering in CO2 emission in China, India, USA, Russia, and Japan from
all states of USA. The countries which have been using net fossil fuel use in power and cement industry in recent
metering are Australia,42 Italy,43 Spain,44 China,45 and the years.50,51 Hence, the use of energy storages with solar and
Netherlands,46 and so on. Although, the net metering domes- wind-based renewable technologies can help to reduce the
tic suppliers have very less amount of storage capacities in impact of high CO2 emission by fuel-based plants.
10 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

The classification of ESSs is broadly discussed in next According to the Sandia National Laboratories, there are
subsections. This article will go through the types of ESSs, 327 operational installed facilities of PHS with around
their mode of operation, their current development, their 169.557 GW capacity in the world. The key operating char-
pros and cons and their operational grid connected installa- acteristic of fuel based generating plants and pumped storage
tions in the world. plant are given in Table 1. The pumped hydro power plants
have abilities of the daily unit startup, load following, quick
startup (3-10 minutes), frequency regulation, and black
2.2 | Mechanical storage system
start. Other power plants like coal, oil, nuclear, and gas-
In mechanical ESSs, the energy is stored by doing some based plants do not possess all these qualities.
mechanical work and energy from mechanical work is The general electric (GE) has been supplying pumped
exploited upon its requirement. The mechanical storage sys- hydro turbines in the world, a total number of 139 pumped
tems are further classified into three types based on the work- hydro turbine units of 22 000 MW capacity were provided by
ing principle of the Energy storage; PHS, CAES, and flywheel them. The supplied turbines are being used in Zhanghewan
storage. The detail about each type is presented in next sub- China, Alqueva Portugal, Afourer II Morocco, Yanyan South
section. Korea, San Chang South Korea, and Bissorte II France. The
conversion efficiency of PHP is almost 65-80%, depending on
the equipment working.61 Considering the cycle efficiency,
2.2.1 | Pumped hydro storage
8 kWh is needed to generate 6 kWh energy.4 The storage
The PHS is a method of storing energy in the form of poten- capacity depends on two parameters: the height of the water-
tial energy stored in water. The water is pumped from a lower fall and the volume of water. The primary requirement to use
reservoir to higher elevation reservoir by using pumps and this technology is the need for a site with a high head of the
this water is utilized. This water is pumped using low-cost dam. In literature, researchers have proposed over 7 GW of
surplus power during off-peak hours and during peak-load new and proposed PHS in USA, Europe, and Japan with a
time this stored water is released through turbines to produce total investment of ~6.7 billion dollars.62
electricity. The net efficiency of the power system is affected At a country level China, Japan, and the USA are leading
by the pumping process. The price of electricity production is the world with around 32 GW, 28 GW, 23 GW operational
higher in peak demand time; hence by utilizing PHS a less capacity. Japan was leading the world in PHS capacity with
expensive power is produced without burning the costly fuel.  25 GW in 2010.62 However, after 2010 China has become
The backflow of water in the PHS is done by using a revers- the first country to operate the most grid connected PHS.
ible turbine governor system. It works as a motor and pumps The detail of some large projects in different countries of the
water to the upper reservoir and for utilizing this water for world with a capacity of more than 1600 MW is given in
power generation, it works as a generator. Table 2; it also includes the total installed capacity in differ-
A typical PHS power plant has the operating capacity and ent countries and detail of the total working pumped hydro
round-trip efficiency of 10 to 5000 MW, and 65%-85%, power station (PHPS) in these countries.
respectively.52–58 The significant advantage of a PHS is very The development of PHPS in China, Japan, USA, and
negligible self-discharge rate and a few minutes of response India is discussed here.
time. The self-discharge time of batteries is very high as com-
pared to pumped storage. PHS is an LTS with storage duration China
between several hours to month and discharge period at a rated China is leading the world in the development of PHPS with
power of 1-24+ hours. The lifetime and initial capital cost are an operating capacity of 31 999 MW. The first PHPS of
600 to 2000 US$/kW and 30 to 60 years, respectively.52–58 11 MW capacity was installed in 1968 and the second in
All other characteristics of PHS are presented in Table 21. 1975. After this, the development of new plants was not
TABLE 1 Key operating characteristic of fuel based plants and pumped storage plant60

Property Coal based plant Gas turbine based plants Oil based plants Nuclear power plant PHS
Normal duty cycle Baseload Peak load Baseload-midmerit Baseload Peak-midmerit
Daily unit startup × ✓ ✓ × ✓
Load following ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓
Quick startup (10 minutes) × ✓ × × ✓
Frequency regulation ✓ × ✓ × ✓
Black start × ✓ × × ✓
KHAN ET AL. 11 of 49

TABLE 2 Typical characteristics of PHPS (>1600 MW capacity)26

Rated Started
Names Location capacity (MW) Pump-generators Head (m) on
Bath County PHPS Virginia, US 3003 4 1978
Huizhou PHPS Guangdong, China 2448 2011
Guangzhou PHPS Guangdong, China 2400 8 535 2000
Dniester PHPS Oblast, Ukraine 2268
La Muela PHPS Valencia, Spain 2000 2013
Okutataragi PHPS Hy
ogo, Japan 1932 416 1998
1880 2020
Ludington PHPS Michigan, US 1872 363 1973
Tianhuangping PHPS Zhejiang, China 1836 6 reversible turbines 887 2000
1820 1987
Grand'Maison PHPS France 1800 4 Peton-type turbines of 150 MW 935 1987
Dinorwig PHPS Wales, United Kingdom 1728 6 1984
Srisailam PHPS Andhra Pradesh, India 1670 6 × 150 MW 470 1981
7 × 110 MW
Raccoon Mountain PHPS Tennessee, US 1652 4 1978
Mingtan Dam PHPS Nantou, Taiwan 1602 6 × 267 MW 61.5 1994

started until the 1990s. Almost all today's installed capacity of plants has been halted after the East Japan Earthquake on
PHPS was installed after the 1990s.63 The rapid economic March 11, 2011. It has damaged several nuclear plants in that
growth of China in the world markets and increased demand area. Hence, thermal generation accounts for most of its energy
of electricity are the major factors for installation of PHPS mix plan of 2030. Japan has the highest electricity rates than
which are predominantly useful to overcome the peak load the rest of the world and has set a target to lower it down to the
demand and hence expanding the grid reliability. The largest present level. Their surcharge for purchasing renewable energy
PHPS in China was developed in 2011 Huizhou, with an in the year 2017 was 2.1 trillion yen.65
operational capacity of 2448 MW. The second largest PHPS
is operating eight pump generators and its first unit has started USA
working in 2007 and 2008.26 The Government owns a signifi- The most of PHPS in US were developed between 1960 and
cant share of electricity infrastructure in China with 95% of 1990 along with the following increase in nuclear energy
installed PHPS. The Chinese government has a target to capacity during this time.47 Denholm et al observed that
achieve the 50 GW power from PHPS in 2020 and have after the energy crisis in 1970s, the substantial increase in
achieved 32 GW with 2 years remaining.64 the prices of oil and gas, the utilities and researchers also
started to think about energy storage and renewable prod-
Japan ucts.66 The development of PHPS is also is affected by the
Japan is the second leading country in the world for its PHPS consequences of the energy crisis post era. However, after
capacity and Japan has developed PHPS to lower the burden its 1990 due to a subsequent decrease in oil and gas prices and
nuclear generation.26 Japan is importing its 95% primary energy capital cost of combine cycle gas turbine the deployment of
supply in the form of fossil fuels and the PHPS are providing PHPS is not increasing rapidly in the US. Although the
an efficient way to tackle its peak demand. Japan is mostly rely- potential of pumped hydro is suggested more than 1000 GW
ing on nuclear power generation working as baseload and the by some articles.47
mountainous landscape is well suited for the operation of hydro
power plants. They are operating almost 42 PHPS and in 2010 India
Japan was the leading country in PHPS capacity in the world.62 The first PHPS in India was commissioned in 1981 with
Japan is also developing a seawatern PHPS in Okinawa Island. capacity of 770 MW. After this from 1981 to 1998, further
The electricity sector is quite liberalized in Japan giving the 742 MW of pumped hydro plant was added.67 Then, the
selection opportunity of the supplier utility to the customers 3450 MW PHS was added from 2003 to 2008.67 The devel-
using over 50 kW electricity. The operation of nuclear power opment of PHS in India is to meet the peak demand, because
12 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

of the shortage of 10%-15% peak power capacity than peak compressed without gain or loss of heat and in the diabatic
demand in most states. Therefore, they are mostly used to process air is stored after passing through gas cooler.69
save the energy in off-peak hour and to utilize it in peak In diabatic CAES (D-CAES) process, compressor com-
time. However, they do not operate to their maximum capac- presses the air and it heats during compression.70 The heat is
ity due to the shortage of electricity in off-peak hours to removed by using an air cooler and compressed air is stored.
store the water in upper reservoirs. Sivakumar et al has com- In the discharging process of diabatic system the cooled air is
prehensively presented current status and the future of PHS then heated by using fuel in combustor chamber. This heated
in India.67 The most significant PHS projects in India are air is being used to drive the turbine and electricity is pro-
given in Table 3. duced in the generator.52,53 The schematic diagrams of D-
CAES and A-CAES system are demonstrated in Figure 16.
In A-CAES, the compressed air is stored as it is, the
2.2.2 | Compressed air energy storage stored heat in the compressed air is used in the discharging
The excess electrical energy is stored by compressing the process.53,72 The A-CAES increases the efficiency of the sys-
air and storing it in a reservoir called a cavern. This com- tem around 20%.71 The construction of CAES on the ground
pressed air is used in the combustor chamber of gas tur- is probably too large and too expensive due to the storage
bine for electricity production. The gas turbine uses 60% reservoir. Hence, the underground reservoirs are considered
of the its power output of the turbine generator for com- for CAES. The possible reservoirs may be caverns, deep
pressing the air. Hence, using a compressed air energy aquifers, empty oil and gas reservoirs and salt caverns.
storage (CAES) this energy is not used from the output of Germany did the world first commercial installation of
the gas turbine generator, instead it is used from the the CAES system in January 12, 1978. A 290 MW Huntorf
already stored compressed air in CAES. A CAES system plant was developed using a salt cavern. This plant utilizes
with the salt dome as the cavern is shown in Figure 15. nuclear power for compression at night and in peak hours
There are two possibilities of storing compressed air in the two NG turbines use this compressed air stored in two salt
cavern. The first is by adiabatically and the second is mines caverns. The efficiency of Kraftwerk Huntorf plant
diabatically. In Adiabatic CAES (A-CAES), air is is 42%.73,74 The second plant was developed in 1991 in

TABLE 3 Total operational PHS capacity of different countries26

Total Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3

capacity Total
(MW) PHPS Description Description Description
Austria 4680 18 Malta main stage PSPS, Kops II PSPS, Limberg II PSPS,
730 MW,1979 525 MW, 2009 480 MW, 2011
China 31 999 34 Huizhou PSPS, 2448 MW, 2011 Guangzhou PHPS, Tianhuangping PSPS,
2400 MW, 2000 1836 MW, 2000
France 5812 10 Grand' Maison PSPS, Montézic PSPS, 910 MW, 1982 Revin PSPS, 800 MW, 1976
1820 MW, 1987
Germany 6528 28 Goldisthal PSPS, Markersbach PSPS, Wehr PSPS, 910 MW, 1976
1060 MW, 2004 1050 MW, 1979
India 6772 10 Srisailam PSPS, 1670 MW, 1981 Sardar Sarovar PSPS, 1450, 2006 Tehri dam PSPS, 1000 MW, 2016
Italy 7071 18 Fadalto PSPS, 210 MW, 1971 Pont Ventoux-Susa, 158 MW, 2005 Provvidenza, 156 MW, 1949
Japan 28 222 42 Okutataragi, 1932 MW, 1998 Okumino PSPS, 1500 MW, 1995 Shin-Takasegawa PSPS,
1280 MW, 1980
South Korea 4700 7 Yangyang PSPS, 1000 MW, 2006 Yecheon PHPS, 800 MW, 2011 Sancheong PHPS, 700 MW, 2001
Spain 6984 21 La Muela PHPS, Aldeadávila PHPS, Villarino PHPS, 810 MW, 1970
2000 MW, 2013 1139 MW, 1986
Switzerland 5427 16 Grimsel 2 PHPS, 350 MW, 1982 Veytaux PHPS, 240 MW, 2015 Hongrin-Leman PHPS,
240 MW, 1970
USA 23 610 39 Bath County PSPS, Ludington PHPS, Raccoon PHPS, 1652 MW, 1978
3003 MW, 1985 1872 MW, 1973

Abbreviation. PHPS, pumped hydro power station.

