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 CONTENTS

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CHAPTER 1: GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS1

1.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria1
1.2 Characteristics of concrete4
1.2.1 Compressive strength5
1.2.2 Tensile strength6
1.2.3 Modulus of elasticity6
1.2.4 Poisson's ratio7
1.2.5 Shear modulus7
1.2.6 Time dependent behaviour8
1.2.6.1 Shrinkage8
1.2.6.2 Creep10
1.2.7 Durability10
1.2.8 Concrete cover10
1.2.9 Spacing of reinforcement11
1.2.10 Fire resistance12
1.3 Properties of steel12
1.3.1 Stress-strain relationship13
1.3.2 Modulus of Elasticity13
1.4 Prestressed steel cables, tendons and strands13
1.5 Loads14
1.6 Limit state design14
1.7 Service state design14
1.8 Reliability and safety of structures15
1.9 Questions for self-assessment16
1.10 References16

CHAPTER 2: RIBBED SLABS DESIGN18

2.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria18
2.2 Types of ribbed slabs18
2.3 One-way ribbed slabs19
2.3.1 Design of one way ribbed slabs20

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2.3.1.1 Topping slab20

2.3.1.2 Regularly spaced ribs21
2.3.1.3 Minimum thickness22
2.3.1.4 Summary of one-way ribbed slab design procedure22
2.3.2 Example of one-way ribbed slab design23
2.4 Two-way ribbed slabs25
2.4.1 Analysis of two-way ribbed slabs26
2.4.2 Construction of two-way ribbed slabs – waffle slabs26
2.4.3 Example of two-way ribbed slab design26
2.5 Questions for self-assessment30
2.6 References32

CHAPTER 3: DESIGN OF PRECAST, COMPOSITE AND PLAIN

CONCRETE ELEMENTS33
3.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria33
3.2 Design of precast concrete beams and labs36
3.2.1 Design and construction consideration of precast concrete
elements36
3.2.1.1 Connection types37
3.2.2 Design of typical precast concrete connection42
3.2.2.1 Design of a beam-to-column connection – corbel connection42
3.2.2.2 Design of a slab-to-slab connection44
3.2.3 Examples of precast connection calculation46
3.2.3.1 Design of a beam-to-column connection – corbel half beam46
3.2.3.2 Design of loop connection52
3.3 Design of composite concrete beams and slabs54
3.3.1 Introduction54
3.3.2 Elastic design of composite beams55
3.3.3 Plastic design of composite beams56
3.3.3.1 Simply supported beams58
3.3.3.2 Continuous beams59
3.3.4 Shear connection59
3.3.5 Deformation calculation of composite beam61
3.3.6 Composite Slabs62
3.3.6.1 Introduction62
3.3.6.2 Type of profiled sheets62
3.3.6.3 Analysis of composites concrete slabs64
3.3.7 Example of a composite beam stress calculation65
3.4 Design of plain concrete walls66
3.4.1 Introduction66
3.4.2 Slenderness ratio67

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3.4.3 Ultimate axial load for slender walls67

3.4.3.1 Empirical equations from ACI318-8967
3.4.3.2 Empirical equations from BS811068
3.4.3.3 Empirical equations from SANS 1010068
3.4.3.4 Empirical equations from EUROCODE 270
3.4.4 Spacing and reinforcement requirements71
3.4.5 Wall design examples72
3.4.5.1 Example 1: Braced wall72
3.4.5.2 Example 2: Unbraced wall73
3.5 Questions for self-assessment74
3.6 References75

CHAPTER 4: DEEP CONCRETE BEAMS77

4.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria77
4.2 Strut-and-tie design method79
4.2.1 Deep beam and sectional behaviour79
4.2.2 Serviceability limit state design80
4.2.3 Strut-and-tie method (STM)82
4.2.3.1 Design of struts84
4.2.3.2 Design of ties85
4.2.3.3 Design of nodes86
4.2.3.3.1 Hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic nodes85
4.2.3.3.2 Partitioning STM elements using non-hydrostatic nodes87
4.2.3.3.2.1 Partitioning a CCC node97
4.2.3.3.2.2 Partitioning a CCT node87
4.2.3.3.2.3 Partitioning a CTT node88
4.2.4 STM design steps89
4.3 Examples of STM design94
4.3.1 STM design using SANS 10100 – Pile cap94
4.3.2 STM design using Eurocode 2 Part 1, 2004 Clause 6.5 –
Pile cap96
4.3.3 STM design using ACI 3-18-02 code99
4.4 Questions for self-assessment105
4.5 References106

CHAPTER 5: PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS DESIGN107

5.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria107
5.1.1 Basic concept of prestressing108
5.1.2 Methods of prestressing109
5.1.2.1 Prestressing or Pretensioning109

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5.1.2.2 Post-stressing or Post-tensioning110

5.1.2.3 Advantages and disadvantage of prestressing110
5.1.3 Basic principles of prestressed – Elastic stress calculations111
5.1.3.1 Combined load approach111
5.1.3.2 Internal couple113
5.1.3.3 Load balancing method113
5.1.3.4 Example 5.1 – Calculation of elastic stress114
5.2 Materials design properties116
5.2.1 Concrete116
5.2.2 Steel for normal reinforced concrete117
5.2.3 Steel for prestressed concrete117
5.2.4 Specification for prestressed concrete steel118
5.3 Flexural design of prestressed concrete elements120
5.3.1 Introduction120
5.3.2 Analysis of an uncracked section122
5.3.3 Calculation of cracking moment122
5.3.3.1 Example 5.2: Cracking moment123
5.3.4 Ultimate moment of section with bonded tendons123
5.3.4.1 Stress-strain compatible approach123
5.3.4.2 Approximate code-oriented method123
5.3.4.2.1 Example 5.3: Approximate method125
5.3.5 Ultimate moment of section with unbonded tendons125
5.3.5.1 Rational and analytical method125
5.3.5.2 Semi-empirical code-driven approach126
5.3.5.2.1 Example 5.4: Prestressed concrete section with unbonded
tendons127
5.3.6 Limit State design of prestressed concrete129
5.3.6.1 Introduction129
5.3.6.2 Classification of prestressed concrete130
5.3.6.3 Design for the serviceability limit state130
5.3.6.3.1 Determiniation of minimum required section properties131
5.3.6.3.2 Determination of prestressing force at mid span132
5.3.6.3.3 Determination of permissible cable zone133
5.3.6.3.4 Design procedure133
5.3.7 Ultimate limit state design for prestressed concrete137
5.3.7.1 Example 5.6: Ultimate limit state design138
5.4 Losses of prestress139
5.4.1 Introduction139
5.4.2 Elastic deformation losses140
5.4.2.1 Pretensioned members140
5.4.2.2 Post-tensioned members140

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5.4.3 Friction along the tendons141

5.4.4 Anchorage losses142
5.4.5 Time-dependent losses144
5.4.5.1 Shrinkage144
5.4.5.2 Creep145
5.4.5.3 Relaxation145
5.5 Shear146
5.5.1 Introduction146
5.5.2 Shear capacity of prestressed concrete147
5.5.2.1 Example 5.7: Design for shear148
5.6 Deflections152
5.6.1 Introduction152
5.6.2 Prediction of deflections of uncracked beams153
5.6.2.1 Instantaneous deflections154
5.6.2.2 Long-term deflections155
5.6.2.3 Example 5.8: Deflections of uncracked prestressed beams157
5.6.3 Prediction of deflections of cracked beams160
5.6.3.1 Instantaneous deflections160
5.6.3.2 Long-term deflections161
5.6.4 Deflection limitations162
5.7 Introduction to post-tensioned slabs162
5.7.1 Behaviour and design of two-way slabs163
5.7.1.1 Introduction163
5.7.1.2 Design and analysis of prestressed slabs164
5.7.1.2.1 Effect of prestress164
5.7.1.2.2 Design approach167
5.7.1.2.3 One-way slabs167
5.7.1.3 Two-way edged supported slabs168
5.7.1.3.1 Load balancing168
5.7.1.3.2 Method of analysis169
5.7.1.3.3 Example 5.9: Design of a two-way slab172
5.7.2 Serviceability of two-way slabs176
5.7.2.1 Introduction176
5.7.2.2 Initial sizing guidelines177
5.8 Questions for self-assessment178
5.9 References180

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CHAPTER 6: DEEP FOUNDATIONS – PILE AND CAISSON DESIGN181

6.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria181
6.1.1 Types of foundation183
6.1.1.1 Shallow foundation183
6.1.1.2 Deep foundation184
6.1.2 Pile foundation classification184
6.1.2.1 Classification of piles based on load transfer185
6.1.2.2 Classification of piles based on material used and composition186
6.1.2.3 Classification of piles based on method of installation and
effect on soil187
6.1.2.4 British Classification of piles187
6.2 Limit state design of piles foundations189
6.2.1 Introduction189
6.2.2 Ultimate limit state load and resistance factors190
6.2.3 SErviceability limit state load and resistance factors192
6.2.4 Correlation factors as per Eurocode 7192
6.2.5 Structural design of pile shaft193
6.2.5.1 Material strength and properties193
6.2.5.2 Pile shaft design194
6.2.5.3 Design for lifting of reinforced concrete piles197
6.2.5.4 Practical requirements198
6.3 Resistance of piles to loading199
6.3.1 Pile behaviour under axial load199
6.3.2 Methods of evaluating axial load capacity of piles200
6.3.2.1 Static analysis201
6.3.2.1.1 Piles in fine grained soils or cohesive soils202
6.3.2.1.2 Piles in coarse grained soils or cohesionless soils206
6.3.2.1.3 Piles on c and ∅ soils209
6.3.2.1.4 Piles on rock209
6.3.2.2 Static Calculation of pile using in situ Tests210
6.3.2.2.1 Cone penetration test (CPT)210
6.3.2.2.2 Standard penetration test (SPT)212
6.3.2.2.3 Correlations between SPT and CPT213
6.3.2.3 Uplift resistance of piles214
6.3.2.4 Dynamic analysis216
6.3.2.4.1 Dynamic formulae216
6.3.2.4.2 Wave Equation analysis217
6.3.3 Laterally loaded piles218
6.3.3.1 Ultimate capacity218
6.3.3.2 Displacement and maximum moment – Long Flexible Piles219

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6.3.3.3 Displacement and maximum moment – Short Rigid Piles 222

6.4 Design of a group of piles223
6.4.1 Introduction to group action in piled foundation223
6.4.2 Bearing capacity of pile groups224
6.4.3 Group efficiency factor224
6.4.4 Efficiency factor and spacing of piles group225
6.4.4.1 Overturning moment225
6.4.4.2 Ultimate capacity225
6.4.5 Interaction diagrams227
6.5 Caissons233
6.5.1 Introduction to caissons233
6.5.2 Capacity of caissons in compression235
6.5.3 Structural design of caissons236
6.6 Design examples of pile foundations237
6.6.1 Example 6.1 Eurocode Design Method237
6.6.2 Example 6.2 Short Piles239
6.6.3 Example 6.3 Long Flexible Piles240
6.6.4 Example 6.4 Bearing Capacity Piles Group Effect242
6.6.5 Example 6.5 Group Piles – Interaction Diagrams244
6.7 Questions for self-assessment248
6.8 References249

CHAPTER 7: SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS FOR DESIGNING

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS251
7.1 Introduction, outcome and assessment criteria251
7.2 Ribbed and waffles slabs251
7.3 Precast, composite elements and plain walls252
7.4 Deep concrete beams252
7.5 Prestressed beams and slabs252
7.6 Piles and caissons253
7.7 References253

LIST OF SYMBOLS254

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CHAPTER
1  1

1 General design considerations

1.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Reinforced concrete is a construction material used to build buildings, bridges,
roads, floating structures, marine structures, pipes and conduits, as well as
precast work, among others. The following examples of infrastructure highlight
the wide variety of applications of reinforced concrete.

Buildings

Buildings consist of beams, floor slabs, columns, walls, and roofs. Reinforced
concrete is used for in residential, commercial, and industrial structures. It
has proved to be a cost-effective, durable, fireproof, and reliable construction
material.

FIGURE 1.1
Reinforced concrete building

Bridges

There is a trend to use reinforced concrete in the construction of bridges of

small, medium and long spans, making for aesthetically pleasing, high-quality
structures when compared to steel bridges. High-strength reinforced concrete,
with improved durability, is used successfully in this type of structure.

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FIGURE 1.2
Bridge built using reinforced concrete

Roads

Reinforced concrete is also used as a substantial part of the construction of roads

designed to carry heavy traffic. Airport runways and port container stockyards
are such examples of special roads in which reinforced concrete is used.

FIGURE 1.3
Reinforced concrete road construction (Google image)

Floating and marine structures

Reinforced concrete used in the construction of caissons is an example of this

category. Marine structures, such as wharfs, quay walls, watchtowers, and
lighthouses in coastal areas where corrosion is inevitable are other structures
that use reinforced concrete.

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 CHAP T ER   1:  G e n e r a l d e si g n co nsi d e r at i o ns

FIGURE 1.4
Reinforced concrete caisson in construction (Google image)

Precast works

Precast construction using reinforced concrete has increased greatly in recent

years. In order to reduce construction time, precast technology is used to
mass produce different types of structural elements or portions of structures
in a controlled environment and transport them to site for quick installation.

FIGURE 1.5
Precast elements used in construction of residential apartments (Google image)

The focus, therefore, of this introductory chapter is to remind you of a few

important concepts that have been used in the development of this study guide.
It is intended to achieve the outcomes listed below and the assessment criteria
listed alongside are intended for use in monitoring your progress throughout
the learning process:

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Outcome Assessment criteria

Characterisation of reinforced • Characterise reinforced concrete using the

concrete. Concept of limit concepts of concrete compressive strength, tensile
state and serviceability state strength, Modulus of elasticity, Poisson ‘s ratio, shear
designs, and introduction modulus, shrinkage and creep, durability, concrete
to the reliability and safety cover, spacing and fire resistance
analysis of structures. • Determine the creep and shrinkage of reinforced
concrete
• Explain the stress-strain relationship of steel and
its modulus of elasticity and introduce the prestress
cables, tendons, and strands.
• Describe the difference between Limit state design
and service state design.
• Explain the process for determining the reliability
and safety of structures in reinforced concrete.

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

With the invention of reinforced concrete in the 19th century, concrete became
one of the world’s most regularly used and popular building materials. The
term ‘reinforced concrete’ refers to “concrete in which steel is embedded”
so that the compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of
steel resist, “not only compression, but also bending and other direct tensile
actions” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020). However, we will first present the
characteristics of concrete before introducing reinforced concrete – even though
most of these characteristics are valid for both materials, with the exception
of “cover and spacing of reinforcement”

As you will recall from your undergraduate course, Concrete Technology [1],
concrete is a composite material made of sand and fine and coarse aggregates,
all bonded together with water and cement that hardens over time. A lime-based
cement, such as Portland or hydraulic calcium aluminate-based cement, acts
as a binder, and is therefore also usually used in the mix. The cement plays
a role of binder or glue. The characteristics of concrete we will be looking at
are presented below:

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CHAP T ER   1:  G e n e r a l d e si g n co nsi d e r at i o ns

FIGURE 1.6
Figure 1-6 Characteristics of concrete
Characteristics of concrete

1.2.1 1.2.1
Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the capacity of the concrete
The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the capacity of the concrete to withstand a
to withstand a uniaxial load applied at a specific rate, over a defined cross
uniaxial
section. load applied
It is usually at a specific
obtained rate, over aby
experimentally defined
means cross
of asection. It is usually
compression obtained
test,
experimentally
as shown in Figure by
1.7,means
below.of a compression test, as shown in Figure 1-7, below.

Chapter 1: General Design Considerations October 2020

FIGURE 1.7
Testing machine for compressive and tensile strength of concrete

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The compressive strength is measured by crushing specimens (cubes or

cylinders), generally at 28 days and according to standard procedures. Consult
the following resources for more detailed information on compression strength:

• FPrimeC Solutions. (2016). How to evaluate compressive strength of concrete

• Video: Compressive strength (12:50)

1.2.2 Tensile Strength

The direct measurement of concrete in tensile is so difficult that it has been
practically abandoned. Instead, it is widely accepted to measure the tensile
strength of concrete indirectly by breaking beam specimens in flexure, or by
splitting specimens by applying linear loads. In Figure 1.8, below, the splitting
test set-up (sometimes called the Brazilian test) is illustrated.

FIGURE 1.8
Testing machine for tensile strength of concrete (Google image)

The relationship between compressive fc and indirect tensile strength f t is

recorded by Loedolff and Chambers [2], as reported by Bryan Perrie [3], as
follows:

Ft = 0.192 fc0.802 (MPa) (Cube splitting) Equation 1.1

Ft = 0.185 fc0.783 (MPa) (Cylinder splitting) Equation 1.2

Consult the resource tensile strength test for more detailed information on the
tensile strength of concrete.

1.2.3 Modulus of Elasticity

When the compressive strength of concrete is measured by recording the
deformability of the specimen, this enables the calculation of the modulus of
elasticity which is defined as the ratio between the stress and the resultant
axial strain The modulus of elasticity has the same dimensions as the stress
and represents the material stiffness of the concrete at that specific stress. The
concrete stress-strain relationship is not linear. However, in the range 30% to
40% of the ultimate stress, the stress-strain relationship can be considered as
linear and the modulus of elasticity is taken as a slope of the straight line referred
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 CHAP T ER   1:  G e n e r a l d e si g n co nsi d e r at i o ns

as an initial tangent modulus of elasticity. Two other moduli of elasticity can

then be identified; the tangent modulus of elasticity representing the slope
of the tangent at any stress point on the curve and the secant modulus of
elasticity which represents the slope of the line connecting the origin to the
stress point on the curve.

According to SANS 10100-1, the modulus of elasticity, also called secant

modulus, is measured at 1/3 of the compressive strength fcu. For normal
concrete, the secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days is estimated using the
following relationship:

Ec,28 = Ko + 0.2 fcu,28 in GPa Equation 1.3

Where

fcu,28 = characteristic cube strength at 28 days, in MPa

Ko = a constant closely related to the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates.

Typical values are given in Table 1.1 below.

TABLE 1.1
Secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days Ec,28 (GPa)

Characteristic cube Average Typical range

strength fcu,28 (MPa) (GPa) (GPa)

20 25 21 – 29
25 26 22 – 30
30 28 23 – 33
40 31 26 – 36
50 34 28 – 40
60 36 30 – 42

1.2.4 Poisson’s ratio

In the case of a uniaxial stress environment, Poisson’s ratio is defined as the
ratio of lateral strain to axial strain. It is a dimensionless figure valued at 0.2
in SANS 10100 [4].

Refresh your memory about the concept of Poisson’s ratio – just in case you
don’t remember what it is!

1.2.5 Shear Modulus

The shear modulus is defined as the ratio between the shear stress over the
shear strain. Sometimes called modulus of rigidity of concrete, it is given as
follows:

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Equation 1.4

Where G is the shear modulus in GPa, ν is Poisson’s ratio, and E is Young’s

Modulus.

Shear modulus is an important concrete characteristic because it combines

stress states, among the most common of these are, e.g. shear combined with
tension (beam) and shear together with compression (arches).

As per SANS 10100, when ν = 0.2 as Poisson ratio, the shear modulus amounts
to G = 0.4 E

1.2.6 Time dependent behaviour

Two most important time dependent properties of concrete are shrinkage and
creep.

1.2.6.1 Shrinkage
In its fresh and hardened states, concrete experiences volume changes
throughout its lifespan. Shrinkage is viewed at mature age, as an exchange of
moisture with the environment, in and out of the concrete element. If the net
outflow of moisture is from the concrete element to the environment, the
phenomenon is termed shrinkage and this normally results in a decrease in
volume, as illustrated in Figure 1.9 below.

FIGURE 1.9
Shrinkage cracks in concrete (Google image)

By contrast, if the net flow of moisture is from the environment to the concrete
element, the result is an increase in volume, called swelling.

The structural effects of shrinkage can manifest either in cracking – which is

a free shrinkage strain of a restrained concrete element exceeding its tensile
strain capacity –or deflection in flexural members due to additional shrinkage-
induced curvature or tensile stresses over and above the load induced in tensile

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zones, causing cracks to appear or to increase in size and number. The most
important factor affecting shrinkage in concrete is the structure of the paste.
Estimation of shrinkage is given in SANS 10100-1 which requires information
such as, e.g. exposure condition (average relative humidity), effective section
thickness and the relative area of reinforcing steel.

It has been observed that the development of shrinkage over time is such that
approximately 60% of the final value is developed after six months, 75% after
one year and 90% after five years. This is to confirm that the greater part of
shrinkage develops shortly after the curing is stopped. The development of
shrinkage strain over time can be approximated as follows:

Equation 1.5

Where = final shrinkage value

t = time in days since curing has been stopped

α = an empirical coefficient

Typical values for are given Table 1.2 below:

TABLE 1.2

Values for final shrinkage (SANS 10100-1) [5]

Environment Final shrinkage

In water 0
Very moist 100 × 10 -6
Moderately moist 200 × 10 -6
Dry 300 × 10 -6

In the following Figure 1-9*, the effective section thickness is defined as follows:

Effective section thickness = Equation 1.6

When sections are restrained against movement, shrinkage cracks develop.

These cracks can be limited by providing sufficient movement joints and
sequencing the construction process. Shrinkage cracks are also often controlled
by introducing sufficient shrinkage reinforcement in the section.

(*) Figure 1.9 – Refer to SANS 10100-1 Annexe C, Drg 12053 - EC/00-01

Example: For ambient relative humidity of 50%, and an effective section of

300mm, the 30-year shrinkage strain will be 350 × 10 -6

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1.2.6.2 Creep
Creep is defined as the time dependent increase in strain of a concrete element
under constant or controlled stress. It may also manifest as a relaxation of
stress under constant strain. The relationship between the creep C(t) and the
coefficient of creep ∅(t) is determined by the equation

∅(t) = C(t) Ec Equation 1.7

The development of the creep coefficient with time can be approximated as

follows:

Equation 1.8

Where = ultimate creep coefficient ranging from 1.5 to 4

β = an empirical coefficient.

Figure 1-10* gives values for the creep coefficient after 30 years. This value
can be regarded as equal to

(*) Figure 1.10 – Refer to SANS 10100-1 Annexe C, Drg 12052 - EC/00-04

1.2.7 Concrete Durability

The durability of concrete is its ability to resist weathering actions, chemical
attacks, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration without losing its
quality. There is a link between the durability and cover. Concrete durability
is ensured by observing the following factors:

• Sufficient curing of the concrete

• Sufficient compaction or vibration of the concrete, and
• A low water/cement ratio, ensuring low permeability of the concrete

1.2.8 Concrete cover

Defined as the shortest distance from the surface of the concrete to the nearest
reinforcing bar. The cover depends on the required durability, fire resistance
and practical considerations.

Note that the cover should not be less than the diameter of the bar and should
at least be equal to the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.

SANS 10100-2 provides, in Table 1.3 below, the required cover to protect the
reinforcement against corrosion.

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TABLE 1.3
Minimum cover (mm) for different exposure conditions (SANS 10100-2) [6]

Conditions of exposure
Concrete
Mild Moderate Severe Very Extreme
severe

Normal density 20 30 40 50 60
concrete1
Low density 20 40 50 60 70
concrete2

1
Concrete with a density in the range 2200 to 2500 kg/m3
2
Concrete with a density < 2000 kg/m3 made with low density aggregate

1.2.9 Spacing of reinforcement

Limiting stress in reinforcement, combined with spacing of steel bars, is
normally used to control cracking in concrete elements. For practical reasons,
the determination of maximum spacing is aimed at providing a large number of
small diameter bars rather than a few large ones. Table 1.4 gives the definition
of exposure conditions as per SANS 10100-2.

TABLE 1.4
Exposure conditions (SANS 10100-2) [6]

Condition Exposure Examples

Mild Unpolluted air • Indoors (but not including industrial

areas); or
• Outdoors in arid rural areas (Karoo)

Moderate (a) sheltered from severe rain. • Indoors in industrial areas.

• Outdoors in rural Highveld areas.
(b) buried in non-aggressive soil; or
(c) s ubjected to polluted air (but not
corrosive fumes)

Severe (a) w
 et conditions where the water is • Outdoors in industrial areas
mildly to fairly aggressive • Outdoors in marine atmospheric
conditions (i.e. up to 15 Km from the sea),
(b) corrosive fumes, or
or
(c) Salt-laden air • Outdoors in the Cape winter-rainfall area
Subjected to polluted air (but not corrosive
fumes)

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Condition Exposure Examples

Very severe (a) w

 et conditions where the water is
mildly to fairly aggressive
(b) a brasive action under any wet
conditions
(c) highly corrosive fumes

Extreme Wet conditions in which the water is highly

aggressive.

Wet conditions should be assumed if the concrete is exposed to water intermittently.

Highly aggressive water can have a serious detrimental effect on the concrete, even if the period of concrete
exposure is short.
The aggressiveness of water is defined in Appendix a of SANS 10100-2

1.2.10 Fire resistance

It has been shown that fire reduces the strength of reinforced concrete. The fire
resistance of a reinforced concrete beam depends on the amount of protective
cover provided to the main reinforcement.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF STEEL

The standard types of steel used in concrete structures are plain, mild steel bars,
deformed high-yield bars and steel fabrics, as specified in SANS 920:2005 and
SANS 1024:2006. Mild steel bars are hot rolled plain surface mild steel bars
having a minimum tensile strength of 250 MPa. They are easy to cut, bend
and weld, and are most commonly used as links or stirrups. High yield bars
with a minimum tensile strength of 450 MPa may be hot rolled, during which
process ribs are formed on the surface of the steel, or cold working where
deformed mild steel bars are twisted after hot rolling.