KHAN ET AL. 13 of 49

FIGURE 15 CAES in cavern connected with grid68

McIntosh, Alabama. The system has a capacity of 110 MW in capacities. The Texas Dispatchable Wind CAES project
for 26 hours. The 19 million cubic foot salt cavern is used to was installed in 2012 has a capacity of 2 MW.79,80 A 1.5
store air at pressure up to 110 pound per square inch (psi). MW SustainX Inc. Isothermal CAES project was developed
The efficiency of this plant is 54%. The construction of a in 2013, it has 1-hour backup capacity and designed for
project for 2 MW near isothermal compressed air project is 20 years lifetime operation.81 Another 1 MW/ 4 MWh
completed in 2012 in Gaines, USA.74,75 The benefit of this installed capacity plant was developed by Hydrostor in
project is that it does not require any fuel during discharging. Toronto Island in 2014.82 There are six other plants with a
There are some projects of CAES are planned by Storelectric capacity less than 1 MW are also working in Canada, Swit-
Ltd. in Cheshire, UK. The projected capacity of this project is zerland, China, United Kingdom, and the USA.26The small
800 MW. A planned 270 MW project in Lowa was canceled ESSs can be developed for air storage in vehicles and
due to the financial risks.76 The key parameters of the current aircraft, and so on for transportation. A standard 5 L steel
large scale grid connected projects are given in Table 4. bottle having a pressure capacity of 20 MPa has an approxi-
There are total 11 operational CAES projects with a total mate weight of 7.5 kg. The high tensile strength carbon fiber
installed capacity of 406.690 MW in the world. All projects or Kevlar can give a very lightweight less than 2 kg in the
other than Kraftwerk Huntorf and McIntosh are very small same size as steel bottle. Thus, such lightweight fiber based

FIGURE 16 Schematic diagrams of D-CAES and A-CAES71

14 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

TABLE 4 Key parameters of the large grid connected CAES plants74,77,78

Place, Power Energy Cavern Efficiency Pressure Cavern Heat

country capacity (MW) (MWh) volume (m3) (%) (MPa) type source
Kraftwerk Huntorf, 290 1160 310 000 42 4.6-6.6 Two salt cavern Natural gas
Germany
McIntosh, Alabama 110 2860 538 000 54 4.5-7.4 Salt cavern Natural gas

bottles can be utilized for energy storage after applying legal The energy is stored in the flywheel as kinetic energy
safety codes. These reinforced fiber bottles have almost stored due to the angular momentum of the spinning body
comparable energy densities as a lead acid battery. The pres- and it depends on the moment of inertia and the square of its
sure varies greatly while discharging a compressed air bottle, rotational speed. The expression for kinetic energy is93;
but batteries supply nearly constant voltage while dis-
charging. Such systems are in the development process and 1
KE = Iω2 ð1Þ
this technology is not mature yet. The key characteristics of 2
planned compressed energy storage projects in the world are
summarized in Table 5. Where, ω is the angular speed of the flywheel and I is the
moment of inertia of the flywheel. Normally a disk of mass
“m” is used in flywheel which have a radius “R” and
2.2.3 | Flywheel storage moment of inertia of moving disk is;
The third type of mechanical ESS is flywheel storage. The
flywheel ESS works a flywheel with high speed and during 1
Idisk = mR2 ð2Þ
this movement the energy in the flywheel is maintained as 2
rotational energy. When energy is obtained from the fly-
wheel, the rotation speed is reduced. The flywheels have Hence, the kinetic energy of the flywheel is KE =
1 2 2
been utilized to smooth the pulses in the power plants 4 R mω , it is directly proportional to the square of radius
engines. The advanced flywheel system consists of a rotor of and angular velocity. During charging flywheel is spun by a
carbon-fiber and suspended in magnetic bearings, the rota- motor connected to it and energy is stored in it. This energy
tion speed of the flywheel is from 20 000 to over 50 000 depends on the mass, radius, and angular speed of the fly-
revolutions per minute (rpm) in a vacuum enclosure.91 A wheel rotor. During discharging, the same motor works as a
typical flywheel system is shown in Figure 17. A small fly- generator, hence converting the stored energy into electrical
wheel system consists of motor/generator, genetic bearing, energy. The flywheel system can be categorized into low
and vacuum housing. The energy is stored from utility after speed metal rotors and high speed composite rotors. The low
converting through convertor in the flywheel this energy is speed metal has disadvantages of large losses and therefore
utilized when needed. they are only used for medium and high power applications
TABLE 5 The key characteristics of planned CAES projects in the world

Place, Country Reference Capacity (MW) Plant/cavern type Company

ADELE, Germany 83 200 Subterranean salt cavern RWE Power
Matagorda, Texas 84 Salt cavern Ridge CAES
China 85 100 Supercritical CAES Chinese Academy of Sciences
Jiansu, China 86 50 Advanced A-CAES
Columbia Hills, Washington 87 231 for storage Combined-cycle gas turbines Bonneville
203 for generation Power Administration
Antrim, North Ireland, 88 330 Gaelectric and Dresser-Rand
United Kingdom
Larne, Northern Ireland 88 330 Two salt caverns Storelectric Ltd
Bakersfield in Kern County, 89 300 Utilizing a saline Pacific Gas and Electric
California porous rock formation
Cheshire, United Kingdom 90 40 100% renewable energy Storelectric Ltd
Watkins Glen, New York 74 150 Salt cavern Iberdrola, USA
KHAN ET AL. 15 of 49

flywheels have been used in buses for fuel economy and

other applications like cranes, excavators, and forklift
trucks.102
In 1999, a novel application of flywheel for vehicles with
magnetic bearings was developed at the University of Austin,
Texas.103,104 Later on, this concept of utilizing flywheel in
passenger vehicles was combined with racing cars since
2000s. High speed flywheels rotating at 64 000 rpm were
used in formula one racing cars. However, it has shown some
disadvantages like adding a 25 kg weight to the car. The use
of flywheel in cars can provide three major functions like
regenerative braking of car, load averaging, and prime energy
source. The application to work as prime energy source is
only based on theoretical research and it has not been
achieved yet due to the high energy density of flywheel.105
FIGURE 17 The schematic diagram of flywheel system92 There are almost 43 operational projects of the flywheel in the
word, only a few of them are above 20 MW. The application
with smaller duration. The composite rotors are based on car-
of flywheel system is ranging from electrical grids to large
bon fibers based rotor which rotates on very high speed appli- scale and domestic customers scale.106,107 A large power
cation. These fibers based rotors are currently in the research capacity is obtained using flywheel systems in the form of
phase and they can rotate at 100 000 rpm.94 The detailed banks, instead of using a single large flywheel.108 The best
comparison between these two types of rotors in flywheel suitable application of the flywheel is in power quality appli-
system is summarized in Table 6. Flywheel technology can cation where high power is required for a short duration of
be used to store power when it is available from PV or wind time,109 or when charge and discharge required frequently.107
energy, this energy is utilized when insufficient power is gen- They are commonly used in power quality application like
erated by these sources.99 frequency and voltage regulation.52,110 They are also used in
The Flywheel energy systems can be utilized in various military applications which require pulsed power,111 altitude
applications. These applications include electric vehicle, rail- control in space craft,111 load leveling,52 electric vehicles,111
way, wind power system, hybrid power system, power net- wind power plants,112 and other energy storage applica-
work, marine and space ships, and so on. Transportation tions.111 Flywheel provides storage application both at grid
plays an important role in today's world and accounts for level and at customer levels. The largest operation flywheel
one quarter of the world's CO2 emission in the world.100 The plant is an European fusion development agreement (EFDA)
electric vehicles have low noise and better efficiency than JET Fusion flywheel which has two identical vertical flywheel
the hydrocarbon fuel powered vehicles. Hence, give a better generators capable of supplying up to 400 MW for 30 sec-
solution for mitigation of carbon emissions when operated onds, another 300 MW power is pulled from the grid to com-
by renewable energy.101 The concept of flywheel based bine with flywheel to satisfy the peak consumption of the JET
hybrid vehicle came out in literature since 1970s, the pulses. This flywheel set is normally used for frequency

TABLE 6 Comparison between low speed and high speed flywheel system95–97

Disk Cost and

Type/properties material Speed (rpm) Machine type Bearing Application disadvantages
Low-speed metal Metal up to 10 000 Induction machine, Mechanical or mixed Power quality Low price
rotors flywheel Steel Permanent magnet mode (magnetic improvement and high losses
synchronous machine and mechanical) with smaller
(PMSM), and switcher duration
reluctance
machines (SRM)
Intermediate Low - - - - Medium cost
speed flywheel98 cost Steel
High-speed composite Composite up to 100 000 PMSM and SRM Magnetic bearing Traction and Five times higher
rotors flywheel rotors aerospace industry than low cost
and low losses
16 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

use at earth and in space without any geographical

contemplation.115
In battery storage, both input and output are in the form of
electrical energy and electricity is stored in the batteries in the
form of chemical energy. Batteries can be either non-
rechargeable (primary) or rechargeable (secondary). Second-
ary batteries are considered for large-scale energy storage
only. The energy recovery efficiency of the batteries ranges
from 75% to 95%, depending upon the types of batteries. A
simplest battery consists of an anode, a cathode and electro-
FIGURE 18 The grid connected operational capacity (MW) of lyte enclosed in some packing. During discharging cations
ECES systems26
flow towards the cathode and anions toward anode resulting a
flow of electrons from anode to cathode when a load is con-
regulations and each system can supply 2600 mega Joule (MJ)
nected. In charging process, the flow of electricity is stored in
per pulses.113
the battery in a reverse process. The typical charging and dis-
charging of the simple battery is demonstrated in Figure 20.
2.3 | Electro-chemical energy storage
Lead acid battery
The ECES systems are further classified as batteries energy Lead-acid batteries are the oldest rechargeable batteries
storage, flow batteries, electrostatic energy storage, and which were invented by French Physicist Gaston Planté in
SMES. The grid connected operational installed capacity of 1859. It consists of electrodes of lead (Pb) and lead oxide
ECES system is shown in Figure 18. It shows that Li-ion (PbO2) dipped in the electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid. Dur-
based batteries have 1629 MW installed grid connected ing discharging few changes occurs in the cell like electro-
capacity and the rest of the all electrochemical devices have lyte converted into water and electrodes into lead sulphate
combined capacity of approximately 405 MW capacity.26 (PbSO4). There are two basic types of lead acid batteries;
First discussing the simple electrochemical batteries, there are flooded and sealed and valve regulated batteries. The effi-
many types of electrochemical batteries. The detail about each ciency range of lead-acid batteries is around 70% to 90% and
type is given in subsections. The battery storage cell sales in have a low cost US$ 200 to 400 kWh.52 These batteries are
US$ thousand in different regions are given in Figure 19. mostly used in uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems.
However, they lack in terms of cycle efficiency and energy
density as their life cycles are 500 to 1000 cycles and energy
2.3.1 | Batteries storage density of 50 to 90 Wh/L. The energy density is high due to
high energy density of lead electrodes. They show poor per-
The electrochemical devices which have the ability to readily
formance with temperature changes, therefore a cooling sys-
store the electrical energy and provide it when needed are
tem is sometimes required to get the best efficiency from
called batteries. The electrochemical batteries are widely in
lead-acid batteries. They are mostly used for power quality
and UPS systems with energy capacity of some 100s
Ampere hour (Ah) range. However, lead-acid batteries com-
mercially utilized for large scale applications. Some details
of large scale system, detailed reaction occurring in lead acid
battery and cell voltages are given in Table 7.
The major drawback of these batteries is an environmen-
tal concern and the risk of explosion. A large number of lead
acid batteries are running in vehicles on the road and some
lead compound are incredibly toxic. Hence, a long term
exposure to these batteries can cause brain and kidney prob-
lems and learning problems in children. The risk of explo-
sion is due to excessive charging of the battery, which
causes the gassing phenomenon to occur. Oxygen and
hydrogen are emitted from the battery in normal operating
FIGURE 19 Battery storage cell sales in US$ thousands in conditions, and these gases recombine on the cell. But a mal-
different regions114 function can cause the gas to build up and this pressure can
KHAN ET AL. 17 of 49

F I G U R E 2 0 Charging and
discharging of electrochemical battery

cause the internal explosion. The explosion can break the just take full charge after a series of full discharge. Legitimate
casing of the battery and if the batteries are placed in the bat- battery management system can be used to alleviate this
tery banks then this damage can be more severe. Some new effect.
developments in lead acid batteries are Carbon-enhanced
designs, carbon negative current collectors, carbon negative Lithium ion (Li-ion) battery
electrodes, supercapacitor/battery hybrids, and bipolar lead- Lithium ion battery some time referred only Lithium battery
acid batteries, and so on.116 consists of lithium metal or its compound like (LiCoO2,
LiMO2,and LiNiO2, and so on) as cathode and anode of
Nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery graphite carbon with layered structure.122 Lithium salt (LiPF6)
The Nickel cadmium battery (Ni-Cd) is a mature battery. It in organic solvent is used as an electrolyte in Li-ion battery.
was invented in 1899 by a Swedish Scientist Waldmar Lithium moves from the negative electrode to the positive
Jungner.110 Nickel cadmium battery (Ni-Cd) has nickel electrode during discharging and in opposite direction during
hydroxide as positive electrode and cadmium hydroxide as charging process. The energy density of the Li-ion battery is
the negative electrode. Ni-Cd batteries usually come in a three times more than the lead acid battery. This happens due
metal case with the sealing plate having a self-sealing safety to low atomic mass of 6.9u as compared to 207u for lead and
valve.52 It has a nominal cell voltage of 1.2 V and chemical higher cell voltage of 3.6 V as compared to 2.1 V of lead acid
reaction occurring in this battery is given in Table 7. The battery. Thus, cell size and cost is reduced because less cells
major advantages of Ni-Cd battery are; its high energy den- are required to connect in series.123
sity (60-150 Wh/L and 50-75 Wh/kg), low maintenance, The major advantage of Li-ion battery is the lightweight,
and high consistency. However, it has a comparatively low safe, abundant and low cost or cathode material. They pro-
cycle life of around 2000 to 2500. Due to these advantages, vide energy densities around 200 to 500Wh/L and have very
it was widely used in power applications, portable devices, less environmental impact due to the recycling of lithium
mobile phones, generator starting, emergency-light and in salts and oxides. However, a special packaging is required
UPS systems. The high cost of (US$ 800-1500/kWh) Ni-Cd for Li-ion due to internal overcharge protection circuit in Li-
battery is due to the costly industrial equipment is required ion batteries which makes them relatively expensive. The
for manufacturing. That's why, the use of these batteries are development in Li-ion batteries by Yo Cui have provided
replaced by other batteries over the past decade.52 much more capability in storage capacity. These advanced
The toxic nature of the cadmium (Cd) metal poses issues Li-ion batteries include nanowires of silicon. Instead of stor-
with the disposal of Ni-Cd batteries. Ni-Cd batteries addition- ing carbon, by storing the lithium in a mesh of tiny silicon
ally experience the “memory impact,” where the batteries will nanowires with a diameter 1000th time less than the
18 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