Table 1.5 summarises the commonly used steel characteristics as per SANS
10100-1

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12
 CHAP T ER   1:  G e n e r a l d e si g n co nsi d e r at i o ns

TABLE 1.5
Characteristic strength of reinforcement, fy (SANS 10100-1) [4]

1 2 3

Designation of Nominal sizes in (mm) Characteristics strength f y in

reinforcement (MPa)

Hot-rolled mild steel (SANS 920) All sizes 250

Hot-rolled high-yield steel All sizes 450

(SANS 920)

Cold-worked high-yield All sizes 450

(SANS 920)

Hard-drawn steel wire Up to and including 12 485

1.3.1 Stress-strain relationship

A typical stress-strain relationship for hot-rolled mild steel reinforcement and
high-yield steel reinforcement tested in tension are presented in Figure 1-11*
below.

(*) Figure 1.11 – Refer to recommended book [6] page 2–21, Figure 2-19

The following can be observed:

• Both steels behave elastically up to point A

• After point a, a yield plateau is reached starting from point b, lower than a.
• In this plateau, there is little or no increase in stress for the corresponding
increase in strain. Depending on the type of steel, the plateau is bounded
by the onset of a region of strain hardening passing by point c.
• The strain hardening is characterised by increases in both stress and strain
until point d is reached. Any further increase in strain beyond this point
will result in reduction of stress until rupture occurs in f.

1.3.2 Modulus of elasticity

The slope of the initial linear elastic portion gives the modulus of elasticity,
or Young’s modulus.

The modulus of elasticity of reinforcement can vary between 200 and 210 GPa.
SANS 10100-1 recommends a value of 200 GPa, or 195 GPa for prestressing
strands and 165 GPa for high tensile alloy steel.

1.4 PRESTRESSED STEEL CABLES, TENDONS AND STRANDS

The steel used in pre-stressing work is usually in form of cold drawn, high
tensile wires or alloy steel bars. The tensile strength of steel is four times that of
high-yield reinforcing steel (although the Young’s modulus is almost the same).

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13 RC D 4 8 01/1


Wires can be use one by one, or twisted together to form a strand. Wires are
typically 5 or 7 mm in diameter. Strands, usually consisting of seven wires, are
12 to 15 mm in diameter. Bars are 16 to 36 mm in diameter,[7]. Further details
will be given in the chapter dealing with prestressed concrete.

1.5 LOADS
Loads used in the design of structures shall be considered as suggested in
SANS 10160 section 1 to 5, [8]. These entail the following loads:

• Nominal self-weight load Gn (e.g. weight of the structure including the

finishes, fixtures)
• Nominal imposed load Qn
• Nominal wind load Wn and
• Earth and water pressure.

This section has been extensively presented in RCD4700 [8]. You are advised
to consult the study guide for Reinforced Concrete Design IV, Module 1,
Section 1.3. The relevant sections of SANS 10160-2 also need also to be
referred to.

1.6 LIMIT STATE DESIGN [9]

The ultimate states limits are those concerning safety and are expressed in
terms of maximum load carrying capacity, e.g. overturning or uplift, fracture
of members and deformation resulting in failure.

In order to avoid failure of a structure at limit state, the factored resistance

must be higher than the effect of ultimate loads as described by the following
equation:

φR ≥ γi Dn + γi Qnj + Σ (yi γi Qni) Equation 1.10

Where: R = nominal resistance of element (moment, shear, etc.)

φ = partial resistance factor.
γi = partial load factor.
Dn = dead load effect.
Qnj = dominant imposed load.
Qni = non-dominant imposed load.
yi = load combination factor.

A load effect is the magnitude of the moment, shear, axial stress or similar,
resulting from the applied load.

1.7 SERVICE STATE DESIGN

The same way, to avoid unfitness for purpose or unserviceability, the service
state design insures that the serviceability requirements are higher than or
equal to the effect of serviceability due to loads.

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14
 CHAP T ER   1:  G e n e r a l d e si g n co nsi d e r at i o ns

The serviceability limit states are those which restrict normal use and occupancy,
or which affect durability. Excessive deflection, cracking or spalling, or excessive
vibration are some of the typical serviceability limit states.

1.8 RELIABILITY AND SAFETY OF STRUCTURES

Reliability is the ability of a structure or a structural element to fulfil the specified
requirements during a given period of time, e.g. its design life. Reliability is
often expressed as a probability related to a specific requirement and over a
set period of time. In respect of ultimate limit states, reliability is often referred
to as safety, while in respect of serviceability limit states, reliability is often
referred to as serviceability [10].

If E represents the action effect and R the resistance effect, both following the
normal distributions with means values of µE and µR and standard deviations
of σE and σR, the safety margin G = R – E can be written as µG = µE – µR with
σG = .

A factor β is then introduced and expressed as the mean in terms the standard
deviation, safety margin, the probability of failure and safety index.

This factor β relates both µG and σG to the probability of failure and is referred
to as the reliability index. The relationship between and β the probability of
failure is given by the following:

pf = Φ (-β) or β = - Φ-1 (pf) Equation 1.12

where

Φ is the cumulative distribution function of the standardised normal distribution.

For more detailed information on this topic, you are advised to read the
book by Milan Holicky [10].

SANS 2394 (2003) provides target values for life-time reliability index β, as
suggested in Table 1.6

• For serviceability limit state, use β = 0 for reversible and β = 1.5 for
irreversible limit states
• For fatigue limit state, use β = 2.3 to 3.1, depending on the possibility of
inspection
• For ultimate limit states, use β = 3.1 to 4.3

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15 RC D 4 8 01/1


TABLE 1.6
Target values for lifetime reliability index β (SANS 2394)

Relative cost of Consequence of failure

safety measures

Small Some Moderate Great

High 0.0 1.5 2.3 3.1

Moderate 1.3 2.3 3.1 3.8
Low 2.3 3.1 3.8 4.3

1.9 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

(1) Why has the tensile strength of concrete always been measured indirectly?
Give few methods which are used to measure this characteristic.
(2) Enumerate the characteristics that are important for structural design of
concrete and steel and why the number has been limited to the ones
given in the study guide?
(3) What is the meaning of time-dependent behaviour of concrete? Can you
also use this term for the steel used in reinforced concrete?
(4) What is the meaning of ‘stress-strain model’? Can it be compared to
‘stress-strain relationship’?
(5) List the types of loads used in concrete design and explain in which cases
the wind load may be neglected?
(6) Provide a few examples of limit state and serviceability state of a structure?
(7) What is the difference between the steel used in reinforced concrete and
the steel used in pre-stressed concrete technology?
(8) Explain, in your own words, the self-reliability and safety design approach
and provide three examples of the use of this method.

1.10 REFERENCES
[1] Addis, B. 1998 reprinted 2008. Fundamentals of concrete. South Africa
Published by Cement and Concrete Institute, Midrand.

[2] Loedolff, G F and Chambers, S L. Feb. 1994. Die indirekte treksterkte of

splyttoets van beton gemaak met 19mm gebreekte klip van Malmesbury
shale, Concrete Beton, no.17.

[3] Gill Owens, 2009. Fulton Concrete Technology, 9th Edition South Africa.
Chapter 7: Strength of hardened concrete by Bryan Perrie, Cement Concrete
Institute.

[4] The South African Standard SANS 10100-1, 2000. The Structural Use of
Concrete – Part 1: Design, Code of Practice.

[5] J M Robberts and V Marshall, 2010. Analysis and Design of concrete

structures. Robberts and Marshall Structural Engineers (Pty) Ltd.
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 CHAP T ER   1:  G e n e r a l d e si g n co nsi d e r at i o ns

[6] V Marshall and J M Robberts, 2000 First edition. Midrand South Africa.
Prestressed Concrete, design, and practice. Concrete Society of Southern
Africa. Prestressed Concrete Division.

[7] Gill Owens, 2009. Fulton Concrete Technology, 9th Edition South Africa.
Reinforcement by Gary Theodosiou. Cement Concrete Institute.

[8] University of South Africa, Pretoria 2005. Reinforced Concrete Design

IV, RCD401C Study guide by Greg Parrott.

[9] The South African Standard SANS 10160-1, 2011. Basis of Structural
design and actions for building and industrial structures – Part 1, Code
of Practice.

[10] Milan Holicky, 2009. Reliability analysis for structural design, Published
by SUN MeDIA, Stellenbosch, 7600.

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17 RC D 4 8 01/1


CHAPTER
2  2

2 Ribbed slabs design

2.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

As prior knowledge, it is assumed that you have analysed and designed simply
supported restrained and unrestrained slabs in flexure, namely one-way and
two-way spanning slabs including flat slabs. The three-step design approach
– consisting of determining the main reinforcing steel, checking the shear
and the deformation – is still used here in this module to design other special
ribbed slab systems.

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to design any other ribbed slab
systems – namely ribbed (hollow block) and waffle or coffer slabs – using
SANS 10100-1. The assessment criteria are therefore summarised as follows:

Outcome Assessment criteria

Apply the understanding of • Explain the difference between ribbed slabs, waffle
structural analysis, loadings, slabs and conventional solid slabs.
drawing and computer • Design one-way ribbed slabs (flexure, shear, and
literacy to design one-way deformation)
and two-ways ribbed as well • Design two-way ribbed slabs (flexure, shear, and
as one-way and two-way deformation)
waffle slabs. • Presentation of the design in drawings
using commercial software, e.g. Autocad
(Assignments)

2.2 TYPES OF RIBBED SLABS

When it is not possible to construct conventional solid slabs for reasons such as
the need for bigger spans, e.g. above 12m, ribbed slabs are generally used. In
this category (ribbed slabs), one can cite the rib and block, the coffer or waffle
slab, voided slabs, ribbed beam slabs and slabs using permanent formwork [1]

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18
 CHAP T ER   2:  R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

FIGURE 2.1
Permanent formwork – steel deck [Google image]

Waffle slabs tend to be deeper than the equivalent ribbed slabs. They have
a thin topping slab and narrow ribs spanning in both directions between
columns, heads or bands.

Compared to the conventional solid slabs, ribbed slabs are generally flexible
and relatively light, and therefore incur lower foundation costs. Longer spans
are economic, can be constructed quickly, allow for fairly slim floor depths,
are robust, have excellent vibration control, have good thermal mass, are good
for services integration, allow for durable finishes and are fire-resistant.

2.3 ONE WAY RIBBED SLABS

For conventional solid slabs, when the ratio of the longer to the shorter side
(L/D) of the slab is at least equal to 2, these are called one-way slabs [1]. A
typical one-way ribbed slab will have ribs provided in one direction only,
regardless of the ratio of longer to shorter panel dimensions, as illustrated
below in Figure 2.2 [2]. A one-way ribbed slab can be regarded as a series of
equally spaced ribs on top of which a thin topping slab is attached. Concrete
ribs are generally massive compared to they decking. The spacing between
ribs is obtained by either through the use of light, hollow blocks inserted in
between, or by leaving the voids without any filling material. Ribbed slab floors
are the most economical for use in buildings such as hospitals, schools, hotels
and apartments where loads are relatively small and the spans relatively large.

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19 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 2.2
One-way Ribbed slab [2]

Two main types of ribbed floors are the most popular in practice – these are
hollow block floors (Figure 2.3 (a)) and moulded floors (Figure 2.3 (b)). Each
type of floor has a number of reinforced concrete ribs spanning in the short
directions and supporting a thin topping placed above them. Figure 2.3 shows
a typical ribbed slab.

FIGURE 2.3
Typical Ribbed Slabs [3]

2.3.1 Design of one-way ribbed slabs

2.3.1.1 Topping Slab [3]

The thickness of the topping is designed as a continuous beam supported by
many ribs. Due to the large number of ribs, the maximum bending moment is
taken as Mu = wu l2c / 12 where wu is the factored load resisted by the topping
and lc is the centre-to-centre distance between the ribs.

The topping slab thickness t is calculated using the maximum moment as

shown above,

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20
 CHAP T ER   2:  R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

The module of rupture fr is given by

Equation 2.1

Equation 2.2

where:

t = topping slab thickness

Mu = factored bending moment
F = strength reduction factor for flexure (taken as 6.75 if not given)
b = web width
fcu = Concrete characteristic value

Shrinkage reinforcement is provided in the topping slab in both directions in

a mesh form.

2.3.1.2 Regularly Spaced Ribs

According to SANS 10100 code clause 4.5.1.3 [4], ribs are not to be less than
65 mm in width and not more than four times the minimum web width in
depth. Clear spacing between ribs is not to exceed 1500mm. In terms of topping
thickness, assuming that the latter contributes to the strength of the slab, the
same code states that it should not be less than the following:

• 30 mm for slabs that have permanent blocks and have a clear distance of
not more than 500 mm between ribs
• 25 mm for slabs as in the 1st bullet point above, but with each row of
blocks jointed in mortar having a cement-sand mixture not weaker than
1:3 or having a cube strength of 11 MPa
• The greater of 40 mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between the ribs
for all other slabs
• The greater of 50 mm or one-tenth of the clear distance between the ribs
for all other slabs without permanent block

Optimal direction of ribs is to follow one of the principal directions, preferably

aligned along the shorter direction. This leads to smaller amounts of reinforcement
being needed in the ribs, while large amounts of reinforcement are needed in
the supporting beam. Figure 2.4 shows such an arrangement.

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21 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 2.4
Ribs aligned in the shorter direction [3]

Shear Strength
Shear strength, provided by concrete ribs Vc (often adjusted 10% upwards) is
not normally critical, but is required to be checked as construction stirrups
are always provided, e.g. 4 φ 6 mm /m.
Flexural Strength
Ribs are designed as rectangular beams in the regions of negative moment
at the supports and as T-shaped beams in the regions of positive moments
between the supports. Effective flange width bc is taken as half the distance
between the ribs, centre to centre.

2.3.1.3 Minimum Thickness

The minimum thickness is derived from the serviceability deflection
requirements.
The basic span/effective depth ratios for one-way ribbed slabs remains the
same as for rectangular beams in SANS 10100, summarised in Table 2.1 below:

TABLE 2.1
Serviceability deflection requirements

Element Simply One Single span Both Cantilever

supported continuous with nominal continuous
end restraint

One-way ribbed 16 20 24 28 7
Slabs

2.3.1.4 Summary of one-way ribbed slab design procedure

Knowing the steel and concrete properties, the next steps are as follows:
• Decide on the direction of the ribs
• Calculate the slab thickness, based on the deflection control requirement.
Also thickness of topping t, rib width b, and hollow blocks size, if any are
to be determined based on code requirements
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22
 CHAP T ER 2: R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

• Compute the factored load on each of the ribs

• Draw the shear force and bending diagrams using the load evaluated in
bullet point 3
• Check the strength of the web in shear
• Design positive and negative moment reinforcement. Clear distance between
bars is to be checked to guarantee a free flow of concrete
• Prepare neat sketches showing arrangement of ribs and details of reinforcement

2.3.2 Example of one-way ribbed slab design

A ribbed slab is continuous over four equal spans of 6m each. The dead loading,
including self-weight, finishes, partitions etc. is 4.5 kN/m2 and the imposed
load is 2.5 kN/m2. Design the end span of the slab using a grade 30 concrete
and 450 grade reinforcement (SANS 10100)

Dimensions of the cross section through the floor and the slab have been
chosen as above. Assume that the exposure is mild and that the cover is
therefore 25mm and for Y12 diameter bar. The effective depth is then h =
275-25-6 = 244mm.

(a) Moment and shear in the rib

Consider 0,45m width of floor, the ultimate design load per span is

0.45 [(1.2 × 4.7) + (1.6 × 2.5)] = 0.45 × (5.6 + 4) = 4.32 KN/m

= 4.32 x 6 = 25.92 kN/span

Checking of the slab topping thickness

Mu = wu l2 / 12 = 4.32 × 62 / 12 = 12.96 kNm

Using Equation 2.2 t = = 59.2 mm use 60 mm

SANS practical requirements recommend the highest values between 40 mm

or span/10 = 60 mm. Therefore, 60 mm is then chosen.

The design shears and moments taken from Table 13 of SANS 10100

Shear at A = 0.4 × 25.92 = 10.37 kN

Shear at B = 0.6 × 25.92 = 15.55 kN

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23 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 2.5
(a) Rib slab – section through floor; (b) Rib slab – section through slab [5]

Moment at C = 0.086 × 25.92 × 6 = 13.37 kNm

Moment at B = -0.086 × 25.92 × 6 = -13.37 kNm

(b) Design of moment reinforcement

(1) Mid-span T section. Flange breadth bw is 450mm and the
Equivalent breath b = bw + Lz/5; b = 300 + (0.85 × 6000)/5 = 1320 mm
K = M/bd2 fcu = 13.37 × 106/1320 × 2442 × 30 = 13.37/2358 = 0.006
Z/d = 0.95; Z = 0.95 × 244 = 231.8 mm
(d – Z)/0.45; (244 – 231.8)/0.45 = 27.1 mm < 60 mm (Neutral axis falls
in flange)
As = 13.37 × 106/0.87 × 450 × 231.8 = 13370/90.75 = 147.3 mm2
Provide two Y12 mm bars, area 226 mm2

Section at support – Rectangular section 125 mm wide.

(2)
Provide also two Y12 mm bars, as moment is the same in value but in a
different position.

(c) Shear Resistance

v max = 0.75 × fcu0.5 = 4.1 N/mm2 < 4.5 N/mm2
100 As/b × d = 100 × 226/125 × 244 = 0.74 N/mm2
Vc = (0.75/γm) × (fcu/25)0.333 × (100 As/b × d)0.333 × (400/d)0.25
Vc = (0.75/1.4) × (30/25)0.333 × (100 × 226/125 × 244)0.333 × (400/244)0.25
= 0.536 × 1.063 × 0.905 × 1.132 = 0.584 N/mm2
v = V/b × d = 15.55 × 103/125 × 244 = 11.55/30.5 = 0.379 N/mm2
< 4.1 N/mm2

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24
 CHAP T ER   2:  R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

Stirrups not required, but construction links are needed. Provide R6 mm

at minimum spacing of 0.75 × d = 183 mm – let us say 180 mm

(d) Deflection
bw/b = 125/450 = 0.28 < 0.3

FIGURE 2.5
(c): One-way rib slab – Reinforcement arrangement. [5]

Basic span /d ratio = 24 (Table 10, SANS 10100)

Service load = 0.45 [(1.1 × 4.7) + (1.0 × 2.5)] = 0.45 × (5.2 + 2.5) =
3.5 kN/m
= 3.5 × 6 = 21.0 kN/span
fs = 0.87 f y × (service load)/Ultimate load) x (As req./As prov.) × (1/βb)

fs = 0.87 × 450 × (3.5/4.32) × (147.3/226) × 1.0

= 206.7 N/mm2
M/b × d2 = 13.37 × 106/450 × 2442 = 13.37/26.79 = 0.499
Modification factor = 0.55 + (477 – fs)/[120 (0.9 + M/b × d2)]
= 0.55 + (477 – 206.7)/[120 (0.9 + 0.499)] = 270.3/167.9 = 1.6
Allowable span/d ratio = 24 × 1.6 = 38.4
Actual span/d ratio = 6000/244 = 24.6 < Allowable, OK

2.4 TWO-WAY RIBBED SLABS

A two-way ribbed slab – also called a two-way joist slab or waffle slab – is an
economical floor system used when the spans are long and/or the loads are
high. This is obtained by introducing voids to the soffit of a slab that will reduce
the dead weight and increase the efficiency of the concrete section in terms
of resisting the applied loads. As a result of this, the total volume of concrete
may be reduced, but this is often offset by the additional complication in the
formwork. It has been mentioned that waffle slabs are economical in the span
range varying from 8 to 12 m.

Waffle analysis and design is similar to the procedure used for flat slabs,
except that special considerations need to be taken into account because of
the complexity of calculations due to the geometry of the structure. Typical
examples of waffle slabs are given in Figure 2.6 below.

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25 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 2.6
Two-way waffle slab [6]

2.4.1 Analysis of two-way ribbed slab

Design values for moments and forces due to ultimate loads may be taken from
Tables 13, 14 and 15 of SANS 10100, depending on the boundary conditions.
In the same way as one-way slabs, the two-way slabs may also be designed
as a series of simply supported beams. Wide cracks may develop at supports,
but they need to be controlled by adequate reinforcement. Arrangement of
such reinforcement in a two-way ribbed slab is given in SANS 10100 Section
4.5.6. One particular clause needs to be highlighted here, quoted as follows: “A
single layer of mesh should be provided in the topping of all ribbed and hollow
block slabs. The mesh should have a cross sectional area in each direction of
at least 12% of the topping. The spacing of wires should not exceed half the
centre to centre distance between the ribs.”

This resource can be also consulted for the analysis of two-way ribbed slab:
Two-way waffle slab

2.4.2 Construction of two-way ribbed slab – waffle slabs

Waffle slabs are typical two-way ribbed slabs. The construction of waffle
slabs is generally faster compared to a conventional slab. Waffle slabs are
generally stiffer and relatively lighter and economical compared to their flat
slab equivalents. They also provide low floor deflections, good finishes and
robustness, as well as good fire control resistance. They are used where
vibration is an issue and where the large span slabs are to be constructed with
less interference with columns, e.g. commercial and industrial buildings. A
step-by-step construction of waffle slabs is captured in this YouTube video:
Waffle slab construction procedure: (2:31)

A few disadvantages of this slab system are:

• It requires greater floor-to-floor height

• It requires special proprietary formwork, which is costly
• It requires specialised labour and good supervision
• It is difficult to maintain

2.4.3 Example of a two-way waffle slab design

Design a waffle slab as per SANS 10100 for an internal panel of a floor system
that is constructed on an 8 m square module. The total dead load is 6.5 kN/
m2 and the imposed load is 2.5 kN/m2. The materials of construction are grade

...........
26
 CHAP T ER   2:  R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

30 concrete and grade 450 reinforcement. Cover for mild exposure 25 mm.
Figure 2.7 displays the setup of the slab.

(a) Arrangement of Slab - Requirement SANS 10100

(1) Rib width must be not less than 65mm. One can use approximately double
this – e.g. 125mm – to cater for reinforcement. Let us use b = 125 mm.
(Clause 4.5.1.3)
(2) Thickness of topping t = 75mm > 50 mm OK
(3) Rib centre to centre distance d = 500 mm
(4) Flange depth f = 200mm < 4 × 75 mm =300 mm

FIGURE 2.7
Two-way waffle slab – Concrete layout

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27 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 2.7
Two-way waffle slab – Concrete layout [5]

(b) Reinforcement
Design Load = (1.2 ×6.5) + (1.6×2.5) = 7.2 + 4 = 11.2 kN/mm2
The middle trip moment for an interior panel for the slab width supported by
one rib is taken from Table 15 of SANS 10100-1.
Lx/ly = 8/8 = 1; Panel No 1; bsx = 0.031 and bsy = 0.024
Support msx = -0.031 × 11.2 × 82 = -22.22 kNm
Support msy = 0.024 × 11.2 × 82 = 16.32 kNm

The effective depths, assuming 12mm diameter main bars and 6mm of stirrups
steel, are as follows:

...........
28
 CHAP T ER   2:  R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

Outer layer d = 375 – 25 – 6 - 6 = 238mm

Inner Layer d = 275- 25 – 6 – 12 - 6 = 226mm

(1)
Support – solid section 50 mm wide
K = M/bd2fcu = 22.22 × 106/500 × 2382 × 30 = 22.22/850 = 0.026
z = 0.95 × 238 = 226.1 mm
As = M/0.87 × f y x z

As = 22.22 × 106/0.87 × 450 × 226.1 = 11110/88.518 = 251.2mm2

Provide three Y12 mm to give a steel area of 339 mm2.

At the end of the solid section, the moment of resistance of the concrete
rib with 125 mm is given by:

M = 0.156 × 30 × 125 × 2382/106 = 33.14 kNm.

This exceeds the moment at the support and so the ribs are able to resist
the applied moment without compression steel. The applied moment at
500 mm from the support will be less than the support moment.

(2)
Centre of span, T beam, d = 226 mm
The neutral axis lies in the flange. The steel area is calculated in the same
way as before:

As = M/0.87 × f y x z

As = 16.32 x 106/0.87 × 450 × 226.1 = 16320/88.518 = 184.4 mm2

Provide three Y12 mm to give a steel area of 339 mm2.

(c) Shear Resistance

Shear force at the support for the width supported by one rib is
V = (11.2 × 8)/2 = 44.8 kN
vmax = 0.75 × fcu0.5 = 4.1 N/mm2 < 4.5 N/mm2
100 As/b × d = 100 × 339/125 × 238 = 1.139 N/mm2
Vc = (0.75/γm) × (fcu/25)0.333 × (100 As/b × d)0.333 × (400/d)0.25
Vc = (0.75/1.4) × (30/25)0.333 × (100 × 339/125 × 238)0.333 × (400/238)0.25
= 0.536 × 1.063 × 1.044 × 1.139 = 0.678 N/mm2
v = V/b × d = 44.80 × 103/125 × 244 = 44.80/30.5 = 1.467 N/mm2 < 4.1
N/mm2

Stirrups are not required, but construction links are needed. Provide R6 mm
at minimum spacing of 0.75 x d = 179 mm, let us say 160mm

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29 RC D 4 8 01/1


(d) Deflection
bw/b = 125/500 = 0.25 < 0.3
Basic span/d ratio = 28 (Table 10, SANS 10100)
Service load = [(1.1 × 6.5) + (1.0 × 2.5)] = (6.6 + 2.5) = 9.1 kN/m
fs = 0.87 f y × (service load)/Ultimate load) × (As req./As prov.) × (1/βb)
fs = 0.87 × 450 × (9.1/13.1) × (184.4/339) × 1.0
= 147.9 N/mm2
M/b × d2 = 16.32 × 106 / 450 × 2442 = 16.32/26.79 = 0.609
Modification factor = 0.55 + (477 – fs)/[120 (0.9 + M/b × d2)]
= 0.55 + (477 – 147.9)/[120 (0.9 + 0.609)] = 329.1/181.1 = 1.8
Allowable span/d ratio = 28 × 1.8 = 50.4
Actual span/d ratio = 8000/238 = 33.6 < Allowable, OK
Actual span / d ratio = 8000 / 238 = 33.6 < Allowable, OK
(e) Reinforcement in topping
e) Reinforcement
The area required per in topping
metre width is 0.12 × 75 × 1000/100 = 90 mm2/m.
We can use steel mesh Ref 193 with area 123 mm2/m and wire spacing in the
The area required per metre width is 0.12 x 75 x 1000/100 = 90mm2/m. We can use steel m
centre of the topping.
Ref 193 with area 123mm2/m and wire spacing in the centre of the topping.
(f) Arrangement of the reinforcement
f) Arrangement of the reinforcement
The arrangement of main steel and shear reinforcement is given in Figure 2.8
below.
The arrangement of main steel and shear reinforcement in is given in Figure 2.8 below.

Figure 2.8: Two-way waffle FIGURE 2.8 layout [5]

slab – Steel
Two-way waffle slab – Steel layout [5]

2.45 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

2.5 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1) Design the one-way continuous slab as shown below in Figure 2.8. It
is subjected
1. Design totheuniformly distributedslab
one-way continuous imposed loads
as shown of in
below 5kN/m 2
using
Figure 2.8. It is subjected to
concrete fcu = 30MPa and steel f y = 450 MPa. The load of floor finish is
1 kN/muniformly
2 distributed imposed loads of 5kN/m2 using concrete fcu = 30MPa and steel f
. The span dimensions, shown in Figure 2.8, are effective spans.
450 MPa.
The width of theThe loadatofthe
beams floorsupport
finish isis1300mm.
kN/m2 . The span dimensions, shown in the
Figure 2.8, are effective spans. The width of the beams at the support is 300mm.

...........
30 2. Design the same continuous slab with a cantilever panel as shown below in Figure 2.
subjected to the same uniformly distributed imposed loads of 5kN/m2 using concrete
30MPa and steel fy = 450 MPa. The load of the floor finish is 0.5 kN/m2 . The span
 CHAP T ER   2:  R i b b e d s l a b s d e si g n

(2) Design the same continuous slab with a cantilever panel as shown below
in Figure 2.9, subjected to the same uniformly distributed imposed loads
of 5kN/m2 using concrete fcu = 30MPa and steel f y = 450 MPa. The load
of the floor finish is 0.5 kN/m2 . The span dimensions shown in the Figure
2.9 are effective spans. The width of beams at the support is still 300mm.

FIGURE 2.9
Ribbed slab design 1

FIGURE 2.10
Ribbed slab design 2

(3) A two-way garage slab, as shown below in Figure 2.10, is supporting a

uniformly distributed imposed load of 5kN/m2 using concrete fcu = 35MPa
and steel f y = 450 MPa. The load of the floor finish is 1 kN/m2. Assuming
that the panel is a middle panel in both directions with 350×350 mm
columns at each corner, and that the effective span dimensions are shown
as in Figure 2.10, design the slab using SANS 10100. The width of beams
at the column supports is 350 mm, and 300 mm inside the slab.

...........
31 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 2.11
Ribbed slab design 3

2.6 REFERENCES
[1] University of South Africa, Pretoria 2005. Reinforced Concrete Design
IV, RCD401C Study guide by Greg Parrott.

[2] Insitu Slabs Catalogue – Internet sourced picture.

[3] http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/aalmadhoun/files/Chp8.pdf

[4] The South African Standard SANS 10100-1, 2000. The Structural Use of
Concrete – Part 1: Design, Code of Practice.

[5] T J Mac Ginley and B S Choo. 2th Edition, London, & New York, 1990.
Reinforced Concrete – Design Theory and Examples.

[6] Civil Engineering Department of Basrah University, 2011, Irak. Optimum

Design of Reinforced Concrete Waffle Slabs, International Journal of Civil
and Structural Engineering, Volume 1, No 4.

[7] https://www.youtube.com/embed/LKaylz7woSY?feature=oembed

...........
32
 CHAPTER
3  3

Design of precast, composite and plain

3

concrete elements

3.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

This chapter presents specific considerations that arise with the design and
steel detailing of the following concrete elements:

(1) Precast concrete beams and slabs

Prefabrication is an industrialised process that ensures the fast, high-quality
and environmentally-friendly construction of structures (buildings, bridges,
stadia) using precast elements such as concrete beams, slabs, and columns.
The prefabrication industry has, since 2000, allowed taller buildings using up
to 36 storeys of skeletal structure to be built with stronger concrete, e.g. 90
MPa, and for longer prestressed beams, up to 50 m, to be produced for bridge
construction. Various shapes and typical precast elements, as shown in Figure
3.1, below, are used to this effect.

FIGURE 3.1
Different shapes of beams and slabs (Google image)

...........
33 RC D 4 8 01/1


(2) Composite concrete beams and slabs

FIGURE 3.2
Composite flooring system (Google image)

Composite slabs consist of profiled steel decking with an in-situ reinforced

concrete slab forming the topping. The decking acts as permanent formwork to
the concrete and also provides sufficient shear bond with the concrete so that,
when the concrete has gained strength, the two materials can then behave as
one. Composite beams are normally hot rolled or fabricated steel sections that
act compositely with the slab by means of shear connectors attached to the top
flange of the beam. A typical example of the decking set up for a composite
floor is shown in Figure 3.2, above.

(3) Plain concrete walls

Plain concrete walls are considered as being both those built of concrete
without any reinforcement and those which have reinforcement only to reduce
the effects of cracking, generally in the form of fabrics close to their faces.
Examples of structural elements that may be constructed using plain concrete
are, among others, the following: building walls on basement floors or on
other floors, generally with steel fabrics on both faces, foundation footings for
brick or concrete walls, footings and foundation piles consisting of reinforced
concrete or rolled steel pillars and containing walls in situations of little height
and so on.

...........
34
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

FIGURE 3.3
Example of a plain concrete wall (Google image)

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to design precast concrete beams
and slab connections, composite concrete beams and plain walls using SANS
10100-1. The assessment criteria are therefore summarised as follows:

Outcome Assessment criteria

Apply the understanding of • Distinguish between types of connections for

structural analysis, loadings, precast concrete, e.g. beam-to-column connection,
drawing and computer slab-to-slab connection
literacy to design precast • Designing of precast concrete connections, e.g.
connections, composite beam-to-column connection (Corbel half beam),
concrete beams and slabs and slab-to-slab connection (loop connection)
plain concrete walls. • Differentiation between the concepts of elastic
and plastic design of composite beam (concrete
decking and steel beam)
• Definition, role, and design of shear connections
in composite beam or slab constructions
• Analysis and design of composite beams and slabs
• Explain the slenderness ratio of plain walls
• Calculate the ultimate axial load for slender walls
using different codes e.g. Eurocode 2, ACI 318-89
and SANS 10100-1
• Design of plain concrete walls
• Presentation of each specific design, e.g. precast
connections, composite beams and slabs, and plain
concrete walls in drawings, using Autocad and
Prokon software (Assignments)

...........
35 RC D 4 8 01/1


3.2 DESIGN OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

Precast concrete elements are common in the construction industry, especially
in building and bridge construction. Concrete precast elements can be simply
defined as pre-engineered concrete units of different shapes and sizes,
manufactured in a factory or any controlled environment and transported to
site for fast construction in an environmentally friendly manner. The rapidity
of construction, combined with the quality of produced precast elements and
the reduced labour required on site for installation, makes prefabrication one of
the most frequently used construction methods, both here in South Africa and
internationally in many other developed countries. Nowadays, in the modern
construction industry, precasting and prestressing are features which are often
interrelated. Every construction system has its own characteristics as regards
construction strategy, specific and particular exigence, stability philosophy,
physical properties and so on. To get optimum benefits, it is important that
the design for a precast concrete structure should be conceived according to
specific rules and detailed information on design guides. This YouTube video
presents the step-by-step construction of a building using the prefabrication
method: Prefabrication construction columns, beams, and slabs (4:08) [1]

This section on precast concrete design is intended to provide important

information concerning the procedure to be followed in the design of a building.
This is followed by some guidelines about the application of the most common
basic structural systems in precast buildings.

This section will not discuss the process of manufacturing the precast elements
but, rather, will present the engineering aspects of designing and assembling
such units, especially their connections.

3.2.1 Design and construction considerations of precast concrete

elements
A prefabrication system in the construction of buildings will generally have a
skeletal form comprising columns, beams, and a floor slab like the one shown
in Figure 3.4, below. Joost Walraven [2] suggests the following considerations
for a proper design and construction of precast concrete elements:

• Standardisation: Structural connections are designed to transfer forces, and

the magnitude of these forces will vary from connection to connection. It
is advisable to try to standardise a range of light, medium and heavy-duty
type of elements of the same principal solution, but each with a different
capacity of transferring loads. This makes it easy for the designer to choose
a standard solution and creates repetition for easy handling by the workers
on site. At the end of all, a standardised connection system will always be
beneficial.
• Simplicity: One can achieve simplicity by designing elements that are simple
easily workable and likely to be correctly assembled.
• Tensile capacity: If a connection is required to have a tensile force capacity
then, consequently, all the embedded units must have sufficient anchorage,
and friction can never be part of the developed force transfer mechanism.
• Ductility: Connections should preferably behave in a ductile manner.
Ductility can be defined as the ability to have large plastic deformations

...........
36
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

before the connection fails. In concrete members with moment resisting

connections, the flexural tension is normally resisted by steel components,
either by reinforcing bars or structural steel members.
• Movements: Where movements are required for the structure to function
properly, this should be allowed, e.g. deformation of beams and slabs due
to loads, pre-stressing forces, shrinkage and/or creep.
• Durability: Corrosion of exposed steel or cracking and spalling of concrete
as a result of corrosion of the reinforcement bars should be avoided.
Connections must be designed accordingly.
• Fire resistance: Precast concrete connection details must be fire resistant as
they are generally the weakest link in case of fire jeopardising the stability
of the entire structure.

FIGURE 3.4
Skeleton frame structure: column, beams, and slab [2]

• Aesthetics: The partitioning of precast element or the design of connections

thereof must be done such that It does not hinder the overall aesthetics of
the building structure.

3.2.1.1 Connection types

Different types of connections are found in prefabricated constructed buildings.
The most frequent, as reported by Mostert [3], are presented in Figure 3.5,
below.

...........
37 RC D 4 8 01/1
 6


Figure 3.5: Different Cconnections fiound in FIGURE 3.5 building structure (Irish Precast
a precast
Different connections
Concrete Association, found in a precast building structure (Irish Precast Concrete
IPCA 2007)
Association, IPCA 2007)
The above Figure
picture 3.5,
in Figure
above,3.5,shows
above,a shows
varietya of
variety of connection
connection types types that occurs
that occur in typical
in typical
precast concrete frame
precast buildings.
concrete frameThese that can
buildings. be identified
These as follows:as follows:
can be identified
1. Foundation-to-column connections,
2. Column-to-column connections, connections,
(1) Foundation-to-column
3. Column-to-beam connections,connections,
(2) Column-to-column
4. Connections between floor slabs,
(3) Column-to-beam and
connections,
5. Beam-to-slab connections.
(4) Connections between floor slabs, and
(5) Beam-to-slab connections.
In our case, we will discuss the connections zones marked on the figure that haveby a square
In our case, we will discuss the connection zones marked on the figure by a
and aor triangle drawn around them, namely the column-beam connection, beam -to -slab
square or triangle drawn around them, namely the column-beam connection,
connection and the slab-to-slab connections.
beam-to-slab connection and the slab-to-slab connections.
3.2.1.1.1 Column-beam connections
3.2.1.1.1 Column-beam connections
Depending on the magnitude, types of applied loads and the boundary conditions of the identified
connection Depending
zones, beam-to-column connections
on the magnitude, can of
types be applied
broadly classified
loads and in two
the types as
boundary
suggested by the European
conditions of the Commission –- Joint rResearch
identified connection cCentre, 2012:connections
zones, beam-to-column In Figure 3.6, the two
can
different types of beam-to-column connections (Type I: A and B) and (Type II: C and
be broadly classified in two types as suggested by the European Commission C) are
shown. – Joint Research Centre, 2012: In Figure 3.6, the two different types of beam-
to-column connections (Type I: A and B) and (Type II: C and C) are shown.

• Type I: Beam-end Connection is a connection in which the vertical member

Design of Precast,isComposite
continuous, andConcrete
and Plain horizontal components are framed
elements onto it. The
OctoberAugust concrete
2020
corbel is the best example of this type of connection and can be used in
most instances where the column is continuous, but if for any other reasons
it cannot be implemented, then the beam can also be connected using a

...........
38
 – Type I: Beam-end Connection is a connection in which the vertical member is continuous,
and horizontal components are framed onto it. The concrete corbel is the best example of
this type of connection and can be used in most instances where the column is continuous,
but if for any
CHAP other
T ER  reasons it cannot
3:   D e si g n bet , implemented,
o f p r e c as co m p o si te a n dthen
p l a ithe
n cobeam
n c r e tecan
e l e also
m e ntbe
s
connected using a notch in the column and anchored by the use ofusing ties which
projects
notchinto thecolumn
in the column.and In Figure
anchored 3.6, using
the beam-to-column
ties which project connections
into the column.(Type I: A and B)
is are shown.
In Figure 3.6, the beam-to-column connections (Type I: A and B) are shown.
• Type II: Column head connection is a connection in which the vertical
– Type II: Column
member head connectionand
is discontinuous, is a the
connection in which
horizontal the verticalare
components member
eitheris
discontinuous, and the horizontal components are either structurally
structurally continuous or separated across the junction. continuous or
separated across the junction.
The continuous beam connections in Figure 3.6 (Type II: C and D) are used
The continuous
when thebeam beamconnections
is requiredintoFigure 3.6 (Typeover
be continuous II: C aand D) are usually
support, used when theitbeam is
when
requiredis forming a cantilever. It is, therefore, typically designed as a fixed momentIt is,
to be continuous over a support, usually when it is forming a cantilever. and
therefore, it is typically
to provide designed
resistance. A as a fixed
very moment
important to provide
aspect resistance.
to consider A very
for this important
type of
aspect connection
to consider is forensuring
this typesufficient
of connection
reinforcement at the support. This is considered support.
is ensuring sufficient reinforcement at the
This aspect is considered important because adequate load transfer is required to resist the
important because adequate load transfer is required to resist the different
different forces acting on the connection.
forces acting on the connection.

FIGURE 3.6
Generic
Figure 3.6: typestypes
Generic of beam-column connections
of beam-column (Task Group
connections 6.2:Group
(Task A Van Acker
6.2: AetVan
al. Acker et al.
2010) 2010)

3.2.1.1.2 Beam-slab connection

3.2.1.1.2 Beam-slab connection
The most common design is the simply supported floor on the beam, usually
by means of a bearing pad or another concrete element (either precast or
Design ofin-situ).
Precast, There is, in
Composite andfact,
Plainno interconnection
Concrete elements between the slab and the beam
OctoberAugust 2020
as latter plays a role as a support structure for the floor slab. In this case, no
special reinforcement is required for the connection or joint. This connection
is mostly preferred for low-rise buildings, not more than 2 to 3 storeys high [3]

...........
39 RC D 4 8 01/1
 FIGURE 3.7
Simply supported slab-to-beam connection (Walraven, 2013)

Another example of a commonly used slab-to-beam connection is the

prefabricated hollow slabs construction. The hollow slabs are generally
manufactured with openings in their top flanges where reinforcement and
concrete have to be placed to provide the necessary structural link between
the elements. Figure 3.8 shows such connection.

FIGURE 3.8
Slab-to-beam connection with hollow slab (Walraven, 2013)

The last design is a composite beam-slab connection where both elements

can be strengthened by a structural topping on top of the floor and with in-
situ concrete being used to fill the joint in order enhance the composite beam
action. The increased floor slab acts like flanges of the beam web.

Figure 3.9 is an example of a composite action of the beam-to-slab connection

with a structural topping.

...........
40
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

FIGURE 3.9
Composite beam: beam to slab connection (FIB Fed. Int. du Beton 2002)

3.2.1.1.3 Floor-slab-to-floor-slab connection

Floor-slab-to-floor-slab connection can be easily achieved using a concrete or

grouted connection, as shown in Figure 3.10. Two solid slabs are connected
using rebar and concrete or grout. Other varieties of connection methods can
also be used, e.g. welded or bolted rebar, reinforced topping or loop connection.

FIGURE 3.10
Concrete or grouted connections with rebar (Misha 2012)

Figure 3.11, below, shows a picture of a typical loop connection between

floor slabs; it also shows how the loops of the prefabricated floor slabs are
interlocked with each other. The gap between the loops is usually reinforced
with rebar and filled with concrete or non-shrinking mortar.

...........
41 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.11
The loop connection (FIB - Féd. Int. du Béton 2002)

3.2.2 Design of typical concrete precast connections

3.2.2.1 Design of a beam-to-column connection – corbel connection

A corbel is a short cantilever beam projecting from the face of a column that
supports, on its upper horizontal edge, a load-bearing element, generally
another longer beam. It is used extensively in situations where the visual
aesthetics of connections are not important, for example in a parking structure,
industrial buildings and where particularly heavy loads are to be transferred
from beams to columns. Figure 3.12, below, shows a typical corbel set up.
Design recommendations are given in Eurocode Annex J to EN 1992-1-1:2004
and can be summarised as follows:

The basic model for corbel design, as presented in Figure 3.12, is a combination
of two strut-and-tie systems:

• A direct strut, characterised by the inclination angle θ

• A secondary system, including a horizontal tie, which takes account of the
bottle shape of a real strut

EC2 specifies that the inclination of the direct strut should be sufficiently high:

1 ≤t g θ ≤ 2,54

Or

45° ≤ θ ≤ 68,2°

If the inclination angle θ is too small, the model with one direct strut is not
appropriate anymore and the corbel should then be treated as a cantilever
beam. This condition is reinforced by a second one (see figure 3.12, below,
for the significance of the symbols):

ac < z0

...........
42
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

The horizontal force HEd is indicated in figure 3.12, but specific models and
rules concerning this load are not discussed in EC2 (version 2004).

FIGURE 3.12
Basic model for the design of a corbel by means of the strut-and-tie method
(figure J.5 in EN 1992-1-1:2004; annex J)

Two cases are considered in function of the length of the corbel:

if ac = 0,5.h, closed horizontal or inclined links should be provided in addition

to the main tension reinforcement (see Figure 3.13(a)), with:

As,lnk ≥ 0,25 A s,main

If ac > 0,5hc and FEd > VRd,c closed vertical links should be provided in addition
to the main tension reinforcement as shown in figure 3.12, with:

As,link ≥ 0,5 FEd ⁄ƒyd

for corbels with large depth, strut-and-tie models, as illustrated in Figure 3.13
(b), below, should be used.

...........
43 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.13
Corbel detailing; (a) reinforcement for (a) ac ≤ 0,5hc ; (b) reinforcement for
ac > 0,5hc (figure J.6 in 1992-1-1:2004; annex J)

3.2.2.2 Design of a slab-to-slab connection – loop connection

The loop connection is able to transfer tensile forces and ensures the continuity
of the slab. The connection can fail due to rupture of the reinforcing bars
which will crush or split the joint concrete in the plane of the overlapping
loops. The design aims at preventing concrete failures from occurring before
the reinforcement loops yield. Transverse reinforcement within the overlap is
necessary in order to achieve an acceptable behaviour. If properly designed, the
loop connection can exhibit substantial ductility. Figure 3.14 below illustrates
a loop connection in which the circle has been converted to an ellipse.

FIGURE 3.14
Loop connection
...........
44
 CHAP T ER 3: D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

The tensile force from one element to the other is transferred by

inclined compressive struts between overlapping loops, see Figure 3.15. The
inclined strut originates from radial stresses σc,rad acting against the bend of the
loop. The spread of stresses from the loop to the strut causes local splitting
stresses due to high bearing stresses inside the loop. Furthermore, the inclination
of the strut also gives a transverse tensile force that needs to be balanced. As a
consequence of this model the transverse reinforcement needs to be distributed
between the two ends of the overlap and be placed inside the loops. The
transverse reinforcement can be designed by a simple strut-and-tie model, as
in Figure 3.15, below. The transverse force Ft in the reinforcement at one side
of the overlap is calculated as
Ft = 2 Ny cot θ (Equation 3.1)
Where
Ny = yield load of one leg of the U-bar
θ = strut inclination
The tensile force in one U-bar is balanced in the joint by the radial concrete
stresses. A horizontal equilibrium for one U-bar gives
(Equation 3.2)

(Equation 3.3)

Where
r = radius of the bend of the U-bar, Figure 3.12
φ diameter of the U-bar
f y = Characteristic tensile strength of steel

FIGURE 3.15
Transfer of forces in loop connection, a) radial stresses against the bend,
b) inclined compressive strut between overlapping loops

...........
45 RC D 4 8 01/1
 In order to limit the bearing stresses to acceptable values, the following condition
needs to be fulfilled, according to Basler and Witta (1966), as reported by
Gaviata Markus [4].

not greater than 3 fc (Equation 3.4)

Where bi = 2 (cc + ) not less than t (transverse spacing of meeting loops)

(Equation 3.5)

cc = concrete cover between U-bar and edge of element, see Figure 3.15

fc = Compressive strength of concrete

It is recommended that the detailing should be such that the following condition
is fulfilled

not less than 8. φ (Equation 3.4)

3.2.3 Examples of a precast connection calculation

3.2.3.1 Design of a beam to column connection: corbel-half beam

3.2.3.1.1 Column corbel

The connection between the beams and columns basically depends on the
specific magnitude and nature of the applied loads and also the boundary
conditions identified at the connection zones.

FIGURE 3.16
Half beam-corbel connection

The corbel column and the half beam will be designed using the strut-and-tie
method presented above.

...........
46
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

FIGURE 3.17
Elementary beams of the S&T model.

Data

N = vertical load 582,5 kN

H = horizontal load = 28,03 kN,

Ft are compressed Struts and Fc, Fet tension ties.

Upper and lower concrete cover 50 mm

Design of Nodal Zones

The ultimate compressive strength of a nodal zone can be taken as:

TABLE 3.1
Ultimate compressive strength of nodal zones

Node Type Ultimate compressive strength

1,2 Compression-compression σRd,max = k2 ν'ƒcd

tension (CCT) Node
where

σRd,max = 0,85 × (1 – 40⁄250) × 0.567 × 40

= 16.19 N/mm2

...........
47 RC D 4 8 01/1


Design bearing stress

Suppose the section of the bearing pad 200 mm x 350 mm

Load eccentricity with respect to the column outer side: e = 200 mm

The column vertical strut width is evaluated setting the compressive stress
equal to σRd,max

node 1 is located 25,69 mm from the outer side of the column.

the upper reinforcement is stated to be 50 mm from the cantilever outer side;

the distance y1 of the node 1 from the lower border is calculated setting the
internal drive arm z to be

0,8⋅d (z = 0,8⋅650 = 520 mm):

y1 = 0.2d = 0.2⋅650 = 130 mm

rotational equilibrium:

Node 1 verification

Main upper reinforcement design must be greater than:

We use 4 Y16(803 mm2)

...........
48
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

FIGURE 3.18
Vertical stirrups

3.2.3.1.2 Half-beam Design

Strut-tie trusses approach is considered for the design of this half beam through
the example below.

Data

Beam depth 900 mm

Bearing pad section 360 mm × 200 mm
N = vertical load 593,38 kN
H: horizontal load = 22.28 kN,
c1, c2, c3, c4, are compressed Struts and t1, t2 are tension ties
Upper and lower concrete cover 5 cm

...........
49 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.19
Strut and tie models for a Gerber beam (a).

FIGURE 3.20
Strut and tie models for a Gerber beam (b).

A. Calculation of the truss rods stresses using the first part of Figure 3.19

Node A equilibrium:

...........
50
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

Node E equilibrium:

Node G equilibrium:

t3 = c1 sin a+ c2 sin b = 777,1kN

Tension rods design

The tension rod t3 needs a steel area not lower than:

We use 7 stirrups Y20 double arms (Asl = 2198 mm2)

The tension rod t2 needs a steel area not lower than:

We use 4 stirrups Y16 (Asl = 803 mm2)

B. Calculation of the truss rod stresses using the first part of Figure 3.19

Node A equilibrium: c5 = N = 582,5 kN

Node B equilibrium

Node H equilibrium

Tension rods

For tension rod t5 it is necessary to adopt a steel area not lower than:

10 Y20 (3140 mm2) OK

a lower reinforcement area would be sufficient for tension rod t4 but, for bar
anchoring, the same reinforcement as in t5 is adopted.