TABLE 7 Characteristics of different batteries and their commercial units

Battery Reactions and Electrolyte Ec (V) Commercial unit capacity and location
116–119
Lead-acid Anode: 2.1 10MW/ 40 MWh in 1988 California-Chino
Pb + SO4−2 ! PbSO4 + 2e − 1 Load leveling
Cathode: 300 kW/ 580 kWh Turn key system load
PbO2 + 4H+1 + 2e− ! PbSO4 + 2H2O leveling
Electrolyte: 14 MWh in 1986 BEWAG Plant Berlin,
Dilute H2SO4 Germany
4 MWh/1 hour Madrid, Spain
14 MWh /1.5 hours PREPA, Puerto Rico
Nickle cadmium52,120 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O ! Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 1.2 27 MW/ 6.75 MWh GVEA Alaska Var
compensator
Sodium sulfur52,121 Discharging reaction: 2 9.6 MW/ 64 MWh
2Na + 4S ! Na2S4 Japan (Voltage sag peak load Shaving)
Electrolyte: beta aluminum 6 MW/8 hour Tokyo electric power company
8 MW/7.25 hour Hitachi Plant Ohio US
1.2 MW demonstration
ZEBRA Reaction: 2.58 Used in missiles and NATO submarine
2NaCl + Ni ! NiCl2 + 2Na
Electrolyte: NaAlCl4 with Na+-
beta-alumina ceramic
Lithium ion Anode: 3.6/ Mobile and computer application
LiC6 ! Li+1 + e−1 + C6 3.85
Cathode:
CoO2 + Li+ + e−11 ! LiCoO2
Electrolyte: Lithium salts in organic solvent
Nickel-metal hydride Anode : 1.2 Small scale
NiðOHÞ2 + OH −11 ⇄NiOðOHÞ + H2 O + e −11 Electronics and electric vehicle
Cathode :
H2 O + M + e − 11 ⇄OH −11 + MH
Electrolyte : Potassium hydroxide
Metal air battery Anode: Zn + 4OH−11 ! Zn(OH)4−2 + 2e−11 1.65 Metal as fuel and Air as oxidant
In Fluid: for Zn Air 1 MWh
Zn(OH)4−2 ! ZnO + H2O + 4OH−11 Con Edison, National Grid, USA
Cathode:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e−11 ! 4OH−11
Overall reaction 2Zn + O2 ! 2ZnO
Electrolyte: KOH/KOH with
solid polymer membrane

thickness of article, a signification increase in the amount of of Li-ion batteries is also limited. The cell voltage of nor-
lithium stored in a battery can be achieved and increased mal Li-ion cell is 3.6 to 3.85 V. The reactions occurring at
charged densities in achieved.124 This development has anode and cathode of lithium ion battery are given in
increased the electrical capability to 10 times than the exis- Table 7. The largest grid connected Li-ion battery storage
ting Li-ion batteries.124 Now they are widely used in mobile is in operation at Germany Residential ESSs with storage
applications and electric cars. capacity of 188 MW. It is used for electric bill manage-
The self-discharge rate of ordinary Li-ion battery is ment with renewable energy. Another large plant of
around 5% a month provide that battery life of up-to 1500 100 MW/129 MWh is operating in Hornsdale Power
cycles. The lifetime of Li-ion battery is also temperature Reserves in Australia.117
dependent. The aging phenomenon is much faster at higher
temperature and life of the battery is shortened due to the Sodium sulfur (NaS) battery
deep discharge. These factors limit the use of Li-ion batte- Sodium Sulfur battery composes of two active materials;
ries for such application where the complete discharge is molten sulfur as the positive electrode and molten sodium as
frequent. The maximum changing and discharging current the negative electrode. The battery is often referred as NaS
KHAN ET AL. 19 of 49

battery due to the chemical abbreviations of its two main Z12 and Z11 battery. The Z11 battery was first installed in
components, sodium (Na) and Sulfur (S).125 The electrolyte is the BMW-3 series car with a liquid cooling system.130 It has
made up of solid ceramic sodium alumina and it also sepa- shown more specific energy as compared to Z12 battery.
rates the electrodes.126 These batteries operate at a tempera- However, the car has shown same performance for both batte-
ture of around 300
C, which makes it most suitable for large- ries. The Z12 battery has a heat exchanger which is connected
scale energy storage such as for the power grid.126 Numeric with car's heating and liquid cooling system and it was first
values of cell voltages, reactions and electrolyte, commercial installed on Mercedes car.131 The characteristics of the differ-
units, and their locations are presented in Table 7. ent types of ZEBRA batteries are given in Table 8.
The life cycles of NaS batteries are more than lead acid
batteries in the range of 2500 cycles. NaS provide six times Metal air battery
pulse power capabilities than their continuous rating. The It is an electrochemical battery consisting of metal anode
major problem faced with NaS battery is the requirement of and external cathode of ambient air with aqueous or aqueous
energy to make the heat source. Because the operating tem- with polymer membrane electrolyte. The major advantage of
perature of this battery is higher than other batteries, it metal air battery is the higher specific capacity and density
operates at 300 to 350
C. Hence, it definitely lowers the than other electrochemical batteries. Sometimes, the metal
overall efficacy of these batteries.52 The initial cost of NsS air battery is also called a special type of fuel cell (FC), it
battery is high, but as the manufacturing capacity is increas- uses metal as fuel and air as oxidant. They have a compact
ing, this cost is expected to fall. The application for these design and low cost. The cost of metal air battery is 100 to
batteries is grid connected systems, in space and prototype 250 US$/kW, which is very less when compared to other
was demonstrated in the automobile industry in 1991.127 In electrochemical batteries (around 500+ US$/kW). However,
November 1997, the NaS battery was installed on the STS- the efficiency of metal air battery is less than 50%.52The
87 mission and it had demonstrated a 10-day experimental major hurdles in the commercialization of these batteries is
operation.128 the complication associated with metal anodes, catalysts and
electrolytes.132,133 The key characteristic and chemical reac-
Sodium nickel chloride battery (Na-NiCl2) tions occurring in the cell are given in Table 7.
Sodium nickel chloride battery (Na-NiCl2) is mostly known
as ZEBRA battery and mainly consists of sodium and the
2.3.2 | Flow batteries
nickel chloride cell. This battery evolves from the concept of
sodium sulfur battery. It has nickel chloride as positive elec- Flow batteries are the second type of ECES systems in which
trode and sodium as a negative electrode. The nominal operat- the two electrolytes are used for energy storage, with one is
ing voltage of this cell is between 270 and 350
C. The major dissolved in other electrolyte. These electrolytes flow through
applications or ZEBRA battery are vehicles, marine and tele- the cell in which electrical energy is produced from chemical
communication. The major advantages of ZEBRA batteries energy. This process is also reversible and allow the flow bat-
used in hybrid and complete electric vehicles are the availabil- tery to charge and then discharge. The extra electrolyte is
ity of self-contained single package with the microprocessor stored in tanks and it is pumped into the cell if required. The
based controller system and adequate thermal management reactions in the flow batteries are same as like secondary bat-
system. The complete package is free from maintenance and tery storage. However, the basic difference between second-
access to each cell is not possible. The ZEBRA battery has ary batteries and flow battery is the moving electrolyte in
passed the safety test by the European Car Manufacturers.129 flow batteries. In conventional secondary batteries, the reac-
The two main types of ZEBRA batteries for electric cars are tions occurring in the battery create solid compounds which

TABLE 8 ZEBRA batteries specification130

Maximum Specific
Capacity Energy operating No. of energy Heating Ambient Thermal
Battery Type (Ah) (kWh) voltages (V) cell/cell Weight (kg) (Wh/kg) time (h) temperature (
C) loss (<W)
Z5-278-ML-64 64 17.8 186 216/ML3 195 91.2 24 at 230 Vac −40 to +70 120
Z5-557-ML-32 32 17.8 372 216/ML3 195 91.2 24 at 230 Vac −40 to +70 120
Z11 96 28.7 199.3 348/ML3 335 85.6 24 −40 to +70 160
Z12 104 30 193 448/ML4 375 80 24 −40 to +70 160
B5 310 8 17.2 80/ML3 78 103 24 at 230 Vac −40 to +70 55
20 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

TABLE 9 Characteristics of flow batteries system134,135

Redox flow battery Chemical reaction Ec (v) Electrolyte Installation and location
All vanadium Anode: 15 MW/60 MWh Minami
V2 charge!discharge V3 + e−1 1.4 Anode=Cathode Hayakita Substation
Cathode: H2 SO4 =H2 SO4 Hokkaido, Japan
−1 charge discharge 5 MW/ 10 MWh, Guodian
+
VO2 + e ƒƒƒ ƒƒƒƒ!VO +2
Longyuan Wind Farm,
Liaoning, China
4 MW/6 MWh, Tomamae Wind
Farm, Hokkaido, Japan
Vanadium-polyhalide Anode: 1.3 VCl3 -HCl
V2 charge!dischargeV3 + e−1 NaBr-HC Under development
Cathode:
 − 1 charge discharge
1
2 Br2 + e ƒƒƒ ƒƒƒƒ!Br −1
PSB Anode: 1.5 Na2S/NaBr 12 MW/120 MWh Tennessee
2S2-2 charge!dischargeS4-2 + 2e-1 Valley Authority, Mississippi
Cathode:
charge discharge
Br2 + 2e −1 ƒƒƒ ƒƒƒ! 2Br −1
Iron-chromium Anode:Fe+2 charge
!dischargeFe+3 + e−1 1.2 HCl/HCl
Cathode:
charge discharge
Cr + 3 + e −1 ƒƒƒƒ ƒƒƒ! Cr + 2
H2 - Br2 Anode:H2 charge
!discharge2H+ + 2e−1 1.1 Polymer Electrolyte 50 KW/100 KWh
Cathode: membrane/HCl Rotem Industrial Park, Israel
charge discharge
Br2 + 2e −1 ƒƒƒ ƒƒƒƒ!2Br − 1
Zinc-bromine (ZBR) Anode:Zn charge
!dischargeZn+2 + 2e−1 1.8 ZnBr2/ZnBr2 25 MW/1000 MWh, Primus and
Cathode: Samruk-Energy, Astana,
charge discharge
Br2 + 2e −1 ƒƒƒƒ ƒƒƒƒ!2Br − 1 Kazakhstan
1 MW/2 MWh, Tetiaroa Brando
Resort, Tahiti, French
Polynesia
500 kW/3 MWh, Everett,
Massachusetts
Zinc-cerium Anode:Zn charge
!dischargeZn+2 + 2e−1 2.4 Both CH3SO3 Under development
Cathode:
charge discharge
2Ce + 4 + 2e −1 ƒƒƒƒ ƒƒƒ! 2Ce + 3

deposit on the electrodes of the cell hence reducing the capac- capacities. The largest installed facility is 25 MW/1000
ity of the battery. However, in the flow batteries the products MWh by Primus Power in Astana, Kazakhstan.134,136 A
making during charging and discharging do not deposit on 15 MW/60 MWh redox flow battery bank was installed by
the electrodes. These byproducts dissolve in the electrolytes Hokkaido Electric Power Co. Inc. and Sumitomo Electric
and the efficiency of these batteries is not affected. Industries Ltd. in Hokkaido, Japan.135,137 All other grid con-
The major reactions, occurring in redox flow batteries nected installations of redox flow batteries are less than
like; all vanadium redox battery (VRB), vanadium-poly- 6 MW.
halide, polysulfide bromide (PSB), iron-Chromium, H2 -
Br2, zinc-bromine battery (ZBR), and zinc-cerium are given
2.3.3 | Capacitor storage
in Table 9. It also includes the electrolyte detail as well as
major installations in the world. According to the Sandia The capacitors are the third type of ECES systems, and they
National Laboratories, there are 73 operational grid con- are typically used to store energy in the electrostatic field
nected redox flow batteries with an operating capacity of when charged. The frequently used capacitor in electrical
71.87 MW in the world.26 Only 11 of them have 1 MW or appliances are having the capacity of some micro (10−6) or
more capacity and all other installations have few kW nano (10−9) farads (F). However, for the application of
KHAN ET AL. 21 of 49

energy storages it needs a large amount of storage capacity 2.3.4 | Electromagnetic energy storage
of some kilo (103) F range. These high capacity capacitors
The fourth type of ECES system is SMES. The energy is
are called supercapacitors and they offer a very high surface
stored in the form of magnetic field produced by the flow of
area for electrostatic storage by the use of thin layers of elec-
DC current in the superconductor. The phenomenon of
trolyte as a dielectric between them. They resemble simple
superconductivity was first discovered by Kamerlingh
capacitors but offers very high capacitance in small pack-
Onnes in 1911.141 He was also the first person who pro-
ages. Basically, supercapacitors depend on the separating
duced the liquid helium. After the 75 year, in 1986 Bednorz
charges at a distance of fractions of a nanometer. The funda-
and Muller have developed a superconducting material made
mental difference of capacitor storage with battery storage is
up of lanthanum having a critical temperature of −238
C.142
the capacitor store the static charge rather than a chemical
Then in later years, it was found that yttrium has decreased
process that occurs in a battery.
Supercapacitors are classified into basic three types; elec- the critical temperature for superconductivity to 58
C than
trochemical double layer (DL) capacitors, pseudo-capacitors, lanthanum. It has the critical temperature of −181.15
C.143
and hybrid capacitors. The DL capacitors consist of carbon Superconductors are defined as the materials whose resistiv-
electrodes immersed in electrolyte and a separator is used ity becomes zero to the flow of electricity when they are
between the electrolyte.138,139 The porous active carbon cooled below the critical transition temperature.142 This
works as electrodes, recently carbon aerogels and carbon nan- advancement has forced the researcher to look into this field
otubes are also being used. The electrolyte is made up of and in later years many superconductive materials were
organic or aqueous solution of acid or base and gives the developed. In latest research H2S has shown superconductiv-
lower nominal voltage of 1 V. The acetonitrile is employed as ity at −70.15
C at very high pressure reaching 150 GPa.144
organic electrolyte and yields nominal voltages up to 3 V. If we reduce the losses in superconductors, they become
The DL capacitors are classified on the basis of electrodes more efficient in energy storage. This inherent property of
used as; activated carbons, carbon nanotubes and carbon aero- resistance is useful for making filament of bulb, electric iron
gels. The structure of DL capacitor can be observed in Figure and electric heater, and so on.
21. The pseudo-capacitors have a conducting polymers or Initially, the alloy NbTi can carry a current of
metal oxide electrode with a high amount of electrochemical 2000 A/mm2 having 5T field when operated at tempera-
pseudo capacitance.138 The new technology of hybrid capaci- ture −268
C.
tor consists of composite type, asymmetric type and battery The resistivity of the nonsuperconducting metals can be
type hybrid capacitors. The total installed capacity of grid described as in Equation (3);
connected capacitor application is 30.903 MW.
The use of super capacitor for energy storage application ρ = ρo + αT for T > 0 K ð3Þ
is not very common todays and this technology is still in
research and development (R&D) demonstration and pre- At T = 0 K ) ρ = ρo ð4Þ
commercial stage. Due to the very small storage duration the
energy rating of the capacitors is only 0.001 to 10 kWh. For normal metals, their resistivity at T = 0 K becomes
However, the energy cost (300-2000 $/kWh) is very high for ρo and ρ(T) deviates linearly from T = 0 K. For supercon-
capacitor storage, which makes them default for their ductive materials the resistivity starts after the critical tem-
commercialization. perature, below this temperature the material shows zero
resistivity. The resistivity of the superconducting material is
given in Equations (4 and 5);

ρ = ρo + αT for T > T c K ð5Þ

At T < T c ) ρ = 0 ð6Þ

The magnetic energy stores in a coil is described as;