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51 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.21
Reinforcement of half beam

3.2.3.2 Design of loop connection

Here, the design of a loop connection will be checked, and the transverse
reinforcement designed.

Joint concrete C40/50

Reinforcement B500

Ny = 4,075 kN

Geometry:

height of slab h = 400 mm

spacing between loop connections s = 150 mm
spacing between lapping loops t = 100 mm
bar diameter φ = 10 mm
top and bottom concrete cover c = 50 mm
cover to edge ce = 100 mm

Radius of bend:

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52
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

In order to check the radial stress, the ‘distribution width’ bi must first be
determined

= 290 mm (Equation 3.5)

Limitation of radial stress

not greater than 3 fc (Equation 3.4)

Check actual value of

= 4.58 mm (too large ⇒ apply limit value)

σc,rad ≤3⋅ƒcd = 3 × 33.3 = 100 MPa

Check radius of the bend

Not less than 8. φ = 8 × 10 = 80 mm

Hence, the actual detailing with r = 290 mm is acceptable

Design of transverse reinforcement:

Overlapping length: llap = 2 ⋅ 290 + 3 ⋅ 10 = 610 mm

Spacing between loops: t = 100 mm

Assumed strut inclination:

Needed transverse reinforcement per side of the overlap

Ft = 2 Ny cot θ = 2.42.075. 0.16 = 13.79 kN

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53 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.22
Detail of loop connections

This means that two Y10 mm bars are sufficient on each side of the transverse
joint.

3.3 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

3.3.1 Introduction
In construction of buildings and bridges, it is usually common to have a
reinforced concrete slab supported by steel beams. If the steel beams are
connected to the reinforced concrete slab in such a way that they act together
as one unit, the beams are then defined as composite beams. Composite
beams can be regarded as reinforced concrete T-beams, where the flange
of the T-beams is made of concrete slab and the web of the T-beam is made
of the steel section. The composite construction uses the best characteristics
and abilities of the concrete and steel materials, with the slab taking almost all
the compression and the steel beam taking all the tension of the overall system.
For longer spans of more than 10 m, e.g. bridges or multi-storey buildings, steel
beams become more competitive than concrete beams. A typical composite
slab with steel I beams, steel decking, shear connectors and concrete is shown
in Figure 3.23.

FIGURE 3.23
Typical composite beams and slab [Source Dr Seshu Adluri]

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54
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

Composite buildings make use of composite columns that may be principally

of different types. The types most commonly used currently are shown in
Figure 3.244 and can be described as follows:
• Concrete-encased steel columns
• Concrete-filled steel tubes and (C and d)
• Rolled section columns, partly encased in concrete (b).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 3.24
Typical cross sections of composite columns [5]
Advantages of using composite construction
• It is generally well accepted that composite construction goes more quickly
than normal construction and is cheaper.
• The expensive shuttering and formwork are eliminated from the construction
processes, or are at least minimised, because the steel beams are generally
able to sustain the self-weight of steel and concrete.
• The above two advantages are enhanced for medium to long-span buildings.
• The main disadvantage of composite construction is to provide the shear
connectors at the interface steel and concrete.
• Another drawback is the technology which is a bit complicated compared
to other methods of construction.
A YouTube video shows a step by step construction of a composite slab:
Construction of a composite slab (2:45) [6]

3.3.2 Elastic design of composite beams [7]

In this approach, the design is based on the elastic distribution of stresses in
the section of the two different materials, namely the steel and the concrete.
The transformed sections method used consists of generating a mathematical
model of a beam of different materials in the form of a member having uniform
materials properties. Use the composite beam drawn below in Figure 3.25.

FIGURE 3.25
Idealised Composite beam – Transformed-section method

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55 RC D 4 8 01/1


Assuming that there is a linear variation of strain throughout the depth

of the section, the concrete flange can, hypothetically, be replaced by a
steel component that has a width which is adjusted to reflect the difference
in the elastic modulus of the materials. The total depth of the section remains
the same to reflect the correct strain profile. One can then calculate the stress
in flexural behaviour of the transformed section due to a bending Moment (M)
using the common formula, correcting only the materials properties as follows:

(Equation 3.7)

(Equation 3.8)

Where:

fc = maximum stress in the concrete

ft = maximum stress in the steel beam
It = second moment of area of transformed section
Is = second moment of area of steel
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
Es = modulus of elasticity of transformed section
M = moment
fct = maximum stress in transformed concrete section
h, tc and yi = are defined as shown in Figure 3.25

The moment of resistance of a composite beam is calculated using the effective

width.

SANS 100162-1: 2013 specifies the effective width of a composite beam as 0.25
times the span, or the average distance from the centre of the steel section to
the centre of adjacent parallel supports (Clause 17.4)

In order to calculate the elastic moment of resistance, the concrete flange is

converted into an equivalent steel flange using the assumption of plane sections
remaining plane, the transformed width of the flange is determined from the
modular ratio of the materials, commonly using the properties of structural steel.

The elastic approach provides a rational method of calculating the deflections

in composite beams, but it is conservative in stress calculation. An ultimate limit
states method using plastic stress blocks is considered to be more acceptable
in strength calculations.

The following steel properties, E values can be used:

E = 200 GPa
fy = yield strength of structural steel = 300 MPa for grade 300W
= 450 MPa for high yield steel reinforcement

3.3.3 Plastic design of Composite beams [7]

The plastic design is practically the ultimate strength calculation in flexure
of composite beams, which is achieved in the similar manner as in a reinforced
concrete beam, regardless of whether the beam is propped or not. Depending
...........
56
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

on the ratio of size of the steel beam to the concrete flange, three different
conditions may occur:

Case 1 – Neutral axis in concrete Flange

FIGURE 3.26
Calculation of ultimate moment of resistance – Neutral axis in concrete [5]

Compressive force (Cr) in concrete is

Cr = 0.67 ∅c fcu be a (Equation 3.9)

And the tensile force (Tr) in steel is
Tr = ∅ As fy (Equation 3.10)

The neutral axis is calculated by applying the equilibrium of the two forces
and solving the equation for a, then the following equation is obtained:

a = ∅ As fy / 0.67 ∅c fcu be (Equation 3.11)

Where

a = depth of compressive stress block

∅c = 0.67 for concrete
fcu = Cube strength of concrete
be = effective breadth of concrete slab
As = area of steel beam
fy = yield strength of the steel beam
∅ = 0.9 for steel

The moment of resistance (Mrc) is then calculated from Figure 3.26

Mrc = Tr (0.5 h + tc – 0.5 a) (Equation 3.12)

This case is equivalent to an under-reinforced concrete beam. Failure in bending

will occur due to the yielding of steel beam in tension. This mode of failure is
the most desirable as it is a ductile failure mode.

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57 RC D 4 8 01/1


Case 2 – Neutral axis in top flange of steel beam. (Figure 3.27)

FIGURE 3.27
Calculation of ultimate moment of resistance – Neutral axis in top steel flange

You are encouraged to derive these equations as their own assignments and
by using the stress blocks diagram.

Case 3 – Neutral axis in the web of the steel beam (Figure 3.28)

FIGURE 3.28
Calculation of ultimate moment of resistance – Neutral axis in steel web [5]

You are encouraged to derive these equations as their own assignments and
by using the stress blocks diagram.

3.3.3.1 Simply supported beams

For simply supported beams, the moment of resistance is calculated as reflected
in one of the three cases described above. The ultimate strength is therefore
governed by the size and yield strength of the steel beam, the width, the
thickness and concrete class of the concrete flange and the resistance of the
shear connectors. It is not necessary to utilise full-shear connection, but partial-
shear connection can be used. Figure 3.29 illustrates a simply supported beam.

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58
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

FIGURE 3.29
Simply supported beam

3.3.3.2 Continuous beams

Most of the time, composite beams are designed as simply supported beams,
but there are cases where continuously supported beams are used. In this case,
the mid span region behaves like simply supported composite beams, but the
support region displays a behaviour like that shown in Figure 3.30. The beams
need to be designed to resist both sagging and hogging.

Tensile stress

This needs to be checked in the hogging section, while the steel section must
also be checked against buckling.

FIGURE 3.30
Continuous beam [7]

3.3.4 Shear Connection

The interconnection between the steel beam and the concrete deck of
a composite beam that enables both materials to function structurally as one
unit is referred to as shear connection. It comprises the shear connectors, the
slab concrete and the longitudinal shear reinforcement.

The shear connection resists mainly the longitudinal shear which, if not
restricted, would manifest in an interface slip, as shown on Figure 3.31. This
causes the concrete slab and steel beam to interact, resulting in compressive
and tensile forces respectively developing within them.

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59 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.31
Shear connection resisting longitudinal shear [8]

The most commonly used shear connectors are headed studs and sections of
hot-rolled channels. The actual resistance of the connector depends on the
type and size, the strength and modulus of elasticity of the concrete, and the
type of permanent decking.

Design values for shear connectors [9]

The empirical formulae of stud and concrete resistance is the smaller of the
following:

Stud shear resistance

PRd = 0,8 fu (πd2/4)/γv (Equation 3.13)

Concrete resistance

PRd = 0,29 α d2 √(fck Ecm)/γv (Equation 3.14)

Where:

d = is the diameter of the shank of the stud (not higher than 22 mm)
fu = is the specified tensile strength of the stud (not greater than 500MPa)
fck = Characteristic compressive strength at the considered age
Ecm = Mean value of the secant modulus of the concrete
α is given by:

• For 3 ≤ h / d ≤ 4; α = 0.2 [(h / 2) + 1]

Where h is the overall height of the stud
• For h / d > 4; d = 1

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60
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

The partial safety γv is normally taken as 1.25

Note: Typical values of connector resistance are given in SANS10162-1, 2013,

Clause17.7

3.3.5 Deformation Calculation of Composite Beam

The deformation in a simply supported composite beam is calculated as a sum
of all different deformations calculated using the properties of the transformed
section.

• In the case of unpropped construction, the deflections are due to self-weight

and decking using the steel properties will be used. These deflections will
not increase as a result of creep.
• In the case of propped construction, the deflections due to self-weight,
decking, and wet concrete, using the transformed section properties, will
be used. These deflections will increase as a result of creep.

To both deflections is added the deflections caused by permanent dead and

live loads using the transformed section properties. These deflections are
subjected to creep. The last component is the deflections caused by shrinkage
of the concrete, which is replaced by a restraining force applied on top of the
steel beam, as shown in Figure 3.32.

FIGURE 3.32
Deflections due to shrinkage of concrete slabs – Equivalent Loading [9]

The techniques discussed for simply supported beams are directly applicable
to continuous beams, except for calculations caused by shrinkage.

Deflection limits pertaining to serviceability limit state are intended to reduce

damage to non-structural elements, such as partitions, and finishes, and maintain
an acceptable visual appearance.

In all such cases, deflections from the dead loads may be reduced or even
eliminated by temporary propping during the construction phase or by
introducing a pre-cambering in the steel beam.

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61 RC D 4 8 01/1


Sometimes, the full shear connection may not be reached because of slip that
may occur between the interface steel beam concrete slabs, the concept of
partial shear connection is then used in the calculation of the deflection. SANS
1001621-2003, allows for slip at the interface and creep and shrinkage on an
empirical basis by using an effective moment of inertia (Ic) given as follows:
Ic = Is + 0.85 (p) (Ii-Is) (Equation 3.15)
Where:
Is = moment of Inertia of the steel beam
Ii = transformed moment of Inertia of composite beam
p = fraction of full shear connection (use p = 1 for full shear connection)

3.3.6 Composite slabs

3.3.6.1 Introduction
A composite slab is a combination of a cold formed steel sheet profile covered
with concrete slab with reinforcement as shown in Figure 3.33 Normally the
slabs are used in frame structures with steel beams underneath.

FIGURE 3.33
Composite slab with profiled steel sheet [9]
In this type of construction, the steel sheet profile plays a role of a working
platform, formwork for the slab and as a bottom reinforcement of the slab.

3.3.6.2 Type of profiled steel sheet

There are many types of profiled steel sheet used in construction of composite
slabs. They vary in form, rib depth, rib spacing, sheet size, style of lateral
overlapping, method of stiffening the flat elements of the profile; and the
methods of mechanical connection which insure a bond between the steel
sheet and concrete slab.
The thickness of the sheets can vary from 0.75 mm to 1.5 mm, but in normal
practice lies between 0.75 mm to 1 mm. The height of the profiled sheet varies
from 38 mm to 80 mm. Figures 3.34A and 3.34B illustrate some common
profiles found in the industry.

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62
 35
CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

Figure 3.34A: Sheeting profiles used in composite slabs (Re-entrant types) [9]
FIGURE 3.34a
Sheeting profiles used in composite slabs (Re-entrant types) [9] 36

Design of Precast, Composite and Plain Concrete elements OctoberAugust 2020

Figure 3.34B: Sheeting profiles used in composite slabs (Trapezoidal types) [9]
FIGURE 3.34b
Sheeting profiles used in composite slabs (Trapezoidal types) [9]
3.3.6.3 Analyses of Composite Concrete Slabs
...........
The analysis of composite concrete slab may be made in accordance with one of these methods:
 Linear elastic 63 RC D 4 8 01/1
 Linear elastic with moment distribution
 Plastic according to theory of plastics hinges
 Higher order analysis which takes into account non-linear material behaviour and slip
between the profiled steel sheet and the concrete slab.


3.3.6.3 Analyses of Composite Concrete Slabs

The analysis of composite concrete slab may be made in accordance with one
of these methods:

• Linear elastic
• Linear elastic with moment distribution
• Plastic according to theory of plastic hinges
• Higher order analysis which takes into account non-linear material behaviour
and slip between the profiled steel sheet and the concrete slab.

The linear elastic ultimate limit state method is the most-used method for analysis
of composite slabs. It is performed for a unit slab width of 1 m, comparable
to a beam of constant inertia, supposedly taken as un-cracked. 37

Figure 3.35: Example of a continuous composite slabs Analysis [9]

FIGURE 3.35
One could consider the cracking in many ways:

Example of a continuous composite slab Analysis [9]
Arbitrarily reduce the moment at the support *maximum reduction 30%* and consequently
increase the span moment (Figure 3.35, line 2)
One could consider the the
Totally neglect cracking in many
reinforcement ways: and consider the slab as a series of
over the supports
simply supported beams (Figure 3.35, line 3). Minimum reinforcement must always be
placed over intermediate supports for serviceability reasons.
• Arbitrarily reduce the moment at the support *maximum reduction 30%*
Consider that the slab is a beam with variable inertia, depending on the reinforcement. The
and consequently
assumed inertia isincrease the span
that of the cracked sectionmoment (Figure 3.35, line 2)
• Totally neglect the reinforcement over the supports and consider the slab
as a series of simply supported beams (Figure 3.35, line 3). Minimum
reinforcement must always be placed over intermediate supports for
serviceability reasons.

ConsiderDesign
thatof Precast,
the slab is and
Composite a Plain
beam with
Concrete variable inertia,
elements depending
OctoberAugust 2020 on the
reinforcement. The assumed inertia is that of the cracked section

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64
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

3.3.7 Example of a composite concrete beam stress calculation

Example: Stress in Composite Beam

Determine the stress for the composite beam shown in Figure 3.36 The applied
bending moment is 150 kNm and the modular ratio is αe=15

FIGURE 3.36
Example of stress calculation in composite beam

Solution

Section properties read from (Southern African Steel Construction Handbook)

As = 6820 mm2; Is = 117x106 mm4; h = 310 mm

αe = Es/Ec = 15
d= 310/2 + 100 = 255 mm

Transform section to an equivalent steel section as follows:

Slab area = 1200 × 100 = 120 × 103 mm2

Transformed slab area = = 120 × 1000/15 = 8000 mm2

Check position of the neutral axis by summing moments of area about the
interface between the steel and concrete.

Concrete: 8000 × 100/2 = 400 × 103 mm3

Steel: 6820 × 310/2 = 1057 × 103 mm3

Since the Σ moments of steel > Σ moments of concrete; Neutral axis is in

the steel.

Position of the neutral axis is calculated by taking the moments about the
neutral axis (Figure 3.33)

6820 x (d-x) = 8000 x (x – 100/2) for d = 255 mm, we obtain:

x = 144 mm
y = 144 -100 = 44 mm
ds = (h/2 -y) = (310/2 – 44) = 111 mm
dc = 100/2 + 44 = 94 mm

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65 RC D 4 8 01/1
 x = 144 mm
y = 144 -100 = 44 mm
ds = (h/2 -y) = (310/2 – 44) = 111 mm

dc = 100/2 + 44 = 94 mm
Calculate the transformed moment of inertia (It)
Calculate the transformed moment of inertia (It)
Is = 117 x 106 mm4
Asds2 = 6820 × 111 Is =2 117
= 84x 10
× 106mm
6 4
mm4
Ic = 80 × 1003/12 As=ds26.67 × 10x6 111
= 6820 mm24 = 84 x106 mm4
Acdc2 = 8000 × 942 = 70.70 × 106 mm4
Ic = 80×x10
It (steel units) = 278.4 1006 3/12 = 6.67 x 106 mm4
mm4
Acdc2 = 8000 x 942 = 70.70 x106 mm4
Calculate the following stresses:
It (steel units) = 278.4 x 106 mm4
(1) Top of concrete slab: σ1 = (150 × 106) / (278.4 × 106) × (144/15) =
5.17 N/mm2Calculate the following stresses:
(2) Bottom of concrete1. slab
Top of σ
concrete
2
× 10s6)1 =/ (278.4
= (150slab: (150x10 ×6)10
/
6
) × (44/15)
(278.4x10 =(144/15) = 5.17
6) x
1.58 N/mm 2
2. Bottom of concrete slab s = (150x106) / (278.4x106) x (44/15) = 1.5
(3) Top of steel flange σ3 = 15xσ2 = 1.58 × 15=223.71 N/mm2
(4) Bottom of steel3.flange
Top of
σ4=steel flange
(150 ) 3/ =(278.4
× 106s 15xs2× =10
1.58x
6 15= 23.71 =
) × (410–144) N/mm2
143.3 N/mm2 4. Bottom of steel flange s4= (150x106) / (278.4 x 106) x (410-144) = 1
The stress
The stress distribution distribution
is shown is 3.37
in Figure shown in Figure 3.37 below:
below:

FIGURE 3.37
Figure 3.37: Final
Final stress
stress distribution
distribution

3.4 DESIGN OF3.4 DESIGN

PLAIN OF PLAIN
CONCRETE CONCRETE WALLS
WALLS
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.1 Introduction
SANS 100100 defines a plain concrete wall as a vertical load-bearing concrete
element whose greatest lateral dimension exceeds four times its smallest lateral
dimension, and Design
one that is assumed
of Precast, to be
Composite andwithout reinforcement
Plain Concrete elements when its October
strength is being considered. There is also another classification based on the
percentage of the main reinforcement present in the section of the wall. A plain
wall is defined as a concrete wall having less than 0.4% steel reinforcement
in it while reinforced concrete walls have more than that steel percentage
reinforcement.

The design of walls does not differ significantly from that for columns, except
for the following:

• Bending will be critical about the weak axis.

• There are different rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement.
• The requirements for fire resistance
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 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

In the case of buildings, the slab is generally axially loading the wall, and when
the depth of the wall is large, it is called reinforced concrete wall. The design
is similar to a reinforced concrete column for which the breadth is equal to
the thickness of wall and the depth taken as equal to 1 m.

The wall is axially loaded, and the bending occurs in one direction only.

3.4.2 Slenderness ratio

Similarly to columns, the failure mode of walls depends on the geometry of
the walls, which can be defined as short or slender. Compression failure of
the concrete and/or steel reinforcement will occur in walls that are short and
stocky, while buckling failure will tend to happen in long and slender walls.

The slenderness ratio, in the case of walls, is defined as the smallest value
between the effective height h about a perpendicular axis divided by the depth
l or thickness t of the wall measured perpendicular to that axis. Assuming that
h, l and t are, respectively, the effective height, length and thickness of the
wall, the slenderness ratio λ is equal to:

Minimum value of λ = h/t and λ = l/t

Wall effective height

This is determined in the same way as for columns. Being one of the most
critical design parameters, the effective height h will determine the mode of
failure of the wall. The general method presented in SANS 100100 can still be
applied for plain walls. Assuming that ho is the height of the wall that can be
braced or unbraced, the effective height will depend on the support conditions
at the both ends. Common cases are given below for indication purposes:

(1) Both ends fixed (Restrained against rotation and displacement) h =

0.65ho – 0.75ho
(2) Both ends hinged, h = ho
(3) One end fixed and another end free h = 2ho
(4) One end fixed, and another end hinged h =

3.4.3 Ultimate axial load for slender walls

According to the American concrete institute (ACI) and the British Standard 8110
(BS 8110) codes, as reported by Goh [8], the method for design of concrete
walls falls into two categories, namely the empirical design formula and the
treating-the-wall-as-column approach.

3.4.3.1 Empirical Equations from ACI 318-89 [10]

In ACI 318-89, an empirical equation provided to calculate the design axial
strength of solid walls with rectangular cross section subjected to axial load
or combined flexure and axial load shall be designed as compression member
using the following equation:

(Equation 3.16)

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67 RC D 4 8 01/1


Where:

Pu = the ultimate strength of the panel,

φ = the strength of reduction factor (0.7 for the reinforced member)
fcu = the compressive strength of concrete
Ac = the gross area of section
H = the vertical distance between supports, or height of panel
t = the overall thickness of member
k = effective length factor for walls braced top and bottom against lateral
translation and

• Restrained against rotation at one or both ends (top, bottom or both)

k = 0.8
• Unrestrained against both ends k = 1
• For walls not braced against lateral translation k = 2

Note that the above Equation 3.16 is valid for walls of solid rectangular cross
section for which the resultant of all factored loads is located in the middle
third of the overall thickness of the wall.

3.4.3.2 Empirical Equations from BS8110 [9]

The limiting slenderness ratio λ is 30 for unbraced walls and 45 for braced walls.

The design axial load capacity for short braced concrete walls having a
slenderness ratio λ less than 12 is given by the following equation:

Pu = 0.40 fcu Ac + 0.67 fy Asc (Equation 3.17)

For a short unbraced reinforced concrete wall, along with the above axial load
Pu, the moment due to minimum eccentricity is checked for e = t/20 or 20
mm, where, M = P x e.

For the above axial load and moment, the reinforced concrete is designed in
the same way as for the reinforcement concrete column subjected to axial
load and uniaxial moment.

For a slender braced wall (λ < 45), the additional moment due to the additional
eccentricity is added to the moment on the wall, and the wall is designed for
axial load with uniaxial moment.

The additional eccentricity is given by the following equation:

(Equation 3.18)

For a slender unbraced wall λ limited to 30, the same procedure as for braced
slender walls is adopted.

3.4.3.3 Empirical Equation from SANS 10100

The code also accepts that the slenderness ratio le/h must not exceed 30, for
both braced and unbraced walls.

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 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

SANS 10100-1 clause 6.5.3.5 on minimum transverse eccentricity of forces

states:

“Whatever the arrangements of vertical or horizontal forces, the resultant

force in every plain concrete wall should be assumed to have a transverse
eccentricity of the greater of at least h/20 or 20 mm. In the case of a slender
wall, additional eccentricity can arise as a result of deflection under load.”

3.4.3.3.1 Maximum unit axial load for short braced plain walls (Clause 6.5.3.11)

The maximum design ultimate axial load per unit length for short braced plain
walls due to ultimate load nw must satisfy the following equation:

nw ≤ 0.3 (h – 2 ex) fcu (Equation 3.19) [11]

Where:

nw = the maximum design axial load per unit length of wall due to design
ultimate loads
h = the thickness of wall
ex = the resultant eccentricity of load at right angles to plane of wall. The
minimum value should be taken as the greater of the least h/20 or 20 mm.
fcu = the characteristic compressive strength of concrete.

3.4.3.3.2 M
 aximum unit axial load for slender braced plain walls (Clause
6.5.3.12)

For slender braced plain walls, the maximum design axial load nw should satisfy
the above equation (3.19) and, additionally, the following equation:

nw ≤ 0.3 (h – 1.2 ex – 2ea) fcu (Equation 3.20) [11]

Where:

nw, h, ex, and fcu are defined as previously above, and

ea, is the additional eccentricity due to deflections, which may be taken as

lw2 /2500h where lw is the effective height of the wall and h its thickness.

3.4.3.3.3 Illustration of additional eccentricity

Figure 3.38, below, shows schematically the deflected shape of a wall subject
to eccentric vertical force only. The stress distribution in the middle section is
assumed to be linear, as shown in Figure 3.38 (a), where ‘d’ is the uncracked
depth of the middle section and ‘σ’ is the maximum stress. This illustration
was used to derive the main equation above (3.20).

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69 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 3.38
Vertically loaded wall (Source Doh, 2002 as reported by Dongui Lee [13])

3.4.3.4 Empirical Equations from Eurocode 2

Eurocode 2 [14] also provides an equation to determine the axial resistance of
lightly reinforced concrete wall. The equation calculates the axial resistance
under ultimate limit states. The equation stated as below is for rectangular
cross section wall with uniaxial eccentricity e in the direction of overall depth
hw as shown in Figure 3.39

FIGURE 3.39
Notation for wall [12]

...........
70
 CHAP T ER 3: D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

(Equation 3.21)

Where:

NRd = Axial resistance of wall

ηfcd = the design compressive strength belonging to the block shaped stress-
strain relation

In case of slender walls or columns, the axial design resistance force may be
calculated as follows:

NRd = b hw fcd φ (Equation 3.22)

(Equation 3.23)

Where:

NRd = Axial resistance of wall

b = overall width of the cross section
hw = overall depth of the cross section
e = eccentricity of loading in the direction hw, e ≤ hw /6
etot = eccentricity total = e + ea

φ = Factor taking into consideration eccentricity, curvature, including second

order effects and normal effects of creep

3.4.4 Spacing and reinforcement requirements

The reinforcement spacing requirements will depend on the boundary conditions
of the wall and whether it is braced or unbraced. Walls are considered braced
when cross walls are provided for the walls such that they can take lateral
load and 2.5% of vertical load, then the wall is braced. Otherwise, the wall
is known as unbraced wall.

• The minimum area of vertical reinforcement in walls is As,min = 0.002 Ac.

Half of this area should be located at each face.
• Vertical reinforcement not to be greater than 4%.
• The distance between two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed the
lesser of either three times the wall thickness or 400 mm.
• The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement in walls is the greater of
either 25% of vertical reinforcement or 0.001 Ac. However, where crack
control is important, early age thermal and shrinkage effects should be
considered explicitly.
• The diameter of transverse bars (horizontal) should not be less than 6 mm
or t /4.
• Links are provided when the compression steel is greater than 2%. Horizontal
links are provided for thickness less than 220 mm. Diagonal links are
provided when thickness is greater than 220 mm.

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71 RC D 4 8 01/1


3.4.5 WALL DESIGN EXAMPLES

3.4.5.1 Example 1 – Braced wall

Design a reinforced concrete wall 3 m height, 4 m length between cross walls.
The wall is 100 mm thick and carries a factored load of 900 kN/m length. Use
C30, concrete and the steel 450 N/mm2 yield strength.

Slenderness ratio

Since cross walls are provided, the wall is braced. The slenderness ratio is
calculated as:

λ = h/t or l/t
λ = 3000/100 or 4000/100
= 30 or 40

Effective length and effective height:

Assume both ends fixed (restrained against rotation and displacement)

Use SANS 10100-1 Table 18

L = 0.75 lo where, lo is the lesser of length and height

= 0.75 x 3 = 2.25 m

Effective Slenderness ratio

λeff. = 2250/100 = 22.5 > 12

λlim = 45 > 22.5 – therefore the accidental minimum eccentricity due to e =

t/20 or 20 mm = 5 or 20 mm. Therefore, moment due to accidental eccentricity
of 20 mm is considered. Additional eccentricity due to slenderness is calculated
using (Equation 3.18) as follows:

= 20.3 (SANS10100-1)

Total eccentricity = e + ea = 20 + 20.3 = 40.3 mm (SANS10100-1)

Maximum Unit axial Load

nw ≤ 0.3 (h – 1.2 ex – 2ea) fcu

nw ≤ 0.3 (100 – 1.2 × 20 – 2 × 20.3) 30 = 955.8 kNm/m O.K

Ultimate moment

Moment M = Pu x etot = 900 000 × 40.3 = 36.3 x 106 Nmm

You are advised to use the design charts in study guide RCD 4700, and refresh
your memory as to the design of columns in compression and bi-axial bending

For the axial load and moment, reinforced concrete wall is designed similar to
a reinforced column subjected to axial load and uniaxial moment.

...........
72
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s

Pu/bh = 900 × 103/100 × 1000 = 9

Mu/bh2 = 40.8 × 106/1000 × 1002 = 3.63

Steel reinforcement

From the column chart, the percentage of steel is 1.0%

Area of steel = 1.0 /100 × 100 × 1000 = 1000 mm2
Provide Y16 mm @ 200 mm c/c as vertical compression bar

For horizontal cross bars

Provide a nominal transverse reinforcement of 0.4% of c/s Ast = 0.4/100 ×

1000 × 100 = 400 mm
Provide 8 mm @ 120 mm c/c
Since vertical reinforcement is less than 2%, no horizontal links are required.

3.4.5.2 Example 2 – Unbraced wall

A reinforced concrete wall of height 5 m is restrained in position and direction
carrying a factored load of 600 kN and factored moment of 25 kNm at right
angles to the plane of the wall. Use C30 concrete and 450N/mm2 steel. Design
the wall.

Eccentricity

= 25 × 106/600 × 103 = 41.67 mm

The eccentricity is compared with emin. The larger of the two is added with
additional eccentricity due to slenderness, if any.

Slenderness ratio

Assume l/d of 22. Generally, assume l/d from 20 – 25, d = 5000/22 = 227.27
Assume a thickness of 225 mm, then L = 0.75 × 5 = 3.75 m
λ = 3750/225 = 16.67 > 12. The given wall is slender, e = t/20 or 20 mm
λ = 225/20 or 20 mm
λ = 11.25 mm or 20 mm < 41.67 mm Additional eccentricity due to slenderness,

Additional eccentricity

= 25,00 mm

Total eccentricity = e + ea = 41.67 + 25.00 = 66.67 mm

Maximum Unit axial Load

nw ≤ 0.3 (h – 1.2 ex – 2ea) fcu

nw ≤ 0.3 (225 – 1.2 × 41.67 – 2 × 25) 30 = 1125.0 kNm/m O.K

Ultimate Moment

Moment M = Pu etot = 600 x 1000 x 66.67= 40.00 x 106 Nmm

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73 RC D 4 8 01/1


For the axial load and moment, the reinforced concrete wall is designed similar
to a reinforced column subjected to axial load and uniaxial moment.

Pu / bh = 600 × 103/225 x 1000 = 2.67

Mu / bh2 = 40.00 × 106 / 1000× 2252 = 0.80

Steel reinforcement

The percentage of steel is 0%, we take then the minimum value

Area of steel = 0.4 / 100 × 225 × 1000 = 900 mm

Provide 12 mm @ 120 mm c/c as vertical compression bar

Since thickness of wall is 225 mm, reinforcement is provided on both faces of

the wall. Therefore, provide 12 mm @ 250 mm c/c

Horizontal Steel-Provide a nominal transverse reinforcement of 0.4% of c/s

on both faces.

Ast = 0.4/100 × 1000 × 100 = 400 mm

Provide 8 mm @ 120 mm c/c

Since vertical reinforcement is less than 2%, no horizontal links are required.

3.5 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

(1) Explain why the emphasis in precast concrete is on the design of
connections?
(2) Define the types of precast connections and, for each one, determine
the different loads that need to be taken into account for designing each
specific connection.
(3) A 300 × 400 mm corbel in reinforced concrete is supporting a beam for
which the vertical load is 300 kN acting at 250 mm from the edge of the
column, and the horizontal load is 60 kN. A bearing pad of 100 mm long
and 20 mm thick is used to transfer the loads from the beam to the column.
Calculate the angle of struts and ties of the mechanism of load transfer.
Determine the main reinforcement and shear reinforcement given the
following information fck = 30 MPa, f yd = 450 MPa. Refer to Figure 3.40

...........
74
 CHAP T ER  3:   D e si g n o f p r e c as t , co m p o si te a n d p l a i n co n c r e te e l e m e nt s 49

Figure 3.40: Corbel design FIGURE 3.40

– struts and ties model
Corbel design – struts and ties model
4. Define what a composite concrete beam or slab is.? Can the composite beams or slabs be
(4) Define what
obtained froma the
composite
same type ofconcrete beam
material, e.g. or slab
concrete? Give someis. Can the ofcomposite
examples such
beams or slabs
structural be obtained from the same type of material, e.g. concrete?
elements.?
Give some examples of such structural elements.
(5) Referring totocase
5. Referring case2 2 on page
on page 28,28, calculate
calculate the ultimate
the ultimate moment ofmoment
resistance of
of aresistance
composite
of a beam
composite beam for the case where the neutral axis is located
for the case where the neutral axis is located in the top section of the steel flange. in the
top section of the steel flange.
(6) Explain
6. Explainwhy shear
why shear connectors
connectors are inimportant
are important in composite
composite concrete elements?. concrete
elements.
7. Differentiate between
(7) Differentiate between a plain concrete
a plain wall and awall
concrete brick and
wall.?a brick wall.

(8) Compare the different methods of assessing the ultimate axial load for
8. Compare the different methods of assessing the ultimate axial load for slender walls
slender walls presented in the study guide. Which one is the most popular
presented in the study guide., wWhich one is the most popular and why?
and why?
(9) A9.reinforced
A reinforcedconcrete
concrete wall wall of height
of height 2.75 m 2.75 m is at
is anchored anchored at the
the foundation and foundation
free at the
and another
free atend. theIt isother
carryingend. It is load
a factored carrying
of 800 kNa and
factored
factoredload
moment ofof800
30 kNmkNat and
right
factored moment
angles to the plane of ofthe30wall.
kNm at right
Assumeing angles
that the to
plain wall the
has plane
the of
following the wall.
characteristics,
concrete fcu = 30MPa and steel fy = 450N/mm2 steel. Design the wall.
Assume that the plain wall has the following characteristics, concrete fcu
= 30MPa and steel f y = 450N/mm2 steel. Design the wall.

Design of Precast, Composite and Plain Concrete elements OctoberAugust 2020

3.6 REFERENCES
[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xeH_5JmU_Oc

[2] Walraven J. February 2013. Course on Design Principles for Precast

Concrete Structures. Netherlands, Delft University of Technology.

[3] Mostert, L H. December 2014. Design and Construction preferences

for connections in the precast concrete industry of South Africa, MSc
Research Thesis in the Faculty of Engineering, Stellenbosch University,
Western Cape, South Africa.

[4] Markus G, 2018, Detailed Design of connection for precast structures,

MSc Thesis at Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Travaux Publics, Universita
Degli Studi di Padova, Duala, Cameroon, Academic year 2017/2018.

...........
75 RC D 4 8 01/1


[5] Mahachi J. 2003 CSIR Pretoria. Design of structural steelwork in Southern

Africa to SABS 0162, CSIR Building and construction Division.

[6] https://www.youtube.com/embed/9516IOLkd_g”frameborder=”0”
allow=”accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-
in-picture” allowfullscreen></iframe>

[7] Rackham Couchman Hicks Composite slabs and beams using steel
decking: Best practice for design and construction (Revised edition)

[8] Design of simply supported composite beam for strength to Australian

Standard AS2327.1-1996, Design Booklet DB1.1, Feb 2001

[9] Composite construction online course notes ESDEP WG10. [10] Goh WI
et al. February 2014. Overview of empirical equations of prediction of
ultimate axial load of precast light weight foamed concrete sandwiched
panels (PLSP), ARPN Journal of Engineering and applied Science Vol 11,
No 4.

[11] The South African Standards SANS 10100-1, 2013. The structural use of
the concrete, Part 1 The Design, Code of practice.

[12] Mishra G, Calicut NIT. 2012. Design of reinforced concrete wall, Concept,
calculations.

[13] Lee D. August 2008. Experimental and theoretical studies of normal and
high strength concrete wall panels with openings, PhD Thesis at Seoul
National University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong.

[14] Walraven JC. 18-20 February 2008, Brussels. Design of concrete structures
EN1992-1-1, Symposium Eurocodes: Backgrounds and Applications
Eurocode 2.

...........
76
CHAPTER
4  4

4 Deep concrete beams

4.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Deep beams are structural elements loaded as simple beams in which a
significant amount of the load is carried to the supports by a compression
force combining the force and the reaction. Deep beams are defined as beams
having a large depth-to-thickness ratio and a shear-span-depth ratio of less than
2.5 for a concentrated load and less than 5 for a distributed load. Because of
their geometry, their behaviour is different from that of normal beams.

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to understand the failure mechanism
of a deep beam and design it according to SANS 10100-1. Other methods,
such as the Eurocode 2 and ACI318 methods, are also given to enhance your
understanding of the topic. The assessment criteria are therefore summarised
as follows:

Outcome Assessment criteria

Apply the understanding of • Explain and define strut-and-tie when dealing

structural analysis, loadings, with deep beams
drawing and computer • Understand the strut-and-tie design method
literacy to design deep beams • Differentiate between hydrostatic and non-
hydrostatic nodes.
• Define commonly used non-hydrostatic nodes
e.g. CCC nodes, CCT nodes and CTT nodes
• Design deep beams using SANS 10100-1
• Deepened understanding through using other
design methods, e.g. Eurocode 2 and ACI318.
• Presentation of the design in drawings using
Autocad and AStrutTie software (Assignments)

Deep beams are structural elements loaded as beams, but having a small
shear-span-to-depth ratio, typically around 2. As a result, their behaviour is
dominated by shear deformations. These elements have useful applications and
are frequently and successfully used in many structures such as tall buildings,
foundations, bridges, offshore structures and several others. Figure 4.1, below,
shows an example of deep beams in tall buildings where the transfer beam can
be clearly seen. Figure 4.2 illustrates a pile foundation with cap beam on top.

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77 RC D 4 8 01/1


SANS 10100 defines deep beams as prismatic members, generally straight

and of constant cross-section and having a ratio of effective span to an overall
depth of less than 2. In such beams, the assumption of plane sections remaining
plane in bending does not apply. In the case of a simply supported deep beam,
the effective span can be assumed to be the distance between centre lines
of supports, provided that this distance does not exceed 1.15 times the span
between the faces of the supports, in which case the effective span is to be
taken as 1.15 times the clear span.

For continuous beams, the same definition is applicable or, alternatively, if

span lengths are calculated as simply supported beams, the span-to-depth
ratio would be approximatively 2.5 to 3. Cantilever beams would normally
have a span-to-depth ratio of 1 [1]

FIGURE 4.1
Transfer beam on a tall building [Google image]

FIGURE 4.2
Pile foundation with cap beam reinforcement

...........
78
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

Due to the special character of deep beams, the design and analysis is
generally complex and can be performed by means of one of the following
methods:

• Linear analysis based on the elasticity theory

• Analysing the statically admissible stress field analogy using the strut-and-
tie method
• Nonlinear strain stress analysis using numerical methods, e.g. FEM software
• Experimental methods

In this course, the focus will be on the second approach, namely the strut-
and-tie method.

4.2 STRUT-AND-TIE DESIGN METHOD

4.2.1 Deep beam and sectional behaviour

Typically, reinforced concrete members are designed to resist shear and flexural
forces, based on the assumption that strains vary linearly at a section. This is
known as the Bernoulli hypothesis or beam theory, the mechanical behaviour
of a beam is commonly defined by assuming that plane sections remain plane.
The region of a structure where the Bernoulli hypothesis is valid is referred
to as a B-region (B standing for beam, bending or – better – Bernoulli). In
B-regions, the internal state of stress can be derived from the sectional forces
before and after the concrete cracks. Therefore, the design of these regions is
often referred to as a sectional design where the flexure theory can be applied.

On the other end, D-region stands for “Discontinuity region” and corresponds
to the regions where the assumption of Bernoulli is no longer valid; this is
typically the region around a:

• geometrical discontinuity e.g. changes in cross-section, openings, nodes in

frames, connections between girders and beams, etc.
• static discontinuity: isolated loads, supports, temperature changes, anchorage
of prestressing tendons, etc.

D-regions are characterized by the disturbance of the load transfer system, due
to sudden changes in dimensions, by changes in orientation of load transfer due
to the presence of openings, the connection with other structural members, the
introduction of concentrated loads and so on. For example, the beam shown
in Figure 4.3 under a point load displays a D-region at the left and right side
of the point load, including the area near to the supports. At the righthand
side support, immediately after the disturbed D-region, is a B-region section.

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79 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 4.3
Stress trajectories in B-region and near discontinuities (D-regions) [2]

4.2.2 Serviceability limit state design

The structural behaviour of a deep beam is predominantly dominated by
the presence of D region, where St Venant’s principle is applicable with the
nonlinear strain distribution. This principle states that the effects of loading with
the same magnitude but different distributions dissipate quickly as distance
increases. In other words, as the distance from the point of loading becomes
greater, the local effects are reduced such that they can be considered not to
be present. This is illustrated in Figure 4.4 below:

FIGURE 4.4
St Venant’s principle (Brown 2006)

The behaviour of the deep beam in these D-regions is generally characterised

by the appearance of cracks due to the high strain stress regime – a further
reason why crack determination is increasingly important.

In the serviceability limit state, the crack width, wk, for all the design approaches
was calculated based on Eurocode 2 by using Equations 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3. [2]

...........
80
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

wk = Sr,max (εsm – εcm) (Equation 4.1)

where

Sr,max maximum crack spacing

εsm mean strain in the reinforcement
εcm mean strain in the concrete between cracks

FIGURE 4.5
Effective tension area (Eurocode2, 2005)

Equation 4.2 gives the mean strain difference between steel and concrete.
Figure 4.5 indicates the different ways of calculating the effective bar height,
ℎc,eƒƒ, which is required to calculate the area, Ac,eƒƒ, of tensioned concrete
surrounding the reinforcements

(Equation 4.2)

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81 RC D 4 8 01/1


where

σs: Stress in the tension reinforcement

αe: Stiffness ratio Ec/Es
ρp,eƒƒ: Area ratio As/Ac,eƒƒ
kt: Time-dependent factor
(kt = 0.6 for short term loading kt = 0.4 for long term loading)

The maximum crack spacing is evaluated by using Equation 4.3.

Sr,max = k3c + k1.k2.k4.φ/ρp,eƒƒ (Equation 4.3)

where

φ = Bar diameter if one size diameter is used, otherwise the equivalent diameter
is calculated as below.

Equivalent diameter φeq for a section with n1 bars of diameter φ1 and n2 bars
of diameter φ2 is estimated by using Equation 4.4.

φeq = n1.φ12 + n2.φ22/n1.φ1 + n2.φ2 (Equation 4.4)

c: Cover to the longitudinal reinforcement

k1: Coefficient that takes into account bond properties of the bonded
reinforcement
(k1 = 0.8 high bond bars and k1 = 1.6 for plain surface)
k2: Coefficient that takes into account the distribution of strain
(k2 = 0.5 for bending and k2 = 1 for pure tension)
k3: Recommended value according to Eurocode 2
(k3 = 3.4)
k4: Recommended value according to Eurocode 2
(k4 = 0.425)

4.2.3 Strut-and-tie method (STM)

Under the point load P acting on the deep beam shown in Figure 4.6 A, one
can imagine or draw stress paths which show the elastic flow of forces through
the structure. Strut-and-tie models (STM) can therefore be defined as trusses
consisting of struts, ties and nodes.

FIGURE 4.6a
Pile cap structure modelled using strut-and-tie method [3]

...........
82
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

In the STM approach, stress paths are generally replaced with polygons of
forces to provide equilibrium. Conventionally, struts are drawn as dashed lines,
ties are drawn as full lines and nodes are numbered.

The strut-and-tie method (STM) method of designing structures is among the

methods presently being used by many researchers due to its flexible nature.
It is also well established that results obtained by using the STM modelling are
generally lower bound and conservative. The reason why this is so is that the
models themselves are based on the lower bound of plasticity theorem which
states that any distribution of stresses resisting an applied load is safe, provided
that the equilibrium is maintained and the stresses do not exceed the yield.

Designing a member using the strut-and-tie method should begin with

determining the stress distribution in the member caused by the loading and
support condition. The distribution of the stresses in the member depends
on the shape and place of the openings, type of loads and supports of the
structure. Each discontinuity in these members will cause a distortion in the
stress flow in the structure. Figure 4.6B, below, illustrates a few examples of
strut-and-tie structures.

FIGURE 4.6b
Examples of strut-and-tie structures (Google image)

It is necessary to define the disturbed region or the discontinuity region

(D-region), as well as the Bending region (B-region) because the design of each
region differs from the other. The plane sections of the B-region are considered
to remain plane. These regions can be designed by analysing the sectional forces
using traditional methods. The strut-and-tie method is effective for designing
D-regions. If the structural member presents a complex or unfamiliar stress
distribution, elastic finite element analysis can be used to give the designer an
idea of the flow of forces within the uncracked member.

There can be more strut-and-tie models for each different stress distribution,
though some models may be more efficient or logical than the others. The
designer should account for all stresses in the member. Since ties are more
deformable than concrete struts, a model with the least number and the shortest
ties is likely the best. This requirement can be quantified using the principle
of minimum complementary energy:

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83 RC D 4 8 01/1


Σ1/2 Fili εmi = min (Equation 4.5)

Where:

Fi is the force in the strut or tie

li is the length of the member ‘i’
εmi is the strain in member ‘i’

Different models can also be combined to reduce the stresses in some ties
and struts.

The strut-and-tie method has been used as a design tool where non-linear strain
distribution occurs according to Eurocode 2(2004), as reported by Hamunzala
[2]. The model is constituted of three components namely the struts in concrete
assumed to be loaded in compression, the ties representing the reinforcement
working in tension and the nodes which connect the struts and ties making
up the strut-and-tie model. Equilibrium has to be maintained at each node
in a strut-and-tie model in order to calculate member forces in the struts and
ties. The angle between concrete compression strut and reinforcement tie, θ,
should be limited according to Equation 4.6 for a deep concrete beam. (θ is
the angle formed between S and T not shown in Figure 4.6)

1 ≤ cotθ ≤ 2.5 (Equation 4.6)

4.2.3.1 Design of struts

The design strength of a concrete strut, with or without transverse compressive
stress, can be estimated using Equation 4.7.

σRd.max = ƒcd (Equation 4.7)

The design strength of concrete struts in cracked compression zones with

transverse tension as shown in Figure 4.7 right-hand side, can be calculated
using Equation 4.8A. The recommended value for ν’, can be calculated using
Equation 4.8B.

σRd.max =0.6 ν'ƒcd (Equation 4.8A)

ν' = 1 − ƒck /250 (Equation 4.8B)

Figure 4.7 shows, on the left-hand side, a concrete strut with transverse compressive
stress or zero stress. The second picture shows the concrete strut with transverse
tension.

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84
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

FIGURE 4.7
Concrete struts with transverse compressive stress or zero stress and transverse
tension

4.2.3.2 Design of ties

The design strength of transverse ties and reinforcement is designed according
to EC 2 (section 3.2 and 3.3). The reinforcement should be anchored into the
concentrated nodes. Equation 4.9 gives the design strength:

ƒyd = ƒyk /γs (Equation 4.9)

Reinforcement ties, required to resist the transverse forces at the nodes, may
be smeared over the length of the tension zone caused by the compression
trajectories. The tensile force T for partial discontinuity regions when b≤H2,
and for full discontinuity regions when b>H2, is estimated by Equations 4.10
and 4.11 respectively, as displayed in Figure 4.8.

FIGURE 4.8
Compression stress in partial and full discontinuity regions (Westberg, 2010)

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85 RC D 4 8 01/1


(Equation 4.10)

(Equation 4.11)

4.2.3.3 Design of nodes

A nodal zone, currently known as a node, is where two struts and a tie intersect.
If more than three forces intersect at a node, it is often necessary to resolve
some of the forces to end up with three resulting forces. Various classifications
of commonly types of used nodes in STM modelling are discussed below.

4.2.3.3.1 Hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic nodes [3]

Ideally, hydrostatic nodes are easy to proportion as they require all stresses on
all faces to be equal. Effectively, if the stresses are equal on all faces, the ratio
of the area of the side face is proportional to the applied force. In this case, the
node is called a hydrostatic node. Principal stresses are equal on all sides of a
hydrostatic node; thus, shear stresses do not exist within the node. The absence
of shear in the node and the simplicity of dimensioning hydrostatic nodes are
their primary advantages. If a node is proportioned such that unequal stresses
exist on each face, then it is termed non-hydrostatic. Figure 4.9 illustrates the
states of stress associated with hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic

FIGURE 4.9
Stresses on hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic nodes (Brown et al. 2006)[3]

...........
86
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

4.2.3.3.2 Proportioning STM elements using non-hydrostatic nodes [3]

The capacity of a beam, as determined from an STM, is inherently connected to

the proportions of the nodal regions. Procedures for proportioning nodes have
been well established by past researchers. This established set of guidelines
is presented below.

4.2.3.3.2.1 Proportioning a CCC node

The design values for the compressive stresses for compression nodes without
ties can be calculated using Equation 4.12. The recommended value for k1 is
1 according to EC 2. Figure 4.9 shows three compressive forces in the struts
acting on a single node, which is commonly named CCC node.

σRd.max = k1.ν'ƒEcd (Equation 4.12)

FIGURE 4.9
CCC Node (Westberg, 2010)

4.2.3.3.2.2 Proportioning a CCT node

The maximum compressive stresses for compression nodes with ties provided
in one direction can be designed using Equation 4.13. The recommended value
for k2 is 0.85 according to EC 2. Two compressive forces in the struts and one
tensile force in tie acting on a single node, which is classified as CCT node
and displayed Figure 4.10.

σRd.max = k2.ν'ƒEcd (Equation 4.13)

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87 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 4.10
CCT node (Westberg, 2008)

4.2.3.3.2.3 Proportioning a CTT node

The maximum compressive stresses for compression nodes with ties provided in
more than one direction can be designed using Equation 4.14. The recommended
value for k3 is 0.75 according to EC 2. One compressive force in the strut and
two tensile forces in tie intersecting on a single node, which is traditionally
called CTT node and is displayed at Figure 4.11.