E = 0.5LI2, where, L is the inductance. A simple structure
of SMES connected with AC grid is shown in Figure 22. A
superconducting magnet is used to store the DC charge in
it. A transformer and rectifier system converts the AC cur-
rent to DC and vice versa. A very low temperature is
FIGURE 21 A DL super capacitor cell140 required to obtain the super conductive state, therefore a
22 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

separate cryostat with a refrigeration system is used to pro- TABLE 10 Comparison of specific energy and specific power
duce very low temperatures. The refrigeration system makes between SMES and batteries145
the SMES costly. Battery
The superconductors are classified on the basis of electri- Name SMES energy storage
cal sources, operating temperature, material and dielectric. Actual specific energy (Wh/kg) 1-2 10-200
On the root of material, they are divided in two types; type-I
Theoretical specific 1-10 10-200
and Type-II. Type-I superconductors are pure metals and energy (Wh/kg)
referred as soft superconductors. There are 27 pure metals
Actual specific power (kW/kg) 10–10 000 0.001-10
present in type-I form with critical temperature ranging from
Theoretical specific 10-100 000 0.001-10
Rhodium (Rh) at 0 K to Lead (Pb) at 7.193 K. Type-II
power (kW/kg)
superconductors are alloys and exhibit higher critical tem-
perature line Niobium titanium (NbTi) at 10 K. Depending
on the operating temperature and material the superconduc- high power density with small discharge time. Hence this
tors are divided into two major types, low temperature super- device cannot be said a high energy density device. The
conductors (LTSC) and high temperature superconductors comparison of SMES with battery energy storage on the
(HTSC).146,147 bases of practical and theoretical specific energy and power
LTSC is a metallic type series like Niobium titanium is shown in Table 10. It indicates that SMES has very low
(NbTi). Liquid Helium is used for cooling the LTSC. NbTi practical and theoretical specific energy (Wh/kg) as com-
shows superconductivity at 10
K (−263
C), but this low pared to batteries. They occupy vast power in a very small
temperature is challenging to obtain. LTSC based alloys are size as their practical and theoretical specific power (kW/kg)
easy to manufacture but the cost of liquid helium is very is very high as compared to batteries.
high.148 These types of superconductors are mostly used in
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) system.149 HTSC is 2.4 | Chemical energy storage
basically a nonmetal type substance like oxides of Bismuth
(Bi), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Copper (Cu), Oxygen The third type of ESS is the Chemical ESS, the energy is
(O), and so on. They are cooled by using Nitrogen in liquid stored in the form of chemical energy stored in different
form. These materials show superconductivity at a tempera- materials. It is further classified as hydrogen storage and
ture very higher than the LTSC around 90K (−183
C). biofuels.
There are many other components which determine the cost
of the system other than LTSC and HTSC. A SMES system 2.4.1 | Hydrogen storage
was installed in Alaska in 2000, having a capacity of
Energy can be stored and transported in the form of hydro-
1800 MJ stored energy.150 The SMES magnet maximum
gen. The electrical energy is utilized to decompose the water
operating current and coil field are 10 800 A, and 6.1 T,
into oxygen and hydrogen. These gases can be stored and
respectively. The cryogenic system consists of a liquid
transported and again combined to release the stored energy.
helium based system working at −268.7
C. SMES has very
Normally, oxygen is used from the air for combining them.
Hydrogen is stored in gaseous form (hydrogen pressuriza-
tion), liquid form and in metal-hydride form. In gaseous
form, hydrogen is stored in underground caverns like empty
NG reservoirs. The liquid form of hydrogen is difficult to
maintain due to low boiling point of hydrogen (20 K). It
requires a refrigeration system to maintain the cooling
requirement for storing.
The mature technologies for hydrogen storage are hydro-
gen pressurization and storage in metal-hydride form. Hydro-
gen is stored in reversible metal hydride form. These metal
hydride releases the absorb energy when required. The tech-
nologies for maintaining the liquid form of hydrogen and
absorption of hydrogen on carbon nanofibers are still in devel-
opment stages. The storage in gaseous form depends on the
FIGURE 22 Diagram of SMES system connected with electric high material permeability of hydrogen and their mechanical
145
AC Grid stability under extreme pressure. The steel tanks store
KHAN ET AL. 23 of 49

hydrogen at 200-250 bar, however the ratio of stored hydro- are suitable in applications like energy management, power
gen to weight is very small. Although composite fibers and quality, and transport sector.155 The major drawback of FC
aluminum liner tanks are being used to store hydrogen at near is very high cost which is more than 10 000 US$/kW.52
350 bar with higher ratio of stored hydrogen to weight. The They can provide storage for a long duration and a broad
high storage capacity can be obtained by storage pressure of range of cell types but the catalysts used in FCs are expen-
700 bar with inevitable supplementary energy requirements sive. A practical FC has an efficiency of around 50% and
for the compression.99 Research is underway for finding a typical cell voltage is 0.7 V. FCs can be classified on the
vessel to hold such high pressures of hydrogen for its storage. bases of electrolyte, fuel and oxidant, operating temperature,
The second mature approach is the use of metal hydride to application and chemical nature of the electrolyte.93
store hydrogen; the compounds are obtained through the On the basis of electrolyte used FCs are divided into five
direct reaction of certain metals or their alloys with hydrogen. categories; Phosphoric Acid FC (PAFC), Alkaline FC
The reactions for obtaining metal-hydrides are reversible and (AFC), Polymer Electrolyte Membrane FC (PEMFC), Mol-
can be replenished when required. These metal-hydrides can ten Carbonate FC (MCFCs), and Solid Oxide FC (SOFC).
be transported in conventional fuel tanks. The example of a Direct Menthol FC (DMFC) is also a modified version of
magnesium hydride is given below93; PEMFC. It uses menthol as fuel and pure oxygen as oxidant.
The PAFC, AFC, PEMFC, and DMFC works on low tem-
Charge perature and their operating temperature are given in Table
Mg2 Ni + 2H2 ƒƒƒ ƒ ðMg2 NiÞH4 + Heat
ƒ!
ƒƒƒ
Discharge 11. The operating temperature of MCFC and SOFC is
600o − 700oC and 600o − 1000oC.93
The major drawback of the metal-hydride is its low mass The world first test of a stand-alone wind energy system
absorption capacities. However, magnesium hydrides show integrated with hydrogen storage and fuel cell was developed
high mass absorption capacity. The containers need to be in Norway. The wind energy operated the electrolyzer, and
cooled using running water through pipes. Mostly earth hydrogen gas was produced. The stored hydrogen was used as
metals like lanthanum, nickel, magnesium, and aluminum a fuel in FC to produce electricity.161 Another biogas FC power
are used for metal-hydrides based hydrogen storage. The liq- plant was started in 2012 in California, it has a capacity of 2.8 MW
uefaction of hydrogen is somehow limited due to the cost of for delivering electricity and high-quality heat. Another trailer-
storage medium to handle such high pressures and the lower mounted regenerative FC was tested by US Naval Air Warfare
temperature for maintaining hydrogen in a liquid state. The Center Weapons Division (NAWCWD) in 2013, it uses solar
boiling point of hydrogen is 20K, hence it needs liquid nitro- energy to produce hydrogen. The SOFC is getting considerable
gen or liquid helium based cooling apparatus. This is how a attention as an emerging and alternative power source due to its
lot of energy is already being used for these storages yield- high efficiency and environment-friendly technology. For proper
ing a minimal amount of efficiency of this storage technique. commercial availability of SOFC based power systems, it is essen-
Another disadvantage of this approach is the self-discharge tial to decrease the operating temperature and its cost. Therefore,
of the liquid hydrogen from tanks, and it may reach almost researchers are focusing on lowering the operating temperature
3% daily and 100% in months.99 The largest grid connected and as well as its cost through investigation of new materials.162
projects of hydrogen storage are 6 MW Audi e-gas ESSs151 The current on-going hydrogen storage and FC projects
and 6 MW Energiepark Mainz, Germany.152,153 are conducted by ADLE163 (Switzerland), BOR4STORE
The stored hydrogen is utilized as a fuel in the FC along (Germany), IdealHy (Netherlands), Sapphire (Norway), and
with pure oxygen or air as oxidant. FC is an energy conver- SmartCat (France), and so on.164,165 The chemical reactions,
sion device which converts chemical energy of the fuel cell voltages, electrolyte, fuel and oxidant, operating tempera-
directly into electrical energy. It produces electricity by the ture, and current development of FCs are briefly presented in
continuous supply of fuel at anode side and oxidant at cath- Table 11.
ode side. It also requires a continuous removal of water,
spent oxidant, heat, and spent fuel.93,154 It is known as cell
2.4.2 | Biofuels
due to some similarities with primary cell. However, the
active materials are generally supplied from outside. The Biofuels are produced through a biological process rather than
major benefit of a fuel cell is the pollution free exhaust geological processes. Biomass is an organic matter obtained
which is water in case of (pure hydrogen fuel and pure oxy- from the residue of plants and animal dung.166 It is derived
gen oxidant) and if air is used as oxidant then nitrogen is from the biodegradable fraction of energy crops, the waste
also produced in spent air. However, in case of hydrocarbon matter from plants and animals. This biomass is used to pro-
fuel, CO2 is also produced, but no other relatively dangerous duce the biogas which can be used for domestic purpose
pollutant like NOx and SOx are not produced in FC.93 FCs or for can be converted through a generator to electricity.
24 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

TABLE 11 Characteristics of different fuel cells (FCs) and their development52,93,154,156

Application,
FC Fuel and Operating development, and
name Chemical reaction Ec (v) Electrolyte oxidant temperature issues
−1
PAFC Anode: H2 ! 2H + 2e
+
Fuel (pure H2) Low temperature Used in distributed
Cathode: 0.7 or 0.8 H3PO4 and O2 or air 150o − 200oC generation.157,158
1= O + 2H + + 2e −1 ! H O as oxidant Mature technology
2 2 2
Overall reaction: with high tolerance
H2 + 1=2O2 ! H2 O with impurities.
AFC Anode: H2 ! 2H+ + 2e−1 40 % KOH Fuel (pure H2) Low temperature Used in military, and
Cathode: and O2 or air 90oC space
1= O + 2H + + 2e −1 ! H O as oxidant applications.157,158
2 2 2
Overall reaction: Hydrogen FC (AFC,
H2 + 1=2O2 ! H2 O PEMFC, and
PAFC) have cost
disadvantage at
present times and
have relatively low
round trip
efficiency of
(20%-50%)154
PEMFC Anode: H2 ! 2H+ + 2e−1 1.23 Polystyrene Fuel (pure H2) Low Used as backup
Cathode: sulphonic acid and O2 or air temperature power and ESS
1= O + 2H + + 2e −1 ! H O as oxidant 40o − 60oC distributed
2 2 2
Overall reaction: generation.157,158
H2 + 1=2O2 ! H2 O
DMFC Anode: 1.18159 Polystyrene CH3OH and O2 Low Used in transportation
CH3OH + 2H2O ! CO2 sulphonic acid temperature and portable
+ 6H+ + 6e−1 50o − 120oC devices.157,158
Cathode: Toxic and flammable
3= O + 6H + + 6e −1 ! 3H O due menthol.
2 2 2
Overall reaction: A large quantity of
CH3 OH + 3=2O2 ! CO2 + H2 O expensive catalyst
(platinum) is
required.
MCFC Anode: 0.8 Molten carbonate Fuel High temperature Used in distribute
H2 + CO3−2 ! CO2 of alkali metal (H2 + CO) 600o − 700oC generation.157,158
+ H2O + 2e−1 and air as Demonstration cells
Cathode: oxidant with up-to 2 MW
CO + CO3 − 2 ! 2C2 O + 2e − 1 have been
O2 + 2C2 O + 4e − 1 ! 2CO3 − 2 produced.
Overall reaction:
H2 + CO + O2 ! CO2 + H2O
SOFC Anode: 0.63 Ceramics Fuel High With efficiency
H2 + O−2 ! H2O + 2e−1 (H2 + CO) temperature around 60%
Cathode: and air as 600o − 1000oC expected to be used
O2 + 4e−1 ! 2O−2 oxidant in power generation
Overall reaction: and heat generation
H2 + CO + O2 ! CO2 + H2O in industry.
Under R&D to lower
the operating
temperature and
cost through
investigation of
new materials.160
KHAN ET AL. 25 of 49

F I G U R E 2 3 Organization of latent
heat materials with solid-liquid phase
change materials168

Biofuels include ethanol, biodiesel, bio-alcohols, green diesel, is a best way to utilize solar energy in the form of heat. The
biofuel gasoline, vegetable oils, bio ether, biogas, syngas, and complete efficiency of such systems is almost 30% to 60%,
solid biomass. They also provide a relative different method whereas for only heat cycle its efficiency can be as high as
for storing energy in the form of these materials.167 70% to 90%.93 In addition to this, this is not a threat to the
environment and may have particular advantages for using
renewable energy for domestic and commercial buildings.
2.5 | Thermal energy storage
A typical solar hot heating system is used along with heat
The thermal energy storage means storing the thermal storage of water to be used in the time when the sun is not out
energy by heating or cooling a medium and utilizing this there. The schematic diagram of sensible heat storage using a
stored energy when needed. This stored energy can be used solar water heater is shown on Figure 25. This scheme is
for power generation by applying a Rankine cycle turbine known as passive heating scheme. The water is circulated in
with the system. Thermal energy storage can be further the loop naturally due to the thermosiphon action. Hence, it is
divided into three types; sensible heat, latent heat, and chem- also called a thermosiphon solar water heater. A water pump
ical reaction storage. The classification of phase change is also used when there is need to circulate large water or any
materials in thermal ESSs is illustrated in Figure 23. The other working fluid.93 The block diagram of solar sensible
installed operation capacities of thermal ESSs are shown in
Figure 24. The pie chart depicts that molten salt thermal
storage is mostly used for thermal energy storage with oper-
ation installed capacity of 2452 MW. The operation capaci-
ties for chilled water, heat thermal storage and ice storage is
142 MW, 117 MW, and 72 MW, respectively.26