σRd.max = k3.ν'ƒEcd (Equation 4.14)

FIGURE 4.11
CTT node (Westberg, 2008)

4.2.3.3.3 Node practical requirements [4]

The dimensioning and detailing of concentrated nodes are critical in determining

their load-bearing resistance. Concentrated nodes may develop where point
loads are applied, at supports, in anchorage zones with concentration of
reinforcement or prestressed tendons, at bends in reinforcing bars and at

...........
88
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

connections and corners of members. It was already observed in the preceding

paragraphs that distinction has essentially to be made between:

• nodes where only compression struts are concurrent, a multi-axial compression

stress state is observed in the node, which is a far more comfortable position
for the concrete than in the case of the one-dimensionally loaded concrete
strut.
• nodes where ties are anchored. The main issue is, of course, the anchorage of
the tensile reinforcement, but attention has also to be paid to the verification
of the compression stress in the concrete in the node, which appears to be
less resistant due to the presence of the tie.

4.2.4 STM Design Steps [4]

To design a structure using an STM approach, the following steps are normally
recommended:

Step 1:

In this step, the main values needed for the calculation are determined, such
as the design values of the compressive and tensile stresses of the concrete
and reinforcement, the concrete cover and the maximum allowable stresses
in the nodes and struts. As noted previously, the design is done according to
Eurocode 2.

The value of the design compressive strength in struts (fcd) is defined as:

fcd = αcc .fck /γc

Where:

γc is the partial safety factor for concrete (for ULS =1,5 and for SLS =1,0)
αcc is a coefficient taking account of long-term effects (is 1,0)
The value of the design tensile strength (fctd) is defined as:

fctd = αct . fctk,0.05/γc

Where:

γc c is the partial safety factor for concrete (for ULS =1,5 and for SLS =1,0)
αct is a coefficient taking account of long-term effects (is 1,0)

The value of the design tensile strength for reinforcement (f yd) is defined as:

f yd = f yk /γs

Where:

γs is the partial safety factor for steel (for ULS =1,15 and for SLS = 1,0)

The value of the design compressive strength in nodes is limited, as mentioned

in art. 6.5.2 of Eurocode 2 part 1-1. The limitation depends on the type of
the node:

...........
89 RC D 4 8 01/1


• Maximum compressive strength = ν’.fcd (when there is only compressive

stress in node C-C-C)
• Maximum compressive strength = 0.85 ν’.fcd (when there is one tensile
stress in node C-C-T)
• Maximum compressive strength = 0.75 ν’.fcd (when there are more tensile
stresses in node C-T-T)

Where:

ν’ = 1 – (fcd /250)

Step 2:

In this step, the minimum and maximum face reinforcement (As;min) and (As;max)
are determined according to art. 9.6 and 9.7 of the code and determine the
dimensions of the concentrated load and supports.

As;min = 0,1% * Ac
As;max = 2% * Ac
Where Ac is the concrete section area

According to art. 9.7(1), the minimum face reinforcement area calculated is

the area needed in each face and each direction. Therefore, the used area in
the horizontal direction will be equal to the area in the vertical direction. The
area of the bearing of the concentrated loads and supports will be determined
using the maximum compressive stress depending on the type of the stresses
in the node considered (C-C-C, C-C-T or C-T-T), where ‘C’ is for compression
and ‘T’ for tension.

Step 3:

Selecting the strut-and-tie model will be done depending on the experience

of the designer and the different forces will be calculated statically. This can
be put in a spreadsheet format due to repetition. From the calculated forces,
the space needed for the struts and ties is checked. The distances between
the nodes and the edges are then adjusted, if necessary, according to this
calculation.

Step 4:

Go back to the Excel spreadsheet showing the forces in the struts and ties to
find the reinforcement bars needed and to check the bearing capacity of the
struts forms the main part of this step.

Ties:

Determining the needed steel area does not require a special calculation.
However, the reinforcement used will be adjusted to satisfy the conditions
of crack width. In this step, the needed anchorage length will be calculated
according to art. 8.4.2, as follows:

...........
90
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

The basic anchorage length (lb;rqd) is defined as:

lb;rqd = (φ/4)*( σsd / fbd)

Where:

φ is the bar diameter

σsd is the design stress in the bar
fbd is the ultimate bond stress and defined as:

fbd = 2,25 . η1 . η2 . fctd

Where:

η1 is a coefficient related to the quality of bond (chosen as 1,0)

η2 is a coefficient related to the bar diameter (for φ <32 is 1,0 and for φ > 32
is (132 – φ)/100)

The design anchorage length (lbd) is defined as:

lbd = α1 . α2 . α3 . α4 . α5. lb,rqd

Where:

α1 . α2 . α3 . α4 . α5. are coefficients representing respectively the form, cover

and confinement of the concrete, welded bars, and the compressive pressure
on the bars. The values of these coefficients are determined according to art.
8.4.4 of the code (Eurocode 2 Part 1 & 2, 2004)

Struts:

The compressive stresses in the struts have already been calculated. In this
part of the calculations, not only will the calculated compressive stresses be
rechecked, but the transverse tension force (T) caused by the curved trajectories
in the struts will be determined, and the needed reinforcement in its direction
will be checked. This will be done in conformance with art. 6.5.3 of the code.

Because this tensile force (T) is located only in a specific place, depending on
the curvature of the trajectories of the compressive stresses, only a part of the
face reinforcement, which lies around the location of (T), shall be activated.
(See Figure 4.8 presented in Section 4.2.3.2 above for reference)

If b > H/2:

Width of tension area =H/4

Otherwise:

Width of tension area = b/2

The value of the tension force (T) depends directly on the shape of the stress
trajectories, which in turn depends on the width of the member (b) or the

...........
91 RC D 4 8 01/1


available space around the strut. The effective width (bef ), where the trajectories
can develop, is defined as:

If b > H/2:

bef = H / 2 + 0.65 a

Where: (a) is the width of the loaded area.

Otherwise:

bef = b

The tensile force (T) is:

If b > H/2:

T=(1/4).[1-0.7a/h].F

Otherwise:

The angle between the strut and the horizontal face reinforcement is determined
from the truss drawing. This angle would be used to transfer the area of the
face reinforcement from its directions (vertical and horizontal) to the direction
of the tensile forces (perpendicular to

the strut direction). That means that the face reinforcement shall be used to
carry this force.

As; Φ = As;face * {sin (Φ) + cos (Φ)}

Where:

As; Φ is the area of the face reinforcement in the direction of (T).

Φ is the angle between the strut and face reinforcement

When the face reinforcement is not sufficient to carry this tension force, extra
mesh will be placed to satisfy the stress condition of the steel.

Step 5:

The crack width will be calculated and checked in the serviceability limit state
(SLS). The force in the tie is determined with a load factor of 1,0. Although is
the strut-and-tie method is described and used in the Eurocode 2 part 1-1, a
rule to determine the effective width of ties inside the deep beams is not clearly
given. The rules mentioned in art. 7.3.2 are related to the concrete cover (c)
[heff = 2.5*(h-d)] or to the neutral line of the cross-section (x) [ heff = (h-x)/3],
which is not always found in the strut-and-tie model. When the tie lies along

...........
92
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

the edge of the member, the rule related to the concrete cover can be used,
but when the tie lies inside the deep beams, an assumption has been made.
One of two methods is used to determine the effective width of the tie in this
case, depending on the situation. If the tie has one layer of reinforcement the
effective width is assumed to be (5*Φ), and when the tie has reinforcement
in more layers the effective width is assumed to be 2,5*(C to C distance of
the layers).

To check the crack width, the expressions given in art. 7.3.4 are used.

The crack width (wk) is defined as:

wk = sr,max (εsm – εcm)

Where:

sr,max is the maximum crack spacing. This value must be calculated with one
of two different expressions, depending on the C to C distance of the bars. In
these calculations, it is always chosen to have C to C distance smaller than 5(c
+ φ/2), which leads to smaller crack width. The expression used was therefore
the following:

sr,max = k3 . c + k1 . k2 . k4 . φ / ρp,eff
k1 is a coefficient related to the bond (=0,8)
k2 is a coefficient related to the distribution of tension (=1,0)
k3 and k4 are 3.4 and 0.425 respectively
ρp,eff = As /Ac,eff

is the difference between the mean strains of reinforcement and concrete, and
may be calculated from the expression (without prestressing):

Where:

σs is the stress in tie reinforcement

αe = Es /Ecm
kt is a factor depending on the duration of the load (for long term loading kt
= 0,4)

Step 6:

At the beginning of this step, a check was been done to see if all the results
are good and if both the input and output satisfy the conditions. Drawing the
reinforcement and calculating the amount of reinforcement in the deep beam
are the last steps.

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93 RC D 4 8 01/1


4.3 EXAMPLES OF STM DESIGN

4.3.1 STM design using SANS 10100 – Pile cap

Using a strut-and-tie model, what tension reinforcement is required for a pile
cap supporting a 500 mm square column carrying 2500 kN (ULS), and itself
supported by two-piles of 600 diameter at 1800 mm centre to centre distance.
Concrete strength fcu = 30MPa, Steel strength fy = 450N/mm2

Solution

Angle of strut = tan-1(900/1300) = 34.7°

Width of strut* = 250/cos 34.7° = 304* mm
Force per strut = 1250/cos 34.7°= 1520 kN
Force in tie = 1250 tan 34.7° = 866 kN

Area of steel required:

As ≥ 866 × 103/450
≥ 1924 mm2
Use 4 Y25 (1964 mm2)

Check forces in truss

Stress in strut (top – under half of column)

=1520 × 103/(304 × 500)

σEd =10.0 MPa

Strength of strut:

σRd,max = 0.4 (1-fcu /250) fcu

= 10.6 MPa OK

Nodes: top

From before

...........
94
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

σEd,2 = 10.0 MPa (from above)

σEd,3 = 10.0 MPa (as above)
σEd,1 = 2500 × 103/(5002)
= 10.0 MPa
σRd,max (for CCC node)
= 0.57 (1-fcu /250) fcu
= 15.0 MPa

Nodes: bottom (as a check)

Strut above

Width of strut* = 600/cos 34.7°

= 730 mm
Stress in strut (bottom as an ellipse)
σEd,2 = 1520 × 103/(600 × 730 x π/4)
= 4.4 MPa
σEd,1 = 1250 × 103/(π × 3002)
= 4.4 MPa
σRd,max (for CCT node)
= 0.48 (1- fcu /250) fcu
= 12.7 MPa OK
= 1250 kN

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95 RC D 4 8 01/1


4.3.2 STM design using Eurocode 2 Part 1, 2004 Clause 6.5 – Pile cap
A pile cap with the following geometry: 4500 × 4500 mm plinth (thickness
b = 1500 mm), 2000 × 700 mm columns on 4 diameter 800 mm piles. The
foundation column has an ultimate load of N = 2000kN and a Moment M =
4000kNm. Calculate the reinforcement of the cap beam with the geometry
illustrated in Figure 4.12, using the STM method following Eurocode 2.

FIGURE 4.12
Log plinth on pilings

Materials: concrete C25/30 fck = 25 MPa, steel B450C f yk = 450 MPa

= 14.17 N/mm2

= 391.3 N/mm2

Nodes compression resistance (same values as in the previous example)

Compressed nodes σ1Rd,max = 15 N/mm2

tied-compressed nodes with tension rods in one direction σ2Rd,max =
12.75 N/mm2
tied-compressed nodes with tension rods in different directions σ3Rd,max =
11.22 N/mm2
Pedestal pile
NSd = 2000 kN
MSd = 4000 kNm

...........
96
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

Tied reinforcement in the pile: 8 ϕ 26 (As = 4248 mm2)

The compressive stress Fc in the concrete and the steel tension Fs on the
pedestal pile are evaluated from the ULS verification for normal stresses of
the section itself:

Fs = f yd As = 391.3∙4248 = 1662242 N = 1662 kN

NSd = 0.8 b × fcd – Fs ⇒ 2000000 = 0.8 × 700 × 14.17 - 1662242 ⇒ × =
462 mm

The compressive stress in the concrete is:

C = 0.8 b × fcd = 0.8 × 700 × 462 × 14.17 = 3666062 N = 3666 kN

(applied at 0.4 × ≅ 185 mm from the upper surface)

Pile stress

Pile stresses are evaluated considering the column actions transfer in two steps.

In the first step, the transfer of the forces Fc and Fs happens in the plane π1
(Figure 4.12) to the orthogonal planes π2 and π3. Then in the second step the
transfer is inside the planes π2 and π3 to the piles; the truss-tie beam in Figure
4.13 is relative to the transfer in the plane π1:

compression: A’ = (MSd/3.00 + NSd/2) = (4000/3.00 + 2000/2)

= 2333 kN
tension: B’ = (MSd/3.00 – NSd/2) = (4000/3.00 – 2000/2)
= 333 kN
for each compressed pile: A = A’/2 = 1167 kN
for each tied pile: B = B’/2 = 167 kN

In the evaluation of stresses on piles, the plinth own weight is considered

negligible

FIGURE 4.13
STM model in the plan π1

...........
97 RC D 4 8 01/1


θ11 = arctg (1300/860) = 56.5°

θ12 = arctg (1300/600) = 65.2°
T10 = Fs = 1662 kN
T11 = A’ cot θ11 = 2333 cot 26.5° = 1544 kN
T12 = B’ cot θ12 = 333 cot 65.2° = 154 kN

FIGURE 4.14
Trusses in plan π2 and in plan π3
θ13 = arctg (1300/1325) = 44.5°
T13 = A = 1167 kN
T14 = A cot θ13 = 1167 cot 44.5° = 1188 kN
T15 = B cot θ13 = 167 cot 44.5° = 170 kN
T16 = B = 167 kN
Design of tension rods

Tension rod Force (kN) Required Bars

reinforcement (mm2)

10 (plinth tied 1662 4248 8Φ26

reinforcement)

11 1544 3946 9Φ24

12 154 394 1Φ12/20 (6Φ2)

13 1167 2982 Stirrups 10Φ20

14 1188 3036 7Φ24

15 170 434 1Φ12/20 (5Φ12)

16 167 427 Pile reinforcement

Nodes verification
Concentrated nodes are present only at the pedestal pile and on the top of the
piles. In the latter, the compressive stresses are very small as a consequence
large area of the piles section:

...........
98
 24

Concentrated nodes are only present only at the pedestal pile and on the top of the piles top. In
CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms
the latter, the compressive stresses are very small as a consequence large area of the piles
section:

= 4.64N/mm2
𝐴𝐴 2333000
σc = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
= = 4.64N/mm2
3.14𝑥𝑥4002

Reinforcements layout
Reinforcements layout

FIGURE 4.15: Schematic placement of reinforcements

FIGURE 4.15
Schematic placement of reinforcements
4.3.3 SMT STM design using ACI 3-18-02 code

Example Description [6]

4.3.3 STM design using ACI 3-18-02 code
Example Description [6]
Chapter 4: Deep Concrete Beams OctoberAugust 2020

A 6.10 m span deep beam was designed using the strut-and-tie method
according to ACI 3 18 02, Appendix A. The beam is 508 mm wide and 2032
mm deep and carries two concentrated factored loads, V=1601 kN each
(Figure 4-16). Bearing plates of 457 mm × 508 mm are provided at all loading
and support locations. The self-weight was not considered in the design.
The compressive strength of concrete, fcu, and the yield strength of the steel
reinforcement, f y are taken as 27.6 MPa and 414 MPa, respectively.

(1) Geometry and loads

The structure and loading under consideration are shown in Figure 4.16

...........
99 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 4.16
Deep beam structure and loading

Material strengths:

fu = 27.6 MPa (normal-weight concrete)

f y = 414 MPa

(2) Design procedure

The entire deep beam is a disturbed region because it is near statistical
discontinuities, i.e., the concentrated forces, within one section depth of the
beam on either side of the discontinuity. However, it is necessary to consider
only the left half of the structure to complete the design because the geometry
and loading are symmetric about a vertical axis passing the midspan of the
beam. The structure will be designed using the strut-and-tie method according
to ACI 3 18-02

Appendix A. The step-by-step design procedure is as follows:

• Step 1: Check bearing capacity at loading and support locations.

• Step 2: Establish the strut-and-tie model and determine the required truss
forces.
• Step 3: Select the tie reinforcement.
• Step 4: Design the nodal zones and check the anchorages
• Step 5: Check the diagonal struts.
• Step 6: Calculate the minimum reinforcement required for crack control.
• Step 7: Arrange the reinforcement.

(3) Design calculations

3.1 Step 1: Check bearing capacity at loading and support locations

The area of bearing plate is A, = 457 × 508 = 232258 mm2.

The bearing stresses at points of loading and at supports are

= 6.89 MPa

...........
100
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

The nodal zone beneath the loading locations is an all-compression (CCC)

node per ACI Sec. A.5.2 definition. The effective compressive strength of this
node is limited to
fcu = 0.85. βn. fc' = 0.85 × 1.00 × 27.6 = 23.5 MPa. [ACI Sec. A.5.2 eq. (A-8)]
The nodal zone over the support locations is a compression-tension (CCT) node.
The effective compressive strength of this node is
fcu = 0.85. βn. fc' = 0.85 × 0.80 × 26.7 = 18.8 MPa [ACI Sec. A.5.2 eq. (A-8)]
Because the bearing stresses are less than their corresponding limits, i.e.,
Φfcu = 0.75 × 23.5 = 17.58 MPa at points of loading and
Φfcu = 0.75 × 18.8 = 14.07 MPa at supports, the area of bearing plates provided
is adequate.
3.2 S tep 2: Establish the strut-and-tie model and determine the required
truss forces
A simple strut-and-tie model, as shown in Figure 4-17, is selected. The truss
consists of a direct strut AB (or strut CD) running from the applied load to the
support. Strut BC and tie AD are required to equilibrate the truss. As shown
in Figure 4-18, these struts and ties form a force couple,
Fu,BC = Fu,AD. (4.3.3 -1)

FIGURE 4.17
Selected strut-and-tie model

The horizontal position of nodes A and B is easy to define, but the vertical
position of these nodes must be estimated or determined. To fully utilise the
beam, the positions of these nodes have to be close to the top and bottom of
the beam as possible. In other words, the lever arm, jd, of the force couple
must be set to maximum, and this means that the width of strut BC, w, and
the width to anchor tie AD, wt must be set to minimum.
To minimise w, strut force BC, FU, BC, must reach its capacity defined in ACI
Sec. A.3.2, or
FU,BC = φFnc = φfcu Ac = φ(0.85βs . f’c) bws where βs =1.0 (prismatic). (4.3.3-2)

...........
101 RC D 4 8 01/1


To minimise wt tie force AD, FU,AD must reach the node capacity to anchor this
tie, which is defined in ACI Sec. A.5.2, or

FU,AD = φFnt = φfcu Ac = φ (0.85 βn . f’c) bwt where βn =0.8 (CCT node). (4.3.3-3)

Substituting equations (4.3.3.-2) and (4.3.3-3) into equation (4.3.3-1) gives wt

= 1.25ws

jd = 80 – ws/2 – wt /2 = 80 -1.125ws (4.3.3-4)

Writing the moment equilibrium equation about point A as described in

equation (4.3.3-5) and substituting equations (4.3.3-2) and (4.3.3-4) into the
equation give ws = 201.9mm, and therefore wt = 252.5mm.

Vu (80) – Fu,BC jd = 0 (4.3.3-5)

FIGURE 4.18
Free body diagram of the left half of the deep beam

If the values of ws and wt just obtained are used for the dimensions of the struts
and ties, the stress in strut BC, Fu,BC will be at its limit, and the force in tie AD,
FuAD, will be anchored in just sufficient area. In this design, ws will be selected
to be 203 mm, and wt will be selected to be 254 mm. Therefore,

d = 2032 -254/2 = 1905 mm, jd = 2032 - 127 – 101.5 = 1803mm, and

FuBc = F u,AD = 1601 x 2032/1803 = 1 806 kN. Strut BC is located 102 mm

from the top of the beam and tie AD is located 102/2 = 127 mm from the
bottom of the beam. This fixes the geometry of the truss and is illustrated in
Figure (4.3.3-19).

...........
102
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

FIGURE 4.19: Strut and tieStrut-and-tie model dimensions and forces

FIGURE 4.19
Strut-and-tie
The model
angle and the dimensions
force of diagonaland forces
strut AB are 𝜃𝜃 = arctan (1803/2023) = 41.6° a
Fu,AB
The angle and the = 1601
force of diagonal = 2411
/ sin41.6° strut arerespectively.
ABkN), θ = arctan (1803/2023) =
41.6° and 3.3 Step 3: Select the tie reinforcement

Fu,AB = 1601/sin41.6° = 2411 kN), respectively.

The minimum tie reinforcement provided must satisfy
= ∅tie
∅Fntthe
3.3 Step 3: Select fy >= Fu,AD, = 1806 kN. [ACI Secs. A.4.1 and A.2.6]
Astreinforcement
Thus, the required area of reinforcement for tie AD is
The minimum tie reinforcement provided must satisfy
Fu,AD / ∅ fy = 1806 / 0.75x 414 = 5816 mm2
φFnt = φ Ast fy >= Fu,AD, = 1806 kN. [ACI Secs. A.4.1 and A.2.6]
For better steel distribution and for ease of anchorage length requirement, choos
Thus, the required area of reinforcement for tie AD is
2 layers of 3 Y32 bars and 2 Y25 ASt = 6781mm2.
Fu,AD /φfy = 1806 / 0.75 × 414 = 5816 mm2
3.4 Step 4: Design the nodal zones and check the anchorages
For better steel distribution and for ease of anchorage length requirement,
choose 2 layers of
The3 90'
Y32standard
bars and 2 Y25
hook ASt =
is used to 6781mm
anchor tie.AD. The required anchorage length is
2

3.4 Step 4: Design the

ldh = nodal zones
𝜆𝜆(0.02𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
0.5
= 490and
mm check the anchorages
𝑓𝑓
st / provided Ast represents the correction factor for an exces
The 90' standardwhere
hookλ is used to Aanchor
= required tie AD. The required anchorage
length is reinforcement. ACI A.4.3.2 requires that this development length start at the poin
centroid of the reinforcement in a tie leaves the extended nodal zone and enters
ldh = shown
= 490 mm 4.20 left, the available development length is 686 mm. Because
in Figure
than 490 mm, the anchorage length is adequate.
where λ = required Ast /provided Ast represents the correction factor for an
excess of reinforcement. ACI A.4.3.2 requires that this development length
start at the point where the centroid of the reinforcement in a tie leaves the
extended nodal zone and enters the span. As shown in Figure 4.20 left, the
available development length is 686 mm. Because this is greater than 490
mm, the anchorage length is adequate.

Chapter 4: Deep Concrete Beams OctoberAugust

...........
103 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 4.20
FIGURE 4.20 Nodal zones A and B
Nodal zones A and B

3.5 Step 5: Check the diagonal struts

3.5 Step 5: Check the diagonal struts
From Sec. 3.2, the angle of strut AB (or CD) is θ = 41.6° and the force is Fu,AB
From Sec. 3.2, the angle of strut AB (or CD) is 𝜃𝜃 = 41.6° and the force is Fu,AB = 2411 kN
= 2411 kN. As shown in Figure (4.3.3-5), the width at top of the strut is
As shown in Figure (4.3.3-5), the width at top of the strut is
wwstst== IIbb sin
sinθ𝜃𝜃++w cos θ𝜃𝜃 ==455455
wss cos mm,mm,
andthe
and thewidthwidthatatbottom
bottomofofthethestrut
strutisis
wwsbsb== llbb sin
sinθ𝜃𝜃++wwtt cos
cos θ = 493mm
𝜃𝜃 = 493mm
Strut AB is expected to be a bottle-shaped strut. By assuming that sufficient crack contro
reinforcement
Strut AB is expected is usedto to
beresist bursting force
a bottle-shaped in By
strut. theassuming
strut (βs that
= 0.75) the capacity of strut
sufficient
crack
limited control
to reinforcement is used to resist bursting force in the strut (βs =
0.75)
∅Fnsthe = ∅fcapacity of strut β
cu Ac = ∅(0.85 AB
s .is
f’climited
) bwst to

φF = φfcu Ac = φ(0.85 βs . f’c) bwst [ACI Secs. A.2.6 and A.3.2]

=ns0.75(0.85)(0.75)(27.6)(506)(455)
== 0.75(0.85)(0.75)(27.6)(506)(455)
3038 kN [ACI Secs. A.2.6 and A.3.2]
=Because
3038 kNthis is higher than the required force, strut AB (or CD) is adequate.