2.5.1 | Sensible heat storage

Sensible heat storage (SHS) is done by storing heat energy
in any material depending on its heat capacity and change of
temperature of the material during the process of charging
and discharging. The main advantage of sensible heat stor-
age is that charging and discharging is completely reversible
and has unlimited life cycles. The heat energy is stored in
liquid, solid, and dual medium. The recovered heat/ cold can
be applied for electricity production using a Rankine heat
engine or for producing refrigeration. Energy input for such FIGURE 24 The grid connected operational capacity (MW) of
system is provided by either electricity or solar energy. This thermal energy systems26
26 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

energy stored by the virtue of phase change of any material

is known as latent heat storage. The thermal energy storage
densities of the phase change materials (PCMs) are quite
high as compared to the latent heat storage materials. How-
ever, there are some drawbacks of PCMs materials due to
low density change, thermal conductivity, and sub cooling
PCMs.171 The most commonly used PCMs are organic par-
affin wax, non paraffins, fatty acid, salt hydrates, eutectics,
polyalcohol, and cross linked polythene.
When a substance is converted from a solid phase to the
liquid phase, melting occurs and this absorbed heat is known
latent heat of fusion. Similarly, when the substance is
converted from liquid to gas phase at their boiling point, the
energy is needed to absorb is called latent heat of vaporiza-
FIGURE 25 Sensible heat storage in solar water heater93
tion. Apart from these phase changes which occurs from one
phase to another, energy can also be stored in solid to solid
heat storage system for a water pump is shown in Figure 26. in the form of lattice change, this transformation includes
It consists of three loops of heat flow. In solar loop heat the change of one solid into another crystalline form. This
energy is received by a moving refrigerant may be Water/CO2 type of change has very small latent heat and shows small
or any other natural or synthetic refrigerant. In second loop volume changes. Solid to gas and liquid to gas conversion is
this heat is utilized by using synthetic refrigerants or natural not feasible in spite of a large latent heat. Such large volume
refrigerant. The turbine produces electric power and it will change makes this not feasible for energy storage applica-
drive the water pump, the cooling is provided to the condenser tions. The solid to liquid transformation, it involves storage
from the pumped water. The feed pump drives the refrigerant in the form of salt hydrate. There are some inorganic salts
in the cycle. which are soluble in water and form a crystalline salt
The properties of SHS mediums are described in Table hydrates. Some heat transfer properties of phase change
12. The SHS is further divided in underground thermal materials with are given in Table 13. The temperature verses
energy storage, aquifer thermal energy storage, borehole energy input graph is illustrated in Figure 27(left) Latent and
thermal energy storage, and molten salt storage. The molten sensible heat storage variation with temperature is illustrated
salt storage and aquifer thermal storages are the most widely in Figure 27(right). There are many companies in the world
used SHS technologies. The details of these two SHS tech- which are making the PCMs Rubitherm GmbH, Germany173
niques along with hot water storage and cold water storage EPS Ltd., UK,102 TEAP, India,174 and Cristopia Energy Sys-
are presented in Table 21. tems, France.175

3 | ENERGY TRANSPORTATION
2.5.2 | Latent heat storage
This energy storage is based on the amount of heat released Energy transportation refers to transfer energy from source
or absorbed during the phase change of any material. The to the consumer. Walking and swimming were the early

FIGURE 26 Rankine cycle based water pumping system93

KHAN ET AL. 27 of 49

TABLE 12 The properties of SHS mediums169,170

Carbonate Nitrate Nitrite Silicone Synthetic Mineral

Material name Liquid Na salts salt salt oil oil oil
Temperature cold (oC) 270 450 265 250 300 250 200
o
Temperature hot ( C) 530 850 565 450 400 350 300
Average density ðkg=m3 Þ 850 2100 1870 1825 900 900 770
Average thermal conductivity ðW=mKÞ 71 2.0 0.52 0.57 0.10 0.11 0.12
 
Average heat capacity kJ=kgK 1.3 1.8 1.6 1.5 2.1 2.6 2.6

Volume specific heat capacity ðkWht=m3 Þ 80 430 250 152 52 57 55

 
Material cost per kg US$=kg 2.00 2.40 0.50 1.00 5.00 3.00 0.30


Material cost per kWht US$=kWht 21.0 11.0 3.7 12.0 80.0 43.0 4.2

ways to transport the things from source to consumer, even- and “C” represents the storage and consumer, respectively.
tually animals made it easy. Horses and camels became Each possible option to transfer fossil fuel from origin to
domestic between 2000 and 4000 BC. Soon after boats and consumer using energy transport system is discussed below.
wheels were the source of transportation and in early 20th
century, with the development of internal combustion engine
road transportation became easy.176 Primary sources of 3.1 | Natural gas transportation
energy are coal, oil, and NG and all these three formed NG is a key part of the world supply of vitality. It is one of
before the time of dinosaurs that is millions of years ago and the cleanest, most secure, and most valuable of all vitality
known as carboniferous period. It got name from the carbon sources. NG is dreary and scentless in its unadulterated
that is the main constituent of all fossil fuels. It was a contin- shape. It is framed fundamentally of methane; it can likewise
uous process of piling up buried plants, converted to peat incorporate ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and certain
and eventually the fossil fuels.177 polluting influences. NG is an energy carrier and its demand
The primary energy resources are usually away from the is high because it is a clean carrier of energy as compared to
end consumer. Hence, a transportation model is necessary oil or coal. Its density is very low so it is very difficult to
for describing the transportation of energy. A general layout transport NG economically, it is first compressed and then
of transportation is shown in Figure 28. “PR” refers to pri- transported. When it is compared with the crude oil its trans-
mary resource of energy that is coal, oil, gas, or else. “T1” portation cost is 10 times more.178
and “T2” represent loading and unloading terminals, respec- There exists mainly two common ways to transport the
tively. “TS” refers to transport system that is trucks, rails, gas liquefied natural gas (LNG) and compressed natural gas
ships, barges, pipeline and transmission lines whereas “S” (CNG). Mostly, CNG is transported by pipelines, whereas

TABLE 13 Heat transfer properties of phase change materials (PCMs) used for latent heat storage

Melting point Heat of fusion Density

Material Chemical composition Type o
C kJ= kg= 3
kg m

Sodium sulfate Na2SO4  10H2O Salt hydrate 32.4 251 1534

Sodium chloride-sodium sulfate NaCl  Na2SO4  10H2O Salt hydrate
Lauric acid C12H24O2 Fatty acid 44.2 211.6 1007
Sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3  5H2O Salt hydrate 48 209 1666
Calcium chloride CaCl3  6H2O Salt hydrate 29-39 177 1634
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3  10H2O Salt carbonate 34 247 1442
Sodium silicate Na2SiO3  5H2O Inorganic 72.20 267 1450
Disodium phosphate Na2HPO4  12H2O Salt hydrate 36 265 1552
Paraffin 14-carbons C12H26 Organic 5.5 228
Paraffin 34-carbons C34H70 Organic 75.9 269
28 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

F I G U R E 2 7 Temperature vs energy input graph for phase changes of material (left) and latent and sensible heat storage variation with
temperature (right)170,172

LNG is also transported by ships. Other uncommon trans- market. NG pipelines make a huge network of pipelines
portation forms are natural gas hydrates (NGH) carried by called transport lines.181 For large distances CNG is trans-
tanks and through wires by generating electricity. Open sea ported through pipelines at high speed of 20 m/second. Pres-
transportation is favorable for international transportation sure for the undersea pipelines is 15 MPa, whereas for
and pipeline is favorable for domestic use. NG transportation overland pipelines it is 10 MPa.182 It means huge compres-
is difficult as compared to other conventional fuels because sor stations are required for the efficient transportation of
of its physical nature; it requires huge pressures and very CNG through pipelines.
low temperature to increase its density.178,179 Table 14 Gathering lines which collect the gas from wells at any
shows the different ways to transport the NG energy from pressure, fed it to transport lines. Distribution lines are fed
source to destination it also shows the preferable mode of by the transport lines which further transport gas to con-
transportation in terms of distance in km and capacity in sumers. Compression stations are required all along the pipe-
bcm. It shows that bulk amount of NG is transported through lines, as the pressure of NG drops because of friction. These
LNG and pipeline, whereas pipelines can carry bulk amount stations are installed along the pipelines after every 56 to
for short distance preferably. Each mode of transportation of 160 km. Energy for the compression can be obtained from
NG has it own significance as discussed below. the NG itself or externally (electricity). Compressors are
very important part of the pipelines and leakage rates are
also taken into account while doing the calculations. Many
3.1.1 | Pipeline transportation
overland pipelines are made up of the X70 grade steel with
The majority of the NG in the world is transported through 70 bars operational pressure. If high grade material
pipelines. Distance for pipeline transportation is 100 to X80/X100 is used, the high pressure could achieve to trans-
1000 km and capacity is 0.1 to 10 bcm.180 NG which is port the large volume which reduces the cost of pumping. At
extracted from the wells is transported through pipelines; high pressure and low temperature hydrates of NG can
either directly from the wells to field or from the port to formed. Hydrates are usually ice like solid which can affect

FIGURE 28 Energy transport

system model
KHAN ET AL. 29 of 49

TABLE 14 Capacity-distance comparison of different modes of Evaporation of NG occurs here, as thermal insulation of the
transport of natural gas (NG)180 storage vessel is insufficient. This evaporated gas is again
Mode of transport Capacity (bcm) Distance(km) fed to the NG network.186
Construction time of liquefied plant is 4 years and life
Pipeline 0.1-10.0 100-1000
span is 25 years. Cost breakdown of the LNG chain includes
LNG 0.1-10.0 1000-10 000
15% to 20% for production and exploration and 30% to 45%
CNG 0.1-1.0 100-5000 for liquefaction. Shipping costs are around 30%, whereas
NGH 0.1–1.0 100-5000 15% to 25% is used for distribution. Cost of newly built
Gas to liquid (GTL) 0.1-1.0 5000-10 000 150 000 m3 fleet is US$ 254 million. The operating cost of
Gas to wire (GTW) 0.1–1.0 100-5000 regasification plant is 4% of the capital cost per year and
process losses are 2.5%.185,187 The complete LNG transpor-
tation is demonstrated in Figure 29.
the steady flow of NG through pipelines so these are highly
undesirable. The first pipeline from Germany to Norway
built in 1996 was also made up of X80 grade steel.183,184 3.1.3 | Compressed natural gas transportation
Table 15 shows the typical data for pipeline transportation
NG can be transported as CNG, this transportation is chosen
that is lifetime, average cost per km, and energy requirement
for 100 to 5000 km with 0.1 to 1.0 bcm capacity.180 NG is
for compressor station.
stored at very high pressure to make the term CNG that is,
rich gases are stored at 1800 pound per square inch gauge
3.1.2 | Liquefied natural gas transportation (psig), whereas lean gases are stored at 3000 to 3600 psig.
For long distances and bulk quantity NG is transported in Rich gases composed of long chain hydrocarbons whereas
the form of LNG where LNG is the liquid form of the NG. It lean gases are usually methane and ethane.178
involves three major stages liquefaction, transportation, and CNG is also used as a substitute of the transportation fuel
re-gasification. The first step in liquefaction is to remove the in some countries. There are two common ways to transport
impurities like sulfur, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. CNG, first by coselle and second by long large pipes.
After the removal of contaminants, NG is cooled at around Coselle consists of a large number of small wrapped piped
−162
C. This process required energy, which is usually in a circle. The makers introduce the coselle of 9.6 miles
given by the NG itself.186 LNG is transported at atmospheric long, 11 ft high, 50 ft outer, and 10 ft inner diameter.188 It
pressure and 112 K operating temperature. NG is first lique- contained 3 million (standard cubic foot) scf of gas at 3000
fied in plants, compressed at about 7 MPa, and cooled using psig but it was very uneconomical to transport this huge
a refrigeration cycle.185 coselle with the gas.188 In second method CNG is trans-
The specially designed shipping fleets are used to carry ported via long pipes. Votrans has a special ships design for
the LNG. These ships had steam turbine systems and heavy these pipes. The gas must be dried, compressed, and chilled
fuel oil is being used. Steam propulsion systems can be eas- for this purpose. Compressors and chillers are also required
ily used for LNG transportation, but this technology has here, but these are less expensive than LNG. There is no
lower efficiency and higher carbon emissions than diesel need of regasification at the terminal end, so transportation
propulsion systems. It is expected to be equipped more fleets cost as compare to LNG reduced.189 Large amount of CNG
with diesel propulsion systems and the low speed diesel that is 500 million scf can be transported to markets with
engines also had a regasification plant in it hence diesel less cost as compare to LNG. CNG ships cannot be as large
based system is more efficient. Another option is to use dual as that of LNG and it is also not so beneficial. CNG is
fuel engines either diesel or steam.185 It is unloaded at the mainly being used for the vehicles, but can also transport for
receiving end and regasified using regasification plants. At small distance for domestic use.178
regasification unit, for every 1 m3 of LNG 600 m3 of NG is
recovered. Cost of regasification plant depends on the site 3.1.4 | Natural gas hydrates transportation
and affected by type and capacity of the storage vessel.
NG can also be transported as natural gas hydrates (NGH), it
TABLE 15 Typical data for pipeline transportation185 is also known as gas to solid conversion. This method is not
frequently used even it is more efficient as compared to
Lifetime 30-50 years
LNG. The main reason is that the infrastructure for the LNG
Average cost per km US$ 194 million
already exists. NGH is formed when some water is mixed
Energy requirement 1.8%-2.7% of the with the NG to form a stable crystalline structure.190 A cage
for compressor station transported energy
like structure is formed with hydrogen in which gas
30 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

FIGURE 29 The LNG transportation

molecules get trapped. These are known as clathrates191 and lines. If the electricity is generated from the other conven-
Ice like crystals are obtained.192,193 These structures decom- tional fuels and compare it with the NG then results show that
pose very slowly so it can be transported by ships to the CO2 emission per unit of electricity generated are half as
markets. NGH involves three stages; production, transporta- compare to others. It is not advisable to make very long trans-
tion and regasification. The production of hydrates is carried mission lines because of high losses. If the lines being rep-
out at pressures greater than 50 bars and temperatures laced by DC, still there are losses associated with the
approximately 10
C. Water and NG like methane, ethane conversion stations.196
and propane are combined at 50 to 90 bar and 5 to 15
C and
it can be carried out at platform, floater or on land.194 Trans-
3.2 | Oil transportation
portation is carried out by insulated bulk carriers at low tem-
perature and pressure and hydrates are loaded with the help Oil rich countries transport the crude oil from production to
of conveyors.194 In regasification, slurry is melted back to refineries and then export to the other countries. It also
gas with controlled heating using water. NGH cannot be includes the distribution of oil within the country. Oil is
transported through pipelines because there is the chance of transported to processing facilities and from there to end
clogging. It is also the safety hazard as LNG is transported users by pipelines, truck or rail. Oil logistics cover 5% to
through pipelines. Typically a LNG ship carries 125 000 m3 10% of total oil value in market.197 There exist mainly two
whereas a NGH ship carries 250 000 m.3189 Ships could be ways to transport the oil. One is on land through pipeline,
of bulk capacity as compared to LNG because there is no trucks, and rail and the second way is open sea transport
need of specific design. As NGH can be transported at nor- through oil tankers. Most of the international trade is done
mal temperature and pressure and there is no need of huge by the second method. Pipelines mostly used for the domes-
compression stations and regasification plants. It is more tic distribution of oil within the country. Rail and trucks also
economical to transport NGH as compare to LNG.195 used for the short distance transportation of refined petro-
leum products. Large tankers are preferred over the small
tankers because they use less fuel per km and hence emit
3.1.5 | GtL/GtW transportation
less CO2.185,198 Different transportation methods of oil are
NG is converted to liquid as syncrude methanol or ammonia discussed below.
and transported as it is and this method refers to gas to liquid
(GtL) transportation, hence a method to transport gas energy
3.2.1 | Open sea transport
as liquid. Methane is mixed with the steam and converted to
syngas with an appropriate catalyst. Syngas is converted to Oil tankers for open sea transport measured in dead weight
liquid using the Fisher Tropch process in the presence of a ton (DWT). DWT is the total weight of cargo, passengers,
catalyst as iron or cobalt or by oxygenation of the syngas and ballast water, and crew.199 Large tankers usually carry the
transported by ships. The produced liquid is used as lubricant, crude oil whereas tankers less than 100 000 DWT can trans-
motor oil, chemical feedstock, or LPG substitute.196 Another port both crude oil and refined oil. Mostly known tankers
method to transport gas energy is through wire that is to con- are Panamax, Aframax, Suezmax, very large crude carrier,
vert it into electricity and it is term as gas to wire (GtW) and ultra large crude carrier and Table 16 shows the defini-
transportation. It is not compulsory to transport the gas, as tion of these oil tankers. A Large tanker uses less fuel per
power plant can be installed anywhere and then energy can ton-km for example a 200k DWT tanker consumes 42% less
be transported to the user via overhead/underground, AC/DC fuel per ton-km as compared to 75k and 120k DWT.185
KHAN ET AL. 31 of 49