Because this is higher than the required force, strut AB (or CD) is adequate.
3.6 Step 6: Calculate the minimum reinforcement required for crack control
3.6 Step 6: Calculate the minimum reinforcement required for crack control
Vertical web reinforcement provided must be at least
Vertical web reinforcement
Av = 0.0025 b s, [ACI Sec.provided
11.8.4] must be at least
Aand
v
= 0.0025 b s, [ACI Sec. 11.8.4]
horizontal web reinforcement provided must be at least
A, =horizontal
and 0.0015 b web
s2, [ACI Sec. 1 1.8.5]
reinforcement provided must be at least
Awhere
, = 0.0015
s andbs2
s2,cannot
[ACI Sec. 1 1.8.5]
exceed dl5 or 12 in.
where s and s2 cannot exceed dl5 or 12 in.
For vertical web reinforcement, use Y16 @ 305 mm centre to centre on each face over e
length,
For Av /web
vertical bs =reinforcement,
2(0.31)/20/12use= 0.0026
Y16 @>3050.0025.
mm centre to centre on each
For over
face horizontal
entire web reinforcement,
length, use Y12 @
Av /bs = 2(0.31)/20/12 =305 mm >
0.0026 centre to centre on each face ove
0.0025.
length, AVh b/ s2 = 2(0.20)/20/12 = 0.0017 > 0.0015.
For horizontal web reinforcement, use Y12 @ 305 mm centre to centre on
each face over entire length, AVh b/s2 = 2(0.20)/20/12 = 0.0017 > 0.0015.
Because βs equal to 0.75 is used to calculate the strength of strut AB, minimum reinforc
provided
Because βsmust
equalalso satisfy
to 0.75 is used to calculate the strength of strut AB, minimum
reinforcement provided must also satisfy

Chapter 4: Deep Concrete Beams OctoberAugust 2020

...........
104
 CHAP T ER   4:  D e e p co n c r e te b e a ms

0.0030 [ACI Sec. A.3.3.1 eq. (A-4)]

where yi is the angle between the axis of minimum reinforcement and the
axis of the strut. Based on the provided web reinforcement,

 .0030 = 0.0017 sin 41.6 + 0.0026 48.4 = 0.0031 >

0
0.003

3.7 Step 7: Arrange the reinforcement

The reinforcement details are shown in Figure 4.21

FIGURE 4.21
Reinforcement details

4.4 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

(1) Explain what a deep beam is and provide few typical examples of such
a concrete structural element in practice.
(2) Describe the hypothesis of Bernoulli in the case of beam theory. What is
the difference between this and the principle of St Venant?
(3) Explain the struts-and-ties method in the case of beam design. Can it be
applied to the columns too?
(4) Define the three non-hydrostatic nodes
(5) Using the theory of flexure with SANS 10100, design the pile cap beam
supporting a 500 mm square column carrying 2500 kN (ULS), and itself
supported by two-piles of 600 diameter at 1800 mm centre to centre
distance. Concrete strength fcu = 30MPa, Steel strength f y = 450N/mm2.
Compare the results with the struts and ties method used in Example 4.3.1

...........
105 RC D 4 8 01/1


4.5 REFERENCES
[1] The South African Standard SANS 10100-1, 2000. The Structural Use of
Concrete – Part 1: Design, Code of Practice.

[2] Hamunzala B and Teklemariam D. 2016, Sweden. Design of Concrete

Thick Beams Using Non-Linear FEM, MSc Thesis by KTH Royal Institute
of Technology, School of Architecture and the Build environmental,
Stockholm.

[3] The Concrete Centre, Eurocode 2, 2017. Practical Design to Eurocode 2,

MPA – Webinar Course.

[4] Birrcher D and al. 2009. Strength and Serviceability Design of Reinforced
Concrete Deep Beams, by Centre for Transportation Research at the
University of Texas Austin, CTR Technical Report 0-5253-1.

[5] Mahmoud M N. October 2007. Design and Numerical Analysis of

Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams. M.Sc. Thesis at Delft University of
Technology, Nederland.

[6] Reineck K H, 2002. Examples for the design of structural concrete strut-
and-tie models, ACI International SP-208-2002.

...........
106
CHAPTER
5 5

Prestressed concrete beams and slabs

5

design

5.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

This chapter covers the design of prestressed concrete beams and slabs.
Prestressed beams are often used in long-span bridge construction and
prestressed slabs in multi-storey building floors.

FIGURE 5.0
Prestressed, post stressed beams and prestressed slabs (Google image)

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to design these prestressed concrete
elements using SANS 10100-1. The assessment criteria are therefore summarised
as follows:

...........
107 RC D 4 8 01/1


Outcome Assessment criteria

Apply the understanding of • Explain the difference between pre-stressing and

structural analysis, loadings, post-stressing in concrete
drawing and computer • Perform calculations of prestressed elastic stress
literacy to design prestressed e.g. combined load approach, load balancing
beams and slabs. method
• Understand the specification process of concrete
and steel characteristics in prestressed elements
• Analyse the flexure behaviour of uncracked
sections in prestressed beams
• Analyse the flexure behaviour of cracked sections
in prestressed beams
• Define and calculate the different losses of
prestressing e.g. elastic deformation losses, friction
losses and anchorage losses
• Define and calculate-time dependant losses of
prestressing e.g. shrinkage losses, creep losses and
relaxation losses
• Analyse of the shear of prestressed beams
• Calculate deflections of uncracked and cracked
prestressed beams, e.g. instantaneous deflections,
and long-term deflections.
• Post-tensioned slab design
• Design a two-way prestressed slab
• Perform the serviceability design of a two-way
slab
• Presentation of the design in drawings using
commercial Prokon software (Assignments)

VERY IMPORTANT NOTE

Exclusively for this chapter, the book “Prestressed Concrete: Design and
practice” by V Marshall and JM Robberts, 1st edition 2000, is recommended.
You are obliged to acquire it to successfully understand this topic.

5.1.1 Basic Concept of prestressing

It is well known that the concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension.
The low tensile capacity in flexure results in cracks developing at earlier stages
of loading. In order to reduce or suppress this tensile weakness, generally
manifested by the appearance of cracks, concrete structural elements can
pre-compressed at places where the tensile stresses are expected under working
load condition. This force will prevent cracks from developing by eliminating
or considerably reducing the tensile stresses at critical sections of the structural
element and, at the same time, will increase its capacity to support external
working loads. This imposed longitudinal force is called prestressing force. With
cracking reduced or eliminated, a prestressed section is considerably stiffer
than the equivalent (usually cracked) reinforced section. Prestressing may also
impose internal forces which are of opposite sign to the external loads and
may therefore significantly reduce or even eliminate deflection.

...........
108
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

FIGURE 5.1
Pre-stressing or pretensioning principle [1]
Figure 5.1 illustrates a beam made with many concrete blocks held together
by a large compressive prestressing force P. Shear slip failure of these blocks
cannot occur because of the high shear stress between the blocks induced by the
longitudinal force P, resulting in all sections being constantly under compression
stress as shown in section b of the above figure.

5.1.2 Methods of prestressing

Prestress is usually imparted to a concrete member by highly tensioned steel
reinforcement (wire, strand, or bar) reacting on the concrete. The high strength
prestressing steel is most often tensioned using hydraulic jacks. The tensioning
operation may occur before or after the concrete is cast and, accordingly,
prestressed members are classified as either pretensioned or post-tensioned.

5.1.2.1 Prestressing or Pretensioning

The prestressing uses tendons that are tensioned by a jack without any concrete,
and then, concrete is poured, allowed to set and bond, at which time the
ends are cut and the beam becomes instantly stressed by the tendons. Service
loads can then be applied. Figure 5.2 illustrates schematically a pre-stressing
or pretensioning manufacturing principle. Video 5.1 presents a prestressed
manufacturing yard: Typical prestressed production plant (7:52)

FIGURE 5.2
Prestressing or pretensioning procedure for concrete members

At early age, the prestressing increases the stress of the concrete element
resulting in an elastic shortening of the concrete and subsequent creep strains
that is also increasing. This relatively high, time-dependent shortening of the
concrete causes a significant reduction in the tensile strain in the bonded,
prestressing steel and a relatively high loss of prestress.

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109 RC D 4 8 01/1


5.1.2.2 Post-stressing or Post-tensioning

In post-stressed or post-tensioned concreting, the tendons are tensioned
by means of a hydraulic jack after the concrete has already cured (a duct is
installed so that the concrete is not bonded to the prestressing).This causes
the beam to become stressed. Grout may or may not then be used to infill the
ducts. Grouting should typically be performed to minimise the chances of a
single tendon rupture causing catastrophic failure of the member. The three
steps are well depicted in Figure 5.3. Service loads can then be applied on
the structural beam after step c.

FIGURE 5.3
Figure 5.3: Post-stressing or post-tensioning procedure
Post-stressing or post-tensioning procedure

5.1.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of prestressing

5.1.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of prestressing
Amongst the advantages of prestressed concrete compared to theover reinforced con
Among the advantages of prestressed concrete over reinforced concrete, the
following
following salient salient
points canpoints can be mentioned:
be mentioned:
 Fully prestressed concrete members are usually subjected to compression du
• Fully prestressed concrete members are usually subjected to compression
service life, thereby service rectifying deficiencies in the concrete deficiencies.
during their service life, thereby rectifying deficiencies in the concrete.
Prestressed
• Prestressedsections remainsections
uncrackedremain uncracked
under serviceunder
loadsservice loads
– Reduction of  steel corrosion
Reduction – increase
of steel in –durability
corrosion increase in durability
– Full section is used – high stiffness and less deformation, improving
 Full section is used – high stiffness and less deformations, improving servi
serviceability
Increase
• Increase in shear in shear capacity
capacity
• Suitable foruseSuitable
in pressure vessels,
for use liquidvessels,
in pressure retaining structures
liquid retaining structures
• Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading
 Improved
• High span-to-depth performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading
ratios
– Larger spans
 Highpossible with
span -to prestressing,
-depth ratios e.g. bridges, larger buildings
• Suitable for precast construction
 Larger spans possible with prestressing, e.g. bridges, larger buildings
 Suitable for precast construction

The following disadvantages of prestressed concrete elements can be enumerated:

...........  The pPrestressing requires advanced technology.
110

Chapter 5: Prestressed Concrete Beams and Slab Design October 2020

 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

The following disadvantages of prestressed concrete elements can be

enumerated:

• Prestressing requires advanced technology.

• The use of high-strength materials is costly, as is the other auxiliary equipment
that is needed.
• Strict requirements for quality control and inspection.

5.1.3 Basic principles of prestressing: Elastic stresses calculation

NOTE

This section covers the “INTRODUCTION – The basic idea of prestressed

concrete” on pages 1–1 to 1–15 in your prescribed textbook. You are advised
to read what is in your reference book first and then complete your reading
with what is laid out below in this study guide.

Assuming that the section is not cracked, the different components of stress on
a prestressed cross-section are usually calculated using simple beam theory and
employing a linear-elastic material behaviour model. Calculations of stresses
caused by the prestress, the self-weight, and the external loads use the properties
of the gross concrete section under different stage of prestressing. However,
while concrete does not behave in a linear-elastic manner, the approximation
of the state of stress on a concrete section immediately after the application
of the load gives some indications of potential serviceability problems. Three
approaches to stress calculation on non-cracked cross sections are presented
below:

5.1.3.1 Combined Load Approach

The combined stress distribution on a cross-section at any particular load stage
is obtained by summing all the stress distributions on a cross-section caused
by prestress, self-weight, and the applied loads, calculated separately.

Consider the section view in Figure 5.4 which shows that, for equilibrium to
be achieved, the resultant of the concrete stresses must be a compressive force
equal and opposite to the tensile force in the steel tendon and located at the
level of the steel – i.e. at an eccentricity e below the centroidal axis. This is
statically equivalent to an axial compressive force P and a moment Pe located
at the centroidal axis, as shown.

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111 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 5.4
Figure 5.4: Stress
Stress caused
caused by prestress
by prestress and concrete
and concrete stress[3]
stress resultants resultants [3]

TheThe resultant
resultant stress
stress duedue
totothe
thecompressive
compressive force
force PPand
andthe moment
the Pe Pe
moment is given
is by
given by 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
f= − − Equation 5.1
𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼
Equation 5.1
where:
where:
A = area about the centroid axis of the cross section

A =I =area
second moment
about about the
the centroid axiscentroid
of the axis
crossofsection
the cross section,
I = ysecond moment
= distance about
from the the centroid
centroid axis of
axis (positive the cross section,
downward)
y = distance from the centroid axis (positive downward)
When one combines the previous equation with the elastic stress due to an applied positive
When one combines
moment the previous
M on the uncracked equation
section, withinthe
as shown elastic
Figure 5.5,stress due totoan
one comes Equation 5.2.
applied positive moment M on the uncracked section, as shown in Figure 5.5,
onef comes
𝑃𝑃 to 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
= − − Equation
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 5.2.
+ Equation 5.2
𝐴𝐴 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
Equation 5.2

Chapter 5: Prestressed Concrete Beams and Slab Design October 2020

FIGURE 5.5
Figure 5.5: Combined stress Combined
[3] stress [3]

5.1.3.2 Internal Couple Concept

The resultant of the combined stress distribution shown in Figure 5.5 is a compressive force
........... of magnitude P located at a distance l above the level of the steel tendon, as shown in Figure 5.6
112 The compressive force in the concrete and the tension force in the steel form a couple

with magnitude equal to the applied bending moment, i.e.

M = Pl Equation 5.3
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.1.3.2 Internal Couple Concept

The resultant of the combined stress distribution shown in Figure 5.5 is
a compressive force of magnitude P located at a distancelabove the level of
the steel tendon, as shown in Figure 5.6 The compressive force in the concrete
and the tension force in the steel form a couple with magnitude equal to the
applied bending moment, i.e.

M = Pl Equation 5.3

FIGURE 5.6
Internal couple [3]

When M = 0, the lever arm l is zero and the resultant concrete compressive
force is located at the steel level. As M increases and compressive stresses in
the top fibres increase and those in the bottom fibres decrease, the location
of the resultant compressive force moves upward.

5.1.3.3 Load Balancing Method

In Figure 5.7 below, the forces acting on a prestressed beam by way of a
parabolic cable are shown and the uniformly distributed transverse load wp
may be calculated. If w = wp, the bending moment and shear force caused
by the gravity load on every cross section are balanced by the equal and
opposite values caused by wp. If w≠wp, the bending moment Mub caused
by the unbalanced load (w−wp) must be calculated and the resultant stress
distribution (given by Equation 5.2) must be added to the stresses, caused by
the axial prestress (P/A).

It is shown that the upward distributed load wp is given the following equation:

Equation 5.4

FIGURE 5.7
Loads and forces acting on the concrete [3]

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113 RC D 4 8 01/1


5.1.3.4 Example 5.1 – Calculation of elastic stresses

Calculate the elastic stress distribution at mid-span of the simply supported
beam shown in Figure 5.8 using the three methods presented above:

FIGURE 5.8
Simply supported beam [3]

Method 1: Combined load approach

The extreme fibre stresses at mid-span (σt, σb) due to P, Pe and M are calculated
separately and summed.

P = 1760 kN; Pe = 1760 x 250 x 10 -3 = 440kNm

= 540 kNm

Compression stress:

= - 8.00 MPa

Stress due to the moment Pe:

= + 10.67 MPa

= - 9.13 MPa

Stress due to applied M:

= + 13.10 MPa

= + 11.21 MPa

The combined elastic stress distribution on the concrete section at mid-span

is shown below in Figure 5.9.

ft - 10.43 MPa and fb= - 5.92 MP

...........
114
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

FIGURE 5.9
Component stress distribution [3]

Method 2: Internal couple concept

From Equation 5.3

= 306.8 mm

The location of the resultant compressive force 1760 kN on the concrete

section is 306.8 − 250 = 56.8 mm above the centroidal axis. This is statically
equivalent to an axial compressive force of 1760 kN (applied at the centroid)
plus a moment Mub = 1760 × 56.8 × 10−3 = 100 kNm.

The extreme fibre concrete stresses are therefore calculated as follows:

= - 10.43 MPa

= - 5.92 MPa

Method 3: Load balancing procedure

Equation 5.4 is then used:

= 24.4 kN/m

The unbalanced load is the difference between w and wp calculated as:

Wub = 30.0 – 24.4 = 5.55 kN/m

and the resultant unbalanced moment at mid-span is

= 100 kNm

which, of course, is the same as Mub calculated using the internal couple
concept, and the elastic stresses at mid-span are obtained by adding the P/A
stresses to those caused by Mub:

= - 10.43 MPa

= - 5.92 MPa

...........
115 RC D 4 8 01/1


5.2 MATERIAL DESIGN PROPERTIES

NOTE

This section provides important highlights concerning Chapter 2 “2. MATERIAL

PROPERTIES”– pages 2-1 to 2-39 in your prescribed textbook. You are advised
to read what is in your reference book first and then complete your reading
with what is laid out below in this study guide.

However, the whole of Chapter 3 “PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS AND

PROCEDURES” in your prescribed textbook has been given for the sake
of completeness and is for your information only as far as this study guide
is concerned. (Not for examination purposes.)

The behaviour of a prestressed concrete member throughout the full range of

loading depends on the properties and behaviour of the constituent materials.
In order to satisfy the design objective of adequate structural strength, the
ultimate strengths of both concrete and steel need to be known. In addition,
factors affecting material strength and the non-linear behaviour of each material
in the overload range must be considered.

5.2.1 Concrete
Concrete is defined by its characteristic compressive strength at 28 days while,
for prestressed concrete, higher strength – varying from 30 to 70 MPa – is
usually specified. The minimum characteristic strengths recommended by
SANS 10100-1 for prestressed concrete are shown in Table 5.1, as reported
by Marshall & Robberts [4]

TABLE 5.1
Minimum recommended characteristic strength according to SANS 10100 [4]

Compressive strength fcu at 28 days At transfer

Pretensioned 40MPa Bonded 25 MPa

Posttensioned 30MPa Unbonded 18 MPa

The parabolic-rectangular stress-strain curve in Figure 5.10*, recommended by

SANS 10100-1, will be used in the analysis and design of prestressed concrete
elements.

(*) Figure 5.10 – Refer to your reference book, page 4-4, Figure 4-4 [4]

Due to some difficulty in the calculation of the above model, SANS 10100-1
and BS 8110 recommend the equivalent rectangular stress-block model shown
in Figure 5.11* Note that this model is valid only for the flexure response of
beams at ultimate state of failure.

(*) Figure 5.11 – Refer to your reference book, page 4-4, Figure 4-5 [4]

...........
116
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Tensile strength

Tensile strength of concrete is generally smaller compared to its compressive

strength. Due to the difficulty of testing, two indirect methods of testing are
used, namely the split cylinder test (Brazilian Test) and the modulus of rupture
test or the flexural tensile test. SANS 10100-1 recommends the calculation of
the modulus of rupture fr using the following relationship between the modulus
of rupture fr and the design compressive strength:

Equation 5.5

Time-dependant Characteristics

Concrete time-dependant characteristics such as shrinkage and creep have also

an impact on the stress-strain behaviour of prestressed beams. More elaborate
information can be found in appropriate literature such as chapter 8 of Fulton’s
Concrete Technology, 2009, by Mark Alexander and Hans Beushausen.

5.2.2 Steel for normal reinforced concrete

Prestressed concrete members always use normal reinforced concrete steel
as supplementary reinforcement for shear reinforcement and crack control.
Non-prestressed reinforcement consists normally of hot-rolled mild steel bars,
hot rolled high-yield stress bars, cold-worked high-yield stress bars, or welded
fabric. Prestressed reinforcement encompasses high-strength wires, strands,
or alloy bars.

The minimum tensile characteristics strength of steel, which is the same

as compression strength, is indicated in SANS 10100-1 as being 250 MPa for
hot rolled mild steel (R) and 450 MPa for hot-rolled high-yield steel and cold
worked high-yield steel (Y) respectively.

The stress-strain curve recommended by SANS 10100-1 for design is presented

below in Figure 5.12* The recommended design value for the modulus of
elasticity is 200 GPa

(*) Figure 5.12 – Refer to your reference book, page 2-24, Figure 2-22 [4]

5.2.3 Steel for prestressed concrete

Prestressing reinforcements are generally of high tensile strength steel, sometimes
with alloy added, and manufactured in tendons that can take the form of wires,
strands, or bars.

Typical stress-strain curves for prestressed wire, strand and bar are given in
Figure 5.13*

(*) Figure 5.13 – Refer to your reference book page 2-28, Figure 2-24 [4]

From the above curve, one can observe the following:

• Prestressing steel gives a much higher tensile strength than reinforcing bars
accompanied with short elongation

...........
117 RC D 4 8 01/1


• There is no definite yielding point for prestressed reinforcement

• Three distinct parts can be identified – linear elastic followed by non-linear
transition section and, lastly, a linear strain-hardening leading to the fracture.

Based on what has been observed above, the design stress-strain diagram for
prestressing steel acting in tensile has been recommended by SANS 10100-1
as a trilinear curve shown below in Figure 5.14* with the following suggested
values of module of elasticity:

Ep = 205 GPa for high tensile steel wire (wire to section 2 of BS 5896:1980)
= 195 GPa for 7-wire strand (strand to section 3 of BS 5896: 1980)
= 165 GPa for high tensile alloy bars.

(*) Figure 5.14 – Refer to your reference book, page 2-31, Figure 2-26 [4]

5.2.4 Specification for prestressed concrete steel

In South Africa, the reinforcement for prestressed concrete elements, namely
wires and strands, must conform to the requirements BS 5896 while prestressing
bars follow BS 4486.The dimensions and required minimum tensile properties of
the standard prestressing wires, strands and bars as given by these specifications
are listed in Tables 5.2, 5.3, 5.3 and 5.4 below [4]

TABLE 5.2
Dimensions and properties of cold drawn wire to BS 5896 [4]

Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Specified Specified Load at 1%

Diameter tensile 0.1% cross- mass characteristic characteristic elongation
strength proof section breaking 0.1% proof
stress load load
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (mm2) (g/m) (kN) (kN) (kN)

7 1570 1300 38.5 302 60.4 50.1 51.3

7 1670 1390 64.3 53.4 54.7

6 1670 1390 28.3 222 47.3 39.3 40.2

6 1770 1470 50.1 41.6 42.6

5 1670 1390 19.6 154 32.7 27.2 21.8

5 1770 1470 34.7 28.8 29.5

4.5 1620 1350 15.9 125 25.8 21.4 21.9

4 1670 1390 12.6 98.9 21.0 17.5 17.9

4 1770 1470 22.3 18.5 19.0

Note: Minimum elongation at maximum load must be 3.5% measured on

gauge length of 200 mm

...........
118
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

TABLE 5.3
Dimensions and properties of cold drawn wire in mill coil to BS 5896 [4]

Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Specified Load at 1%

Diameter tensile cross- mass characteristic elongation
strength section breaking load
(mm) (MPa) (mm2) (g/m) (kN) (kN)

5 1570 19.6 154 30.8 24.6

5 1670 32.7 26.2
5 1770 34.7 27.8

4.5 1620 15.9 125 25.8 20.6

4 1670 12.6 98.9 21.0 16.8

4 1720 21.7 17.4
4 1770 22.3 17.8

3 1770 7.07 55.5 12.5 10.0

3 1860 13.1 10.5

TABLE 5.4
Dimensions and properties of seven-wire strand to BS 5896 [4]

Type of Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Specified Specified Load at 1%

strand diameter tensile steel mass characteristic characteristic elongation
strength area breaking 0.1% proof
load load

(mm) (MPa) (mm2) (g/m) (kN) (kN) (kN)

7-wire 15.2 1670 1770 139 1090 232 197 204

Standard
12.5 1770 93 793 164 139 144
11.0 1770 71 557 125 106 110
9.3 52 408 92 78 81

7-wire 15.7 1770 150 1180 265 225 233

Super
12.9 1860 100 785 186 158 163
11.3 1860 75 590 139 118 122
9.6 1860 55 432 102 87 90
8.0 1860 38 298 70 59 61

7-wire 18 1700 223 1750 380 323 334

Drawn
15.2 1820 165 1295 300 255 264
12.7 1860 112 890 209 178 184

4 1670 1770 1390 1470 12.6 98.9 21.0 17.5 17.9

4 22.3 18.5 19.0

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119 RC D 4 8 01/1


TABLE 5.5
Dimensions and properties of hot rolled and hot rolled and processed high tensile
alloy steel bars to BS 4486 [4]

Type of Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Specified properties

bars size tensile 0.1% cross- mass
strength proof sectional characteristic characteristic Min elongation
stress area breaking 0.1% proof at fracture*
load load
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (mm2) (g/m) (kN) (kN) (%)

Hot rolled 26.5 1030 835 522 4.33 568 460 6

or hot
32 804 6.31 830 670
rolled and
processed 36 1018 7.99 1048 850

40 1257 9.86 1300 1050

(*) Measured on a gauge length of 5.65 , where Sp is the original cross-

sectional area

5.3 FLEXURAL DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ELEMENTS

NOTE

This section provides important highlights concerning chapter 4 “4. DESIGN

FOR FLEXURE”– pages 4-1 to 4-88 in your reference book. You are advised
to read what is presented in this study guide first and then to complete your
reading with the information in your reference book.

5.3.1 Introduction
Flexural stresses are the results of external, or imposed, bending moments.
In most cases, they control the selection of the geometry of the prestressed
concrete section, regardless of whether it is prestressed or post-stressed.
The design process starts with the choice of a preliminary geometry and,
by trial and error, adjustments are made to converge to a final section with
geometrical details of the concrete cross-section and the sizes and alignment of
the prestressing strands. The section satisfies the flexural bending requirements
of concrete stress limitations. Thereafter, other factors, such as shear and
torsion capacity, deflection, and cracking are analysed and satisfied. While the
input data for the analysis of sections differ from the data needed for design,
every design is essentially an analysis. Hence, a good understanding of the
fundamental principles of analysis presented in section 5.1.3 and the alternatives
presented thereby significantly simplifies the task of designing the section.