TABLE 16 Oil tankers categories185 and Novorossiysk pipelines have a capacity of 900 000 and
100 000 b/d, respectively. The speed of the oil flow is 1 to
Ship definitions DWT
6 m/second, the pump stations make this speed as constant
Panamax 50 000 - 80 000
as possible. A pump station is installed after every 32 to
Aframax 80 000 - 119 000 160 km depends upon the design, capacity, and the topogra-
Suezmax 120 000 - 150 000 phy of the pipeline.185 These pumps are driven by the
Very large crude carrier 150 000 - 320 000 motors and the energy consumed for the pumping is 0.5% of
Ultra large crude carrier >320 000 the energy transported. The more pumping is required in the
cold regions as compare to the warm regions. The lifetime
of the oil pipeline is 25 to 40 years.185 The cost of pipelines
Usage of the tanker depends on the speed, loading capacity, varies with the distance, as the US$/km is less for long dis-
and time of service. The typical speed of an oil tanker is tances as compare to the short distances.
14knot = 7.2 m/second and loading-unloading time is
24 hours. The average age of oil tankers decreased in the last
decades and price of a newly built tanker increased. Average 3.2.3 | Rail and truck transport
age of the oil tanker is 17.6 years, lifetime is 29 years and a Oil trucking is another method to transport the oil from the
tanker can carry 6.7 tonnes per DWT.185 Table 17 shows the wells to refineries and as well to the local distribution. This
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of oil tankers. Small method has an advantage that destination could be any-
size oil tankers have more emissions and high fuel consump- where. Any other method of transportation needs capital
tion as compare to large size. Hence oil tankers are prefera- investment and time to build whereas trucking is mobile
ble for long distance. and could be used anywhere to transport material. This
method is only advantageous if the reserves of oil are short
3.2.2 | Pipeline transport lived. The size of the tank truck varies from 1900 L to
53 200 L.203 Energy consumed for trucking is 3.2%,
Pipelines are the most economical and efficient method of whereas for railway is 1% of the total energy transported.
transportation and are more suited for long distance transpor- Another method of transportation of oil is railcar, it has a
tation, for example, across the continents.200 Oil pipelines capacity of 1.31 million liters. The railway could be used
include gathering, transportation, and distribution pipelines. A for long or short distance. The combination of both truck
gathering line connects to the flow line, which is attached to and rail is known as flexible pipeline as there is no need of
the well head. Gathering lines move the produced product huge investment to transport the oil initially. If one wishes
from the production area to the point of collection, such as to replace the 150 000 b/day pipeline with train, then 75 cars
processing facilities or connection with other, larger pipelines, each of 2000 barrel tanks are required. Loading, unloading,
commonly known as transmission pipelines.201 Processing and extra labor is required in this process. So these methods
and refining turn the crude oil into a presentable form and are only beneficial for short term.203
then it is changed into marketable product. In the case of
crude oil, these products include heating oil, gasoline for use
in vehicles, jet fuel, and diesel. Oil refining processes include
3.3 | Coal transportation
distillation, catalytic reforming, catalytic cracking, and isom- Coal is the third most important energy carrier, against liquid
erization. Oil pipelines are usually made up of steel or plastic fuels and NG. Global consumption of coal was 30% that is
materials and having an internal diameter of 4 to 48 in.202 4.01 billion Tonne Oil Equivalent (toe) in 2014 and in 2035 it
The capacity of oil pipelines varies with respect to the would reach to 4.27 billion toe.204 Coal reserves exist in
structure of the pipeline. For example, Norwegian pipeline 70 countries, but mainly coal reserves are covered by USA
(27%), Russia (18%), and China (11%).205 Coal is categorized
TABLE 17 Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of oil into four types. Anthracite (86%-97% carbon), bituminous
tankers185 (45%-86% carbon), sub-bituminous (35%-45% carbon), and
lignite (35%-45% carbon).204 It could be the substitute to the
Average Average Fuel CO2
Size weight distance consumption emissions oil, if coal to liquid industry develops. The main issue in coal
(kDWT) (kDWT) (km) (gr/t-km) (gr/t-km) mining and transportation is GHG emissions. With improved
>200 303 9000 2.2 3.8
carbon capture technologies, it could be beneficial for the eco-
nomic growth of a country. Transportation of coal involves
120-200 155 5500 2.3 4.1
the transfer of coal from mines to the loading point to the des-
75-120 98 2000 3.8 6.6
tination. Emission factor depends on the load, empty running,
32 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

and energy efficiency. The environmental implications of coal the downstream. After every 80 to 100 miles apart, there is
are noise, traffic hazards, safety, pollution, and solid waste. requirement of the pumping station.214 Figure 30 shows the
Fixed emission factors for various models are of transporta- schematic diagram of coal slurry pipeline. These pipelines
tion are discussed by the authors.206 Coal can be transported are usually buried two to four feet below the land to mini-
by railways, by barrages on inland waterways and by large mize the noise. The major factors affecting the throughput of
vessels through oceans such as Panamax or Capesize Vessel. this system are: length of the pipeline, diameter of pipe,
Coal can also be shipped/pipelined as mixture of coal and velocity of slurry, and concentration of solid coal. Slurry
water known as slurry. For short distances heavy trucks are pipeline can range up to 48 in. diameter and length range
used to transport coal.207 can be 100 to 1200 miles.215 This system is advantageous
Transportation of coal is carried out by the five methods; because it can move the huge amount of coal over the long
(a) railroad trains, (b) pipelines, (c) inland waterways/barges, distance.
(d) highway trucks, (e) Long distance electrical transporta-
tion, and (f) Maritime transportation.206 The detail about
3.3.3 | Barge/Maritime transportation
each type is explained here.
Barges are employed there if the country has some inland
waterways. Coal is moved within the country through open
3.3.1 | Railroad trains transportation
hopper barges. The capacity of these barges ranges from
Railroad trains are used for short as well long distance 1000 to 3000 tonnes with an average of 1500 net tonnes. A
depending upon the infrastructure. Mainly there are two types number of barges are places in series usually 10 to 14 to
of trains used for the transportation of coal. General purpose transport coal. A shipment could contain 30 000 to nnes of
freight trains and specially designed units of trains for coal coal with 10 barges for a haul distance of 480 miles with
transportation. Freight trains can carry 1500 to 6000 net 6 miles per hour speed.216 Terminals usually have the
tonnes of coal; on average its 3000 net tonnes. The haul dis- facilities for loading and unloading of barges. Coal from
tance for these types of trains is 100 to 500 miles with an the barges can be unloaded by buckets or conveyor belt sys-
average speed of 20 to 70 miles per hour.208 Specially tem. For upstream movement the fuel requirement could be
designed trains have fixed origin and destination. These are 800 to 1100 Btu per net ton-mile, whereas for downstream
cheaper trains with the increased speed. These trains also it could be 300 to 500 British thermal unit (Btu per ton-
known as unit trains and they could carry 7500 to 12 500 net mile. Main losses in barge transport are dust particles emit-
tonnes per trip, with the haul distance of 250 to 2000 miles. ted during loading and unloading.216 The emission factors
Speed of unit train is normally 30 to 40 miles per hour. The for inland waterways (g CO2/tonne-km) are summarized in
average gross weight of the general purpose train is Table 18. The average emission factor for barge transporta-
75 tonnes, whereas for the unit car is 125 to 135 tonnes.208 tion is 31 g CO2/tonne-km. Emission factor is 16 g CO2/
The average emission factor for rail transportation is 22 g tonne-km for short sea shipping, 8.4 g CO2/tonne-km for
CO2/tonne-km. Emission factor of electric trains is less than deep sea container shipping and 5 g CO2/tonne-km for deep
diesel trains for example 38 g CO2/tonne-km for diesel trains sea tanker.209 Different maritime vessels listed in Table 19.
and 19 g CO2/tonne-km for electric trains.209
3.3.4 | Highway truck transportation
3.3.2 | Coal pipeline transportation
A small amount of coal can be transported by roads. Regular
Coal pipelines can be categorized as slurry and log pipe- highway trucks can move 15 to 30 tonnes of coal. The capac-
lines.210,211 Slurry pipelines use a mixture of pulverized coal ity of large off-road trucks is 100 to 200 tonnes. Trucks are
and liquid. The ratio of coal to liquid is usually 1 by 1. Coal usually diesel powered and this mean of transport is more
logs pipelines use the logs of the coal that has been com- easy to use and could be used wherever roads are constructed.
pressed 5 to 10% less than the diameter of the pipeline. On average, fuel consumption of highway transportation is
Length of the logs could be twice of the diameter of the 2500 Btu per ton-mile, whereas for the off-road diesel truck is
pipeline and the ratio of coal to liquid here is 3-4 to 1.212 1900 Btu per ton-mile.216 Trucks are only used for small dis-
The longest slurry pipeline is owned by United States which tances. Major drawbacks are damaging of roads, higher oper-
is 273 miles long.213 In this pipeline, coal is first grinded by ating cost, and coal dust particles during loading and
crushing and pulverization. Coal is then mixed with the liq- unloading. Coal also escapes during the movement of trucks,
uid phase which could be water, methanol, or crude oil. as trucks are usually uncovered. Diesel fuel also adds pollut-
These pipelines can be circulating or noncirculating. It ants to the environment.216 The average emission factor for
required slurry preparation at the upstream and filtration at truck transportation is 62 g CO2/tonne-km.209 The emission
KHAN ET AL. 33 of 49

F I G U R E 3 0 One way coal

slurry pipeline flow diagram214

factors for trucks with different payload and percentage capac- greater than 300 miles.208 Worldwide power generation by
ity are presented in Table 20. coal, oil, and gas is 38.4%, 23.2%, and 3.7%, respectively.217

3.3.5 | Long distance electrical transmission 4 | ASSESSMENT AND

COMPARISON OF ENERGY
Another method to transport the coal to the destination is STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
first to convert it into electricity through coal fired power
plants and then transmit it as high voltage AC or DC. Due to The applications of ESSs are assessed, and comparison has
lack of technology development and complexities of conver- been made on the factors like development status, power
ting stations high voltage AC (HVAC) is preferred. These and energy ratings, cost, efficiency, energy density, lifetime,
high voltage lines generate electrical fields adjacent to the
wires. Long tower usually 200 to 300 ft tall are installed to TABLE 19 Emission factors for maritime vessels209
reduce it. Ozone is also generated and energy loss of 1% per
Emission factor
mile also occurs. Long transmission lines are less efficient Vessel type (g CO2/tonne-km)
than other modes of transportation of coal for distance
Bulk ships

TABLE 18 Emission factors for inland waterways (g CO2/tonne- Small tanker (844 tonnes) 20
209
km) Large tanker (18 371 tonnes) 5

Barge type Upstream Downstream Canal Deep-sea tanker (120 000 tonnes) 5

Container Small (solid) bulk vessel (1720 tonnes) 11

Large 19.6 10.2 44.5 Container vessels

Medium 28.3 14.7 17.4 Small container vessel (2500 tonnes) 5-13

Small 63.4 31.3 - Larger container vessel (20 000 tonnes) 5-11

Tank (50% load factor) Aver. deep-sea container 8.6

vessel 8.4 BSR/clean
1750 t 57.7 22.3 31.1 Cargo, with 11 tonne load/twenty-foot
2500 t 46 18.1 25.8 equivalent unit (TEU)
34 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

TABLE 20 Emission factors for trucks (g CO2/tonne-km)209 the initial R&D demonstration phase and are in commercial
stage. However, the grid connected large scale applications
Payload 0% 10% 20% 30%
do not exist for these applications. However, these technolo-
10 81 89 99 111
gies have a great potential for grid connected large scale
20 48 52 57 63 applications in near future.
28 40 43 47 51
29 40 42 46 50
4.1.4 | R&D demonstration precommercial
environmental effects of ESSs, storage duration, and The FC, SMES, and capacitor storage are in R&D demon-
response time. The general characteristics of different energy stration and at their pre-commercial stages. The SMES tech-
storage methods are summarized in Table 21 and Table 22. nology has been developed up-to 10 MW and it has a
The comparative review for each factor is presented in fol- potential to increase to 2000 MW in the future.155 H2 stor-
lowing sub-sections. age for FC is also in their developing stages with some prod-
ucts have been marketed. But, H2 storage for vehicle
applications is still in its developing stage.
4.1 | Development status
The ESSs can be categorized into four categories on the 4.2 | Storage duration and response time
basis of their development status.
The current developed ESSs are broadly classified in three
types on the basis of their storage time. These are short term
4.1.1 | Matures storage (STS), medium term storage (MTS), and long term
PHS, lead acid, and Li-ion batteries are considered as mature storage (LTS).218 The storage duration for LTS, MTS, and
energy storage devices. Lead acid battery is the oldest battery STS is around an hour-months, minutes-days, and second-
and widely used in vehicles starting battery for many years. minutes, respectively. The LTS storage includes PHS, CAES,
The other common uses are with standalone UPS system and flow batteries, hydrogen storages, FCs, and molten salt energy
as a backup for equipment on electric power plants. The other storage. The MTS storage devices are underground aquifer
mature technologies like Li-ion battery and PHS have been thermal storage, lead acid, Ni-Cd, and Li-ion batteries. The
used for over 45 and 55 years, respectively. Apart from grid STS technologies are hot water storage, cold water storage,
connected applications, these batteries have widespread use in SMES, capacitors, flywheel, NaS, and ZEBRA batteries. The
vehicles, UPS, toys, laptops, mobiles, and grid stations so on. DES technology is mainly considered for electricity stored in
batteries which are used for distributed generation in a grid
with renewable energy technologies.
4.1.2 | Developed The ESS can provide number of uses depending upon the
Flywheel, D-CAES, Ni-Cd, NaS, VRB, ZEBRA batteries, duration of providing storage. In terms of power quality, the
cold water storage, molten salt, and aquifer thermal storage ESS with high cycle stability and short duration at high
are the developed technologies. The CAES, molten salt power output is required. For time shifting, ESS is required
storage, and flywheel has a significantly large grid con- for long duration like many hours. The cost of electricity
nected energy storage capacity. Although, all of these ESSs generation is reduced by storing electricity at off-peak time,
are developed and commercially available, but, the large and utilizing this stored energy at peak times. If the gap in
scale grid connected capability still need some more trails demand for peak and off-peak is very large, the benefit of
and reliability. They are used in grid with electrical utilities storing energy is also larger. This is how energy storage
and industries in some places, however, they are not much helps to compensate the demand in off-peak and peak-hours
mature to be used all over the world without any future by providing the time shift ability to the electrical supply
improvements. utility. Many electrical utilities have constructed PHS and
have started installations of large scale batteries at substa-
tions. The type of application on the basis of duration and
4.1.3 | Research and development (R&D)
frequency of use of ESS are demonstrated in Figure 31. The
demonstration commercial
electricity supply reserves are needed of 1 time in a day or
The applications of ESSs whose commercial availability month and for very small to large time.
have been started, but they are still in the research and devel- The response time of different ESS is categorized in three
opment (R&D) phase for improvements. The metal air bat- categories; millisecond (ms), seconds-minutes (sec-min) and
tery, hydrogen storage, ZBB, and PSB have passed through some minutes (min). The flywheel, Lead acid, Li-ion, NaS,
KHAN ET AL. 35 of 49

F I G U R E 3 1 The use of ESS in grids,

depending on duration of use and
frequency219

ZEBRA, VRB, ZBB, PSB, metal air battery, SMES and applications.220 The major requirements for any ESS to be
super capacitors have response time in milliseconds. The used in transportation (electric cars, bus, and other transpor-
hydrogen storage and FCs have response time in seconds to tation medium) are high energy density and specific energy.
minutes. The large ESSs like PHS, CAES and flywheel have The most suitable ESSs for these applications are conven-
large response time in several minutes. Thermal energy stor- tional batteries, FCs and metal air batteries.
age store thermal energy and therefore cannot be represented
in terms of response time of electricity production.
4.4 | Cost
The capital cost of any project is the most important factor
4.3 | Power and energy ratings
for it commercialization. Basically, energy storage is
4.3.1 | Load management required to overcome the high cost of fuel used in peak-hour
time. Therefore, a very high cost of ESS is not considered a
The peak load demand is addressed by the high power rating
significant solution. The capital cost in $/kW and $/kWh are
ESSs which can operate for several hours. High power rating
with long duration like PHS and CAES used as load man- the cost in US$ per unit power and energy. The cost per unit
agement for load leveling, ramping/load following and as energy is shown in Table 21 are divided by the storage effi-
supply reserve. Flywheel, large scale batteries, SMES, FC ciency to obtain the cost per output. The cost of mainte-
and capacitor storage can be used for small scale storage nance, running costs, disposal, and operational costs are not
reserve with a capacity of (10-100 MW). included due to the nonavailability of data for evolving
technologies.
The PHS, NaS, FC, Li-ion, ZBB, VRB, and PSB have
4.3.2 | Power quality high cost ($/kW). However, PHS, CAES, metal air battery,
Application with fast response time and STS or MTS duration aquifers thermal, and molten salt thermal storage are in low
are used for power quality improvement. Flywheel, batteries, range in term of cost ($/kW). The high energy density
SMES, and capacitors have response time in milliseconds (Wh/L) with low cost ($/kW) is the key feature of the metal
(ms), hence they are suitable for power quality applications. air battery. However, they are still in R&D demonstration
stages and have a low cycle life.
CAES and aquifer underground thermal storage have the
4.3.3 | Distributed energy system lowest energy cost ($/kWh). PHS has an edge over batteries
All batteries, flow batteries, FC, and metal air battery are and flow batteries due to comparatively low cost. However,
used at both load and supply ends. These ESSs have very this difference is decreasing in recent years.52 The flywheel
fast response time (ms) as well as relatively long storage energy, SMES, and capacitor storage has low cost in term of
duration (up-to several hours) are suitable for bridging power, and high in energy cost, more suitable for power
power. The suitable power ratings for these applications are quality and voltage regulation, and so on. However, due to
100 kW to 10 MW. the short storage time they lack in cost per kWh and there-
fore expensive for long term energy storage and cannot be
used as spinning reserve and load leveling, and so on. The
4.3.4 | Transportation applications
parameters like plant location, time of construction, size of
The ESS with power ratings up-to 50 kW and storage dura- plant and innovation in technology can affect the cost and it
tion of seconds-hours can be used for transportation can be different from the estimated costs in Table 21.
36 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

TABLE 21 General characteristics of different energy storage methods

Power rating Energy rating

Capacity Technical Efficiency (MW/otherwise (MWh/otherwise Storage
ESS type (MW)26 maturity59 range (%) mentioned) mentioned) duration
Mechanical
energy storage
PHS 169 557 Mature 65-85 100–5000 1000+ LTS
CAES 406.96
D-CAES Developed 40-60 5-300+ 1000+ LTS
A-CAES R&D Demonstration 75-95 0.1-10 MW small 1-10 MWh small LTS
Pre-commercial 100+ MW large 100+ mwh large
Flywheel energy storage 931 Developed 75-95 0.1-10 0.01-5 STS
Electro-chemical
energy storage (ECES)
Batteries
energy storage
Lead-acid 68.173 Mature 70-90 1 kW up-to 50 MW 0.1-100 MTS, DES
Ni-Cd 30.385 Developed 60-73 10 kW up-to 40 MW 0.01-1500 kWh MTS, DES
Li-ion 1629.367 Mature 85-95 0.1-50 0.01-500 kWh MTS, DES
NaS Na based Developed 70-90 50 kW up-to 0.01 kWh-100 MWh STS, DES
201.315 50 MW
ZEBRA Developed 85-90 1-1000 kW 0.12-5 MWh STS, DES
Metal Air 15.987 R&D Demonstration 50 0-10 kW LTS
Commercial
Flow batteries 71.87
VRB Developed 60-85 5-7000 kW 10-10 000 kWh LTS
ZBB R&D Demonstration 60-75 25-2000 kW 50-4000 kWh LTS
Commercial
PSB R&D Demonstration 1–15 0.01-10+ LTS
Commercial
Chemical
energy storage
Hydrogen storage 18 R&D Demonstration 30–50 0.1-1000+ 100-1000+ LTS
Commercial
Fuel Cell (FC) R&D Demonstration 50 0-50 LTS
Commercial
SMES R&D Demonstration 90-95 10-10 000 kW 0.1–100 kWh STS
Pre-commercial
Capacitor storage 30.9 R&D Demonstration 90-95 1-10 000 kW 0.001-10 kWh STS
Pre-commercial
Thermal energy storage
Hot water storage 117 R&D Demonstration 50-90 STS
Commercial
Cold water storage 142 Developed 50–90 STS
Molten salt thermal storage 2452 R&D Demonstration 40-93 0–60 LTS
Commercial
(Continues)
KHAN ET AL. 37 of 49

TABLE 21 (Continued)

Power rating Energy rating

Capacity Technical Efficiency (MW/otherwise (MWh/otherwise Storage
ESS type (MW)26 maturity59 range (%) mentioned) mentioned) duration
Underground (aquifer) Developed 50-90 0–5 MTS
thermal storage

4.5 | Efficiency and lifetime energy to electrolyze H2 and other gases to be used in FC
applications. In some FCs, like DMFC, MCFC and SOFC
The operating efficiency of PHS, A-CAES flywheel, batte-
methanol and H2 + CO is used as fuel and CO2 is produced
ries, flow batteries, SMES, super capacitor, and all thermal in the cell reactions.93 Therefore, these FCs have CO2 as by
energy storage technology is high. The technologies which product and it can become a major concern in future.
lack in efficiency are D-CAES, hydrogen storage, FC, and The major environmental concern of batteries and flow
metal air storage. However, only efficiency is not considered batteries are their toxic remains (Lead acid, Ni-Cd, and
for choosing the ESS for specific application, cost ($/kW VRB) and almost every battery require a proper recycling to
and $/kWh), power and energy ratings are more important keep the environment clean.155
factors for selection of developed ESS.
The PHS, D-CAES, A-CAES, and hydrogen storage
have lifetime more than 20 years and rest of all the ESSs 5 | STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT
have life time below 20 years. The lifetime of PHS is around OF ENERGY STORAGE AND
30 to 60 years. TRANSPORTATION I N PAKISTAN

5.1 | Status of fossil fuel transportation in

4.6 | Energy density Pakistan
The energy density (Wh/L) is the stored energy divided by Pakistan has huge potential to fulfill its energy demands but
volume of storage device. The volume composes of the poor government policies and lack of implementation never
whole storage system include energy storage element, build- satisfied the customer. The main forms of energy sources used
ing, sporting equipment, and rectifier system. are coal, oil, gas, and electricity. According to World Energy
The PHS and CAES are very huge size ESSs. Hence, Council, recoverable reserves in Pakistan are 1.45 thousand
their energy density is very low and it cannot be compared Mtoe, 50 Mtoe, and 489 Mtoe of coal, oil and gas, respec-
with batteries and other ESSs directly. Among all batteries tively. The production of coal, oil, and gas is 2.33 Mtoe, 3.7
the energy density of lead-acid is very low, this is due to the Mtoe, and 37.7 Mtoe per year, respectively.221 There always
high atomic mass of lead (Pb) when compared with lithium exists distance between source and destination, so the logistics
(Li). The energy density of the hydrogen storage, FC and and transportation should be efficient and pollutant free.
metal air battery is very high (>500 Wh/L). However, they Coal transport options in Pakistan are truck, railway, and
have efficiency less than 50% with almost half of energy is sea route. Trucks are used for less distance of transportation.
wasted. The batteries made by different manufacturers can According to National Transport and Research Centre total
differ in energy storage density due to several factors. lengths of roads in Pakistan, including Azad Jammu Kashmir
(AJK) are 196 153 km and total trucks are 1 158 507.222 The
railway infrastructure of Pakistan is declining as according to
4.7 | Environmental effects of ESSs
the yearbook 2016 to 2017 total track of railways is
There are some ESSs which have some minor environmental 11 881 km and functional rout is 7791 km. Total freight
effects. PHS has tremendous advantages, but it also affects wagons as 16 085 and tonnes of freight carried is 5 630 080
the surrounding environment. The destruction of trees and and fuel used in freight wagons are Furnace and high speed
wildlife is due to the land acquisition for reservoir. It also dis- diesel (HSD). According to a report published in the express
turbs the underground water level of the surrounding areas. tribune on 15 November 2014 Pakistan railway needs 123 bil-
The CAES operates with NG combustion, hence CO2 and lion rupees investment to rehabilitate and upgrade the railway
other emissions are the major environmental concern. FCs infrastructure.223 According to another report published on
need pure fuels like H2 gas and oxygen or air as oxidant, and 5 July 2017 the first coal handling terminal of Pakistan starts
so on. If the production of these fuels is based on fossil fuel working at port Qasim. The country is importing 5 to 7 Mt of
based electric power generation then the CO2 emissions will coal per annum due to coal fired power plants set up by the
increase. However, researchers are utilizing solar or wind previous government. The demand could increase up to 12 to
38 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

15 Mt per annum. Besides these, coal is also a raw material start from the beginning and a lot of capital cost is needed to
for the cement industry. Coal fired Sahiwal power plant of start them. Storage is only done at a very small scale level in
1320 Megawatts is at under testing.224 the form of batteries for domestic and commercial use. When
Transportation options for oil and gas are oil tankers and we talk about the suggesting ESSs for Pakistan, apart from
pipelines in Pakistan. Oil tankers are also used for short dis- PHS, hot and cold water storage stood as second choice due
tance and less capacity. According to National Transport to the least amount of investment cost needed for them. The
Research Centre (NTRC) total oil tankers in Pakistan are initial capital costs of US$/kW are almost negligible and
1 158 507.222 Length of pipelines for crude oil, petroleum and 300 to 600, for hot water storage and cold water storages,
NG are 2576 km, 1087 km, and 12 646 km, respectively.225 respectively. Pakistan is blessed with strong solar energy
Pakistan needs to import gas to meet the demands, potential with sun warming the earth almost throughout the
with suitable options of pipeline, CNG and LNG. Gas year.232–234 The average solar insolation of 5 to 7 kWh/m2/
Import options for Pakistan are: Iran-Pakistan-India (IPI) and day exist in most parts of the country. The average available
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipe- solar energy and mean sunshine duration are 5.5 kWh/m2/day
line projects. For gas pipeline discussion between Tehran and and 8 to 10 hours/day, respectively.235,236 The development
Islamabad were started in 1994. Later on India withdrew of solar water heater is demonstrated by research on solar
from the project in 2008 because of the over pricing and water heater using CO2 refrigerant for the cold climate region
security issues.226 The project is resigned in 2009 and it was of Gigit Baltistan (GB), Pakistan.237,238 This method is very
decided to lay the pipeline by the end of 2014. Three US$/ useful for getting hot energy from sun and storing this energy
meter is decided as a penalty in case of failure.227 The in the form of latent heat of water. Other PCMs can also be
pipeline has already completed from Iran side and it is used for heat storage. Other low cost methods which can be
incompleted from the Pakistan side. The opposition of United used in Pakistan are flywheel energy storage, electrostatic
States is the barrier in completion. The total cost of the pipe- energy storage with an initial capital cost of 130 to 515 US
line is 2.7 billion dollars. It is 900 km from Iran side and $/kW each. However, these systems are only feasible for a
800 km from the Pakistan side. The project is most important large scale application and require a large capital to start these
from economical point of view. Sui Southern Gas Company projects. Molten salt storage and Pit storage are also feasible
(SSGC) will get connected to this pipeline from various parts choice to be used in Pakistan with an initial capital cost of
of the country. This project could eliminate the shortfall of 100-300 and 400-700 US$/kW, respectively.
NG 1000 to 1500 Million Cubic Feet per Day (MMCFD) and Pakistan has a promising potential of traditional biomass
5000 to 6000 MW of electricity. NG is also an alternative to and biofuels with around 66.67% population living in rural
oil and its new projects can help to provide jobs in Sindh and areas and using traditional biomass for primary energy.239
Baluchistan provinces. Another option is TAPI, this pipeline Around 8.2 Mtoe biomass is used by 105 million populations
starts from Turkmenistan covers 145 km, Afghanistan in Pakistan.240 There are almost more than 72 million animals
735 km, Pakistan 800 km, and then enters to India.228–230 (cows and buffaloes) in Pakistan,241 along with crop residues
Other options are LNG import from Qatar, Gulf-South of 81 million tonnes and there are about 785 million birds in
Asia/Qatar-Pakistan gas pipeline. These projects are still on the poultry industry in Pakistan. Assuming the 50%, the ani-
articles and need special attention for economic growth. mals and birds can produce 360 million kg and 39.2 million
kg collectable dung per day, respectively. Adding the crop
residues, it can yield 27.5 million cubic meters of biogas per
5.2 | Development of energy storage in
day, giving almost 1900 MW power generation capacity. This
Pakistan
form of energy can be used and storage of this residue, ani-
Pakistan is blessed with noticeable water resources, but mals and bird dung can be utilized for producing biogas or
unfortunately, Pakistan is only able to store 13% of the electricity. Thus, Pakistan has a great potential for biomass
annual flow of the water. PHS is the first choice for energy energy and its utilization in future energy infrastructure
storage in Pakistan. The countries like China, Canada, USA, mostly in transport, heat energy storage and electricity pro-
Brazil, and Russia are mainly using hydro power as their duction. The detailed significance of PHS in Pakistan is
preferred choice and they cover more than half of the world explained below.
generation of electricity.231 They are also using this technol-
ogy for PHS. As demonstrated previously in Table 3, more
5.2.1 | Use of PHS
than 20 projects of PHS are located in China, USA,
Germany, Japan, and Spain.26 Pakistan is blessed with noticeable water resources, but
Unfortunately, Pakistan does not have any grid connected unfortunately, Pakistan is only able to store less than 10% of
storage project. The other options of energy storage need to the annual flow of the water against the standard of 40%.242
TABLE 22 General characteristics of different energy storage methods (cont.)

Cost Cost Life time

KHAN ET AL.

Response Energy Power Energy

ESS type time density (Wh/L) ($/kW) ($/kWh) (years) Pros Cons References
Mechanical
energy storage
PHS 3-10 min 0.5-1.5 600-2000 5-100 30-60 High capacity relatively low Destroy trees and wild life 24,52–58,220,253
cost by land acquisition
CAES
D-CAES 10 min 3-12 400-800 2-50 20-40 High capacity low cost per Specific site requirement 52–58,253
unit capacity and emissions from NG
combustion
A-CAES Min 3-12 700-1000 40-80 20-30 52,57
Flywheel energy storage ms-s 20-80 250-350 1000-5000 15-20 High power Low energy density 52–58
Electro-chemical
energy storage (ECES)
Batteries energy storage
Lead-acid ms 50-90 300-600 200-400 5-15 Low capital cost Recycling of Pb, toxic 52–55,57,58,155,164,253
element remains in
atmosphere
Ni-Cd ms 60-150 500-1500 800-1500 10-20 High power and energy Memory effect Ni-Cd is 52–55,57,58,155,164,253
density highly toxic and all other
Ni bases compounds
require recycling
Li-ion ms 200-500 1200-4000 600-2500 5-15 High power and energy High cost Li2O and other 52–56,58,155,253
density salts require recycling
NaS ms 150-250 1000-3000 300-500 10-15 High energy density and High production cost, high 52–55,58,155,253
high efficiency temperature, and require
recycling
ZEBRA ms 150-180 400-1800 500-1000 15 52–54,155,254
Metal Air ms 500-10 000 100-250 10-60 Low cost and high energy Short recharge and little 52,155
density amount of remains affect
the atmosphere
Flow batteries
VRB ms 16-33 600-1500 150-1000 5-15 High capacity Toxic remains 52–54,56,58,155,164,253
ZBB ms 30-60 700-2500 150-1000 5-10 High capacity Low energy density 52–54,58,155,164,253
(Continues)
39 of 49
TABLE 22 (Continued)
40 of 49

Cost Cost Life time

Response Energy Power Energy
ESS type time density (Wh/L) ($/kW) ($/kWh) (years) Pros Cons References
PSB ms 16-60 330-2500 120-1000 10-15 High capacity 52–54,58,155,164,253
Chemical energy storage
Hydrogen storage s-min 500-3000 1900-6300 1–10 20-30 Long term storage Require combustion for fuel 55,57,155,156,164
H2 production
Fuel cell (FC) s-min 500-3000 10 000+ 5-15 Store long term/variety Catalyst is very expensive 52,93
of cells for different for FC
applications
SMES ms 0.2-2.5 200-350 1000-10 000 15-20 High power Strong magnetic field 53–56,155,164,253
causes health issues
Capacitor storage ms 10-30 100-360 300-2000 10-20 Long life circle high Low energy density and 53–56,155,164,253
efficiency toxic nature
Thermal energy storage
Hot water storage Negligible Best for residential use 59,93
Cold water storage 300-600 59
Molten salt thermal storage 120-500 100-300 30-60 5-15 Small environmental effect 52,59
Underground (aquifer) 120-200 3400-4500 20-50 10-20 Small environmental effect 52,59
thermal storage

Abbreviations. DES, distributed energy storage; LTS, long term storage (hour-months); min, minutes; ms, milliseconds, s-min, second-minutes; MTS, medium term storage (min-day); STS, short term storage (second-minutes
or hour).
KHAN ET AL.
KHAN ET AL. 41 of 49

Hydro potential of Pakistan is 59 000 MW.243 The total must be strong enough to cope with the demand for energy.
capacity of hydropower is reached to 6599 MW in 2010. Energy storage techniques apart from batteries need special
Major dams in Pakistan are Terbela, Ghazi Barotha, Mangla, attention. Transportation of fuel must emit fewer pollutants
Warsak, and Chashma but unluckily none of it have pumped to the air.
storage. The Ghazi Barotha, Warsak, and Chsahma have the There exist multiple options to transport NG that is pipe-
installed capacities of 1450, 240, and 184 MW, respec- lines, LNG, CNG, NGH, GtL, and GtW. Most favorable
tively.244,245 In winter season, due to shortage of water there methods for long routes are LNG and pipelines. The cost of
is a stability issue in getting the full capacity of major hydro- oil pipelines increases directly with the distance. Cost of
power plants like Terbela and Mangla having capacities of LNG also increases with the route. But, it is less steep than
3470 MW and 1000 MW, respectively.246 However, the pipelines whereas, the initial cost of LNG (liquefaction plant,
generating capacities of Mangla and Tarbela dam will be shipping, and regasification) plant is high. GtW and GtL
upgraded to 1500 and 6290 MW.247,248 Due to irrigation have potential but technology for GtL is not mature yet and
constraints and water shortages they do not operate to their GtW is costly. If the electricity is produced by using oil and
maximum limits. PHS is the most feasible choice to get more gas as fuels to power plants, CO2 emissions of gas fuel will
water for irrigation and getting electricity when the demand be less as compared to oil fuel. It is believed that CNG and
is high. This can be done by replacing the current hydro tur- NGH are economical than LNG and where pipelines are not
bines to reversible turbines. This is how, Pakistan cannot feasible for small markets and islands. Favorable methods
only enhance its production capacity as well as the extra irri- for long distance transportation of oil are pipelines and large
gation of water can be controlled. It needs to identify the tankers.
new uphill areas to construct small reservoirs and installation The trucks, rails, barges, maritime, pipelines, and coal to
of new pumped hydro. The major new hydropower genera- wire are the different ways to transport coal to consumers.
tion sites include Diamir Bhasha (4500 MW), Mohmand The main disadvantage of coal fuel is, it releases high carbon
(800 MW), and Bunji (7100 MW).249,250 Pakistan has also contents to air at the time of loading and unloading. Adding
started a fundraising campaign for making the Diamir water to the grinded coal will reduce the carbon content to
Bhasha and Mohmand Dam. Approximately 8095 million the environment and that leads to the pipeline transportation
PKR has been deposited in the DAM Fund till now.251 The of coal but that technology of coal is not mature yet. Other
Government of Pakistan has started a campaign to get methods that are more popular than pipelines for long dis-
funding for these dams and people are donating to it. The tance are rail and trucks. The unit transportation cost of the
place acquisition is already done by allotting over 14 000 truck is high as compared to the rail and the barges if the dis-
acres land by the previous Government of Pakistan.252 tance is same. Conveyors are used for short distance that is
It is also necessary that renewable energy culture should for mine-mouth power plants with highest unit transportation
be promoted that can never succeed without creating aware- cost. Coal-fired power plants release a higher amount of
ness in youth through their education.253–260 This is a feasi- CO2 than oil and gas-fired power plants. With the advance-
ble situation to start three new dams with reversible turbines ment in CCS technologies, coal can be more beneficial for
on them. These three dams can provide up-to 12 400 MW planet earth.
capacity of pumped storage, which will be beneficial for the The ESSs on the factors of development status, storage
future energy demand in Pakistan. Pakistan has storage duration, power and energy ratings, cost and energy density
based and high head places for pumped storage in northern are discussed in Section 4. The PHS is a widely used tech-
region and low head run-off river plants and canals in the nology and rather than looking for a new ESS, the retro-
southern plains. The most hydropower resources are avail- fitting of existing hydro power plants with PHS turbines can
able in Gilgit Baltistan region as compared to the other coun- boast the ESS capacities and solar and wind energy can be
try. The major planned hydro power generating stations
used along with these PHS. This is a relatively low cost and
which can be used for PHS power plant are Diamir Bhasha,
less complicated solution for energy storage.
Buji, and Mohmand Dam. However, Dams like Tarbela,
The mature technologies like PHS, lead acid and Li-ion
Ghazi Brotha, Warsak and Chashma, and so on can also be
batteries and CAES are mostly used for load management.
used for PHS by modification in their turbines.
The storage duration provided by these is around days to a
month for PHS and CAES and min-hours for these two bat-
6 | CONCLUSION teries. Only lead-acid has some drawback of low energy
density, which make them less efficient for very large stor-
The energy requirement of the earth will increase with an age capacities.
increase in its population. Energy management systems The problems faced by electric utilities in power quality
consisting of both storage and transportation of energy like voltage and frequency regulations, and so on can be
42 of 49 KHAN ET AL.

tackled by the use of fast response and high power ratings It is the responsibility of the corresponding author to
devices. Flywheel, SMES, and capacitors have very speedy review this policy with all authors and to collectively list
response time, high power ratings, low cost per power, and in the cover letter (if applicable) to the Editor-in-Chief, in
high energy cost. These properties makes them suitable for the manuscript (in the footnotes, conflict of interest, or
power quality and voltage regulation based application acknowledgment section), and in the online submission
rather than storage for long duration. system ALL pertinent commercial and other relationships.
The technologies like FCs, SMES, supercapacitors, and
metal air batteries are still developing and proper compact NO M EN CL AT UR E
solution in terms of long duration, low cost, high power rat-
ings, high energy density and high efficiency are still in IEA International energy agency
R&D and can become available in future. The metal air bat- Mtoe Million tonnes of oil equivalent
tery has shown a significant low cost and very high energy EES Electrical energy storage
density and further R&D is required to increase the effi- GWP Global warming potential
ciency and cycle life. PHS Pumped hydro storage
In Pakistan transportation of energy is done with less bcm Billion cubic meter
expensive fleets; as a result, the customer suffers from short- GHG Greenhouse gases
age of energy. Pakistan Railway needs investment to rehabili- IPCC Intergovernmental panel on climate change
CAES Compressed air energy storage
tate the existing infrastructure. Ongoing projects of NG must
EPRI Electric power research institute
be completed to strengthen the economy of the country. ESSs
SMES Superconducting magnetic energy storage
are not yet commercial in Pakistan. Unfortunately, it does not
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
have a single grid connected project. The domestic use of bat-
IHS Information handling services
teries is only common. In addition to that, the use of energy
DL Double layer
storage in Pakistan is very less as compared to developed
LTSC Low temperature superconductors
countries. This is also a reason for the energy crisis and long
HTSC High temperature superconductors
load shedding hours in summer days. Pakistan shall consider
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
installing new dams with energy storage facilities in them and
NOx Nitrogen oxides
replacing the existing turbines of hydro power plants with
SOx Sulfur oxides
pumped storage turbines. The people in Pakistan have wasted
FC Fuel cell
millions of rupees in buying the oil and gas generators to gen- PAFC Phosphoric acid FC
erate electricity in case of load shedding. Now, Government AFC Alkaline FC
of Pakistan and electrical utilities should have taken some PEMFC Polymer electrolyte membrane FC
steps for the development of energy storages. Solar thermal MCFC Molten carbonate FC
systems are a feasible and a low-cost choice to be utilized by SOFC Solid oxide FC
domestically in every home. DMFC Direct menthol FC
SHS Sensible heat storage
ACKNOWLEDGMENT PCMs Phase change materials
EPS Ltd Environmental process systems limited
Energy Storage requires that all authors disclose any DWT Dead weight ton
potential sources of conflict of interest. Any interest or NG Natural gas
relationship, financial, or otherwise, that might be per- LNG Liquefied natural gas
ceived as influencing an author's objectivity is considered CNG Compressed natural gas
a potential source of conflict of interest. These must be NGH Natural gas hydrates
disclosed when directly relevant or indirectly related to STS Short term storage
the work that the authors describe in their manuscript. DES Distributed energy storage
Potential sources of conflict of interest include but are LTS Long term storage
not limited to patent or stock ownership, membership of CCS Carbon capture and storage
a company board of directors, membership of an advisory PSPS Pumped storage power station
board or committee for a company, and consultancy for ECES Electro chemical energy storage
or receipt of speaker's fees from a company. The exis- NATO North Atlantic treaty organization
tence of a conflict of interest does not preclude publica- RPM Revolutions per minute
tion in this journal. If the authors have no conflict of MJ Mega Joule
interest to declare, they must also state this at submission. EFDA European fusion development agreement
KHAN ET AL. 43 of 49

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