In a prestressed design, checks are undertaken at load transfer, as well as at

limit state at service load, and at the limit state of stress failure. All these checks
are necessary to ensure that, at service load, cracking is negligible and the
long-term effects on deflection are well controlled.

Contrary to the reinforced concrete members design, the external dead load
and live load are applied to the prestressed concrete member at varying

...........
120
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

concrete strengths and at various loading stages. These loading stages can be
summarised as follows:

• Initial prestress force Pi is applied, then at transfer, the force is transmitted

from the prestressing strands to the concrete 18
• The full prestress self-weight WD is added to the prestress
• The
Thefull
full superimposed deadload
superimposed dead loadWDS
including
including
WDS the the topping
topping for composite
for composite action is applied
action is applied to the member.
to the member.
• Most of short-term losses are registered and a reduced prestressed force
 PMost of short-term losses are registered and a reduced prestressed force Peo occurs
occurs
eo
• The
The member
member isissubjected
subjectedtoto full-service
full-service loadload
withwith long-term
long-term losseslosses
due todue to
creep,
creep, shrinkage, and strands relaxation taking place. This leads to the net
shrinkage, and strands relaxation taking place. This leads to the net prestressing force Pe
prestressing force Pe
Overloading ofofthe
• Overloading themember
member comes
comes now under
now certain
under conditions
certain up to up
conditions theto
limit
thestate of
limit state of failure.
failure.

A typical
A typical loading
loading historyhistory with
with their their corresponding
corresponding stress distributions
stress distributions acrossof the
across the depth
the section
critical depth of
arethe critical
shown section
in Figure are shown in Figure 5.15.
5.15.

FIGURE
Figure 5.15: Flexural stress distribution 5.15
throughout loading history [1]
Flexural stress distribution throughout loading history [1]
Sign convention
Sign convention
In this chapter the following sign convention is adopted.
In this chapter the following sign convention is adopted.
 A negative sign (-) is used to denote compressive stress and a positive (+) is used to
• Adenote
negative sign
tensile (-) isinused
stress to denote
a concrete compressive stress and a positive (+)
section
is used to denote tensile stress in a concrete section
 A convex or hogging shape indicates negative bending moment (-); a concave or sagging
• A convex or hogging shape indicates negative bending moment (-); a
shape denotes
concave positive
or sagging bending
shape moment
denotes (+), abending
positive shown inmoment
Figure 5.16
(+), a shown
in Figure 5.16

Chapter 5: Prestressed Concrete Beams and Slab Design October 2020

...........
121 RC D 4 8 01/1
 FIGURE 5.16
Sign convention for flexure stress [1]

5.3.2 Analysis of an uncracked section

The analysis done previously in section 5.1.3 relates to an uncracked section
and the total concrete stress resulting from the prestressing force P, the moments
Pe and M is given as follows:

Equation 5.2a

Equation 5.2b

Defining the section modulus as Z = , Equation 5.2 can be written as follows:

Equation 5.6a

Equation 5.6b

where:

ftop , fbot = stress in the extreme top and bottom fibres,

Ztop = section modulus with respect to the extreme top fibre, located at ytop
from the section centroid.

Zbot = section modulus with respect to the extreme bottom fibre, located at
ybot from the section centroid.

5.3.3 Calculation of cracking moment

The cracking moment is defined as the moment when the first cracks start
appearing on the prestressed concrete element. Using elasticity theory, this
corresponds to the moment that induces a tensile stress in the extreme fibre
equal to the modulus of rupture fr.

Setting Equation 5.6b equal to fr, and solve it for M one finds Mcr as follows:

Equation 5.7

The cracking moment is normally used to mark the end of uncracked section
behaviour and the onset of cracked section behaviour.

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122
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.3.3.1 Example 5.2 – Cracking moment

Use the post-tensioned concrete beam in Example 5-1. Determine the cracking
moment of the section at mid span if the cube strength of the concrete is fcu
= 45 MPa.

Equation 5.5 gives the modulus of rupture

The cracking moment is calculated using Equation 5.7. with Zbot = I / ybot =
48.2 × 106 mm3

= 210.2 × 106 + 825.4 × 106 = 1035.6 kNm

5.3.4 Ultimate moment of section with bonded tendons

5.3.4.1 Stress-strain compatible approach

The ultimate moment capacity Mu of a prestressed concrete beam section with
bonded tendons is defined as the maximum moment the section can resist just
before failure. The mode of failure can either be ductile for under-reinforced
sections or brittle and sudden for over-reinforced sections.

The calculation of the ultimate moment capacity of a rectangular bonded

prestressed concrete beam section using the stress-strain compatibility approach
has found to be tedious and has led to a solution which is obtained by
iterative process due to the high degree of hyperstaticity of the problem. It is
recommended that you consult the following literature reference [3], [4] and
[5] for more details

5.3.4.2 Approximate code-oriented method

The calculation of the ultimate moment capacity Mu of a rectangular bonded
prestressed concrete beam section with bonded tendons can also be determined
using the approximate code-orientated method. This method has proven to be
quick and easy to use. SANS 10100-1 [5] proposes the following assumptions
when analysing these sections in flexure:

• The strain distribution in the concrete in compression is derived from the

Navier Bernoulli principle.
• The stresses in the concrete in compression are either derived from the
stress strain curve in Figure 5.10*, with a γm = 1.5 or are taken as equal to
0.45fcu over the whole compression zone. In both cases, the strain at the
outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.0035.
• The tensile strength of the concrete is zero
• The strains in bonded prestressing tendons, whether initially tensioned
or untensioned, and in unstressed reinforcement are derived from the
appropriate stress/strain curves

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123 RC D 4 8 01/1


The method uses the equivalent rectangular stress block and assumes that
the effective prestress does not exceed 0.6fpu. The design ultimate moment is
calculated using the following expression:

Mu = Aps fps (d – dn) Equation 5.8

Where:

Aps = is the area of prestressing tendons in tension zone

dn = is the depth to centre of compression zone
d = is the effective depth to centroid of steel area Aps
fps = is the design tensile stress in the tendons at failure

For rectangular beams, and flanged beams in which the compression block
lies within the flange, dn = 0.45x, where x is the depth to neutral axis.

Values for fps and x may be derived from Table 5.6 below.

TABLE 5.6
Conditions at the ultimate limit state for rectangular beams with pretensioned
tendons or post-tensioned tendons having effective bond to SANS 10100-1 [4]

Design stress in tendons as Ratio of depth of neutral axis

a proportion of the design to that of the centroid of the
strength, fps / 0.87fpu tendons in the tension zone,
x/d

fse / fpu fse / fpu

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4

0.05 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.11 0.11 0.11

0.10 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.22 0.22 0.22
0.15 0.99 0.97 0.95 0.32 0.32 0.31

0.20 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.40 0.39 0.38

0.25 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.48 0.47 0.46
0.30 0.85 0.83 0.80 0.55 0.54 0.52

0.35 0.83 0.80 0.76 0.63 0.60 0.58

0.40 0.81 0.77 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.62
0.45 0.79 0.74 0.68 0.77 0.72 0.66
0.50 0.77 0.71 0.64 0.83 0.77 0.69

...........
124
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.3.4.2.1 Example 5.3-Approximate method

A rectangular prestressed concrete beam section, shown below in Figure 5.17*,

contains six 12.9mm 7 wire super grade strands and its centre of gravity is
located 60mm above the beam soffit. The material properties are:

Concrete: fcu = 50 MPa Ec = 34 GPa

Steel: fpu = 1860 MPa Ep = 195 GPa

(*) Figure 5.17 - Refer to your reference book, page 4–20, Figures 4-16 and
4-17 [4]

The properties of the uncracked beam section are given in Figure 5.17 and
Aps = 6 × 100 = 600 mm2. At the time under consideration, fse = 1150 MPa.
Calculate the design ultimate moment of the section using the approximate
method as per SANS 10100-1.

Solution

For the above beam section, the ratio fse /fpu = 1150 /1860 = 0.62 which is
higher than 0.6. We are going to use the 0.6 ratio in Table 5.6.

The calculation of the main term in Table 5.6:

= 0.188

Interpolating between the values given in Table 5.6 for = 0.10 and
0.15 at fse /fpu = 0.6

The following results are obtained:

Therefore, fps = 1.0 × 0.87 × 1860 = 1618 MPa and × = 0.26 x 540 =
140.4 mm

The design ultimate moment is then calculated using Equation 5.8

Mu = Aps fps (d - dn) = 600 x 1618 (540 – 0.45 x 140.4) x 10 -6 = 463.0 kNm

5.3.5 Ultimate moment of section with unbonded tendons

5.3.5.1 Rational and analytical method

Where the prestressing steel is not bonded to the concrete, the stress in
the tendon at ultimate, is significantly less than that of bonded tendons and
accurate determination of the ultimate flexural strength is more difficult than
for a section containing bonded tendons. This is because the final strain in
the tendon is more difficult to determine accurately. The ultimate strength of
a section containing unbonded tendons may be as low as 75% of the strength
of an equivalent section containing bonded tendons. Hence, from a strength
point of view, bonded construction is to be preferred.

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125 RC D 4 8 01/1


An unbonded tendon is not restrained by the concrete along its length and
slip between the tendon and the duct takes place as the external loads are
applied. The steel strain is more uniform along the length of the member and
tends to be lower in regions of maximum moment than would be the case
for a bonded tendon. The ultimate strength of the section may be reached
before the stress in the unbonded tendon reaches the yield stress. For members
not containing any bonded reinforcement, crack control may be a problem
if cracking occurs in the member for any reason. If flexural cracking occurs,
the number of cracks in the tensile zone is lower than in a beam containing
bonded reinforcement, but the cracks are wider and less serviceable.

Having highlighted above the many difficulties encountered in proceeding

with a rational procedure for the flexural analysis of a cracked unbonded
prestressed concrete beam section, semi empirical methods, such as the one
presented in SANS 10100-1, are used instead.

5.3.5.2 Semi-empirical code-driven approach

SANS 10100-1, as well as BS8110, proposes a semi-empirical equation to
calculate the ultimate stress in the steel under the following assumptions:

• The effective prestress after all losses have occurred – fse does not exceed
0.6 fpu
• The compression block is rectangular with a uniform stress of 0.45 fcu
• Either the tendons are in ducts or, if they are free (as in hollow beams),
diaphragms are provided to prevent a reduction of the effective depth, and
• The effective depth is determined by assuming that the tendons are in
contact with the top of the duct or with the soffit of the diaphragms.

Equation 5.9

Equation 5.10

where:

fse = the design effective prestress in tendons after all losses have occurred
fpu = the characteristic strength of the tendons
fcu = the characteristic strength of concrete
b = the width or effective width of the section or flange in compression
zone, and
l = the length of the tendons between the end anchorages.

For rectangular beams, and for flanged beams in which the neutral axis lies
within the flange, the stress in the tendons at failure are derived from Table
5.7, below.

...........
126
 CHAP T ER 5: Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

TABLE 5.7
Conditions at the ultimate limit state for post-tensioned tendons in rectangular
beams having unbonded tendons, to SANS 10100-1 [5]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Stresses in tendons as a proportion of Ratio of depth of neutral axis to that of the

effective prestress fps /fse for values of centroid of the tendons in the tension zone
x/d for values of

0.025 1.23 1.34 1.45 0.10 0.10 0.10

0.05 1.21 1.32 1.45 0.16 0.16 0.18
0.10 1.18 1.26 1.45 0.30 0.32 0.36

0.15 1.14 1.20 1.36 0.44 0.46 0.52

0.20 1.11 1.16 1.27 0.56 0.58 0.64

5.3.5.2.1 Example 5.4

Determine the ultimate moment of the I-shaped prestressed beam section

shown in Figure 5.18*
The section contains two Y20 non-prestressing reinforcing bars in addition to
5 x 12.9mm 7-wire super grade strand, the position of which is shown below.
Take fy = 450 MPa and Es = 200 GPa for the non-prestressed reinforcement.
Use the equivalent rectangular stress block as well as the design stress-strain
curves for strand and for non-prestressed reinforcement as prescribed by SANS
10100-1 and assume that fse = 1116 MPa at the time under consideration.
Make use of appropriate provisions of SANS 10100-1 to calculate the design
ultimate moment of the midspan section.
(*) Figure 5.18: Refer to your reference book, page 4–28, Figure 4-22 and page
4-35, Figure 48 [4]
Solution
Aps = 5 × 100 = 500 mm2 and As = 628 mm2
The stress-strain curve of prestressed steel for α = 0.45 and β = 0.9 is calculated
as follows below (Figure 5.19):

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127 RC D 4 8 01/1
 (*) Figure 5.19 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–20, Figure 4-17 [4]

Design stress strain curve for non-prestressed steel is obtained by setting fy

=450 and γm = 1.15, therefore fsy = fy / γm = 450/1.15 = 391.3 MPa and
= 0.00196

(*) Figure 5.20 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–28, Figure 4-23 [4]

The effect of the non-prestressed reinforcement on the magnitude of fps is

accounted for by converting As to an equivalent area of prestressing steel.

= 151.9 mm2

The length of the tendon is practically the span of the beam and fps can be
directly calculated from Equation 5.9

Therefore fps = 1302 MPa

Assume εs2 > εsy (=0.00196) so that, from Figure 5.19 fs = fsy = 391.3 MPa.
With fps and fs known, the magnitude of Tps and Ts can be calculated as follows:

Tps = Aps fps = 500 × 1302 × 10 -3 = 651.0 kN

Ts = As fs = 628 × 391.3 × 10 -3 = 245.7 kN

The entire compression zone is contained in the flange because the magnitude
of the maximum compression force Cmax = α fcu b hf = 0.45 × (-50 × 10 -3)
× 350 × 150 = - 1181KN is larger than the total tensile force which can be
provided by the prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement T = Tps + Ts
= 651 +245.7 = 896.7 kN Therefore, C is given by:

C = α fcu b βx Equation 5.11

C = 0.45 × (-50 × 10 -3 × 350 × 0.9 × × = -7.088 ×

The depth to neutral axis is subsequently calculated by considering horizontal

equilibrium from which:

T + C(x) = 896.7-7088 × = 0 Solving for x yields × = 126.5 mm. Therefore s

= 0.9 × 126.5 = 113.9mm is less than hf = 150mm, as expected. The validity
of the assumption that εs2 > εsy must also be checked, εs2 is calculated using
the strain distribution. See Figure 5.4

= 0.0145

It is therefore clear that εs2 is larger than εsy = 0.00196, as assumed, so that the
calculated value of x is correct. The ultimate moment is finally calculated by
taking the moment equilibrium about the line of action of C, thus,

...........
128
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Equation 5.12

= 525.3 KNm

5.3.6 Limit states design of prestressed concrete section

5.3.6.1 Introduction
There are two limit states of design, namely the ultimate, which is concerned
with the maximum load carrying capacity of the structure and the serviceability,
which deals with the normal day-to-day use and durability of the structure. The
ultimate limit states check things like stability, robustness, and special hazards
while the serviceability limit states look at deflection, cracking and vibration.
The design material strength fk is the ratio between the characteristic strength
and a partial safety factor γm. SANS 10100-1 suggests the following partial
safety factors for concrete and steel (Table 5.8):

TABLE 5.8
Partial safety factors γm for material strength

Limit State Concrete Steel

Ultimate
• Flexure or axial load 1.50 1.15
• Shear 1.40 1.15
• Bond 1.40
• Others (e.g. bearing stresses…) > 1.50

Serviceability
• Deflection 1.0 1.0
• Cracking strength of prestressed concrete 1.3 1.0
• Elements using tensile stress criteria

The design loads are obtained by multiplying the corresponding nominal load
by an appropriate partial safety factor γf. The value of γf depends on the type
of load, as well as the number and importance of loads.

SANS 10100-1 proposes the following combinations for current loads, e.g.
self-weight Dn, imposed load Ln and wind load Wn at ultimate limit state:

1.5 Dn
1.2 Dn + 1.6 Ln
1.2 Dn + 0.5 Ln + 1.3 Wn
0.9 Dn + 1.3 Wn

For the limit state of serviceability:

1.1 Dn + 1.0 Ln
1.1 Dn + 0.3Ln + 0.6 Wn
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129 RC D 4 8 01/1


5.3.6.2 Classification of prestressed concrete

In South Africa, as well as in the US or the UK, all codes classify prestressed
concrete in 3 classes:

• Class 1 – Full prestress: no tensile strength is allowed anywhere in the

structure
• Class 2 – Limited prestress: Tensile strength limited, but to the extent that
no visible cracks develop. This is ensured by limiting the maximum tensile
stress of concrete.
• Class 3 – Partial prestress: Tensile strength limited, but with surface crack
widths limited to values prescribed by the code (e.g. crack width 0.1mm
or 0.2mm).

5.3.6.3 Design for the serviceability limit state

The design for serviceability deals with cracks and affects the flexural behaviour
of prestressed concrete elements of classes 1 and 2 only. The concrete stress
limitations specified by SANS 10100-1 for prestressed concrete are given
below in Table 5.9

TABLE 5.9
Limiting concrete stresses in prestressed members

Class 1 Class 2 members

members

Pretensioned Post-tensioned

At transfer
1. Compression
• Triangular or near triangular 0.45 fci 0.45 fci 0.45 fci
distribution of prestress
• Near uniform distribution of 0.30 fci 0.30 fci 0.30 fci
prestressed
2. Tension 1.0 MPa 0.45 0.36

Serviceability limit state

1. Compression
• Design load in bending 0.33 fcu (*) 0.33 fcu (*) 0.33 fcu (*)
• Design load in direct compression 0.25 fcu 0.33 fcu 0.33 fcu
2. T ension 0 0.45 (**) 0.36 (**)

fci = Concrete compressive strength at transfer

(*) = W
 ithin range of support moments in the continuous beams and other statically indeterminate
structures, this limit may be increased to 0.4 fcu
(**) = These stresses may be increased under certain conditions, as per SANS 10100-1

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130
 CHAP T ER 5: Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

The design process for a simply supported prestressed concrete beam subjected
to a uniformly distributed load is carried out in two stages:

• At transfer of prestressed – as seen in Figure 5.21a*, the prestress is maximum

while the applied external load is minimal (only self-weight). Ensure that
top and bottom fibre concrete stresses under maximum prestressed Pi
and minimal external Mmin do not exceed the allowable values for tension
and compression.
• At serviceability – this is the opposite of what happens at transfer, as seen
in Figure 21b*. Make sure that the top and bottom fibre concrete stresses
under minimal prestressed Pi and maximal external Mmax do not exceed the
allowable values for tension and compression. The minimum prestress force
ηPi is the final values after all losses (instantaneous and long-term)

(*) Figure 5-20 – Refer to your reference book page 4–56 Figure 4-42(a) and
(b) [4]

Equations 5.6a and 5.6b can used to write these criteria in terms of inequality
equations:

Equation 5.13a

Equation 5.13b

Equation 5.13c

Equation 5.13d

where:

f top,t, f bot,t = stress in the extreme top and bottom fibres, respectively, at transfer

f top,s, f bot,s = stress in the extreme top and bottom fibres, respectively, at the
serviceability state

ftt, fct = allowable tensile and compressive stresses, respectively, at transfer

f ts, fcs = allowable tensile and compressive stresses, respectively, at the

serviceability limit state

These four equations allow the design process to calculate the following:

• Estimate the minimum required section properties (Ztop and Zbot)

• Calculate the prestress force Pi and the eccentricity e and the domain in
which they are valid
• Determine the permissible cable zone or “kern” which delimits the zone
along the span the cables can be placed.

5.3.6.3.1 Determination of minimum required section properties

The purpose of the design is to determine the minimum section properties which
will simultaneously satisfy the four stress inequalities equations. By combining

...........
131 RC D 4 8 01/1


equalities in Equations 5.13a & 5.13c and Equations 5.13b & 5.13d followed by
a derivation of stress equations form transfer to serviceability limit state, the
following equations are found:

Equation 5.14

Equation 5.15

And if Mmax = Mmin + ∆M where is an additional moment. Equations 5.14 and

5.15 can be rewritten as follows:

Equation 5.16

Equation 5.17

From these last two inequalities, a suitable section can be selected, but both Ztop
and Zbot depends on Mmin and Mmax which can be determined if the member’s
self-weight is known. However, the self-weight can only be determined if the
section size (Ztop and Zbot) is known. This leads to solution that can be obtained
only by trial and error method using standard sections.

5.3.6.3.2 Determination of prestressing force at mid span

As explained in the previous section, when the section of the prestressed

concrete beam has been selected, then one has to determine the magnitude
and corresponding eccentricity e of the prestressed force Pi. A Belgian engineer,
Magnel, developed a method based on a geometrical interpretation of the four
stress inequality equations, which can be rewritten as follows:

Equation 5.18a

Equation 5.18b

Equation 5.18c

Equation 5.18c

Equation 5.18d

Equation 5.18d

Interpretation of Magnel Diagram

Plotting e versus Pi produces a hyperbolic curve, while e versus 1/Pi produces

a straight line (which has been used in the diagram in Figure 5.22*). All four
inequality equations, 5.18a to 5.18d, must be simultaneously satisfied, leading
to a region bounded by the quadrilateral ABCD which contains points with

...........
132
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

coordinates e and 1/Pi which represents a feasibility domain. All combinations

in this feasibility domain are safe. Point A corresponds to the maximum
permissible prestressing force Pi, while point C is the minimum prestressing
force Pi. Note that the diagram was constructed on the assumption that fcs Ztop
< Mmax and fts Zbot < Mmax. The maximum practical eccentricity epl is also
plotted as a vertical line intersecting the quadrilateral, ABCD.

(*) Figure 5.22 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–60, Figure 4-44 [4]

5.3.6.3.3 Determination of permissible cable zone

In order to determine the zone in which the permissible prestressing force Pi

is to be used over the entire span and in which the stress inequality equations
are satisfied at each section, one has to solve for e equations 5.13. These
equations are assumed known at all sections of the beam.

Equation 5.19a

Equation 5.19b

Equation 5.19c

Equation 5.19d

The top and bottom cable limits can be determined at each section along
the span and plotted on an elevation of the beam, as shown in Figure 5.23.
The region between the two cable limits clearly represents a feasibility zone
within which the cable may be placed so that the stress inequality equations
are satisfied.

(*) Figure 5.23 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–62, Figure 4-45 [4]

5.3.6.3.4 Design procedure

The step-by-step design procedure of a prestressed concrete beam at the

serviceability limit state is presented below:

(1) Determine a satisfactory concrete section using Equations 5.14 and 5.15
(2) Use the Magnel diagram and Equation 5.18 to determine the prestressing
force Pi and eccentricity at critical section.
(3) Calculate the permissible cable zone using Equation 5.19 and place the
cable accordingly
(4) From steps 1 to 3, assume η, because the prestress losses can only be
evaluated after step 3.
(5) Check all concrete stresses in different sections – these are not to exceed
the specified permissible values. The prestress losses calculated in step 4
must be used in these calculations.
(6) The design is acceptable if all the stress checks are satisfactory; if not, the
design must be revised.

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133 RC D 4 8 01/1


Design Tips

• The most important assumption is the magnitude of η, normally taken

between 0.75 and 0.85 (instantaneous and time dependent losses)
• Another unknown is the cross-section area A – Lin, as reported by Marshall
and Robberts, [4] proposes the following:

Equation 5.20

Where:

ML = superimposed dead and live load moment applied to the section

h = depth of the section

5.3.6.3.5 Example 5.5 – Serviceability limit state design

Design in flexure a class 2 prestressed concrete T-beam which is simply

supported over a span of 21m.The beam supports a uniformly distributed live
load of 5.8 kN/m and a superimposed dead load of 0.6 kN/m. Assume fcu =
45 MPa and fci = 35 MPa, all prestress losses = 17% (η = 0.83) Use SANS
10100-1 provisions where necessary. T section as given in Figure 5.24*

Solution

Permissible stresses for fcu = 45 MPa and fci = 35 MPa

At transfer: ftt = 0.45 = 0.45 = 2.662 MPa

fct = 0.45 fci = 0.45 × (-35) = -15.75 MPa

At the serviceability limit state: fts = 0.45 = 0.45 = 3.019 MPa

fcs = 0.33 fcu = 0.33 × (-45) = -14.85 MPa

1. Selection of section at mid-span

The midspan moment due to superimposed load ∆w = 1.1 wsdl + wL = 1.1

× 0.6 + 5.8 = 6.46 kN/m

∆M = ∆wL2 / 8 = 6.46 × 212 = 356.1 kNm. In order to obtain an initial

estimate of Mmax, it is assumed that Mmin = 356. 1 kNm and Mmax = 2 ∆M =
2 x 356.1 = 712.2 kNm.

Use Equations 5.14 and 5.15 for minimum section

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134
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Figure 5.24 shows the selected T-section. If the self-weight of concrete is

24 kN/m3, the self- weight of the beam would be 24 × 345 × 10 -3 = 8.26 kN/m.
Therefore, the design loadings as per SANS 10100-1 is then:

For calculating Mmin, wmin = 1.0 wd = 1.0 × 8.28 = 8.28 kN/m

For calculating Mmax, wmax = 1.1 (wd + wsdl) + 1.1 × (8.28+0.6) + 1.0 × 5.8
= 15.57 kN/m

(*) Figure 5.24 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–65, Figure 4-47 [4]

With new design loads, the moments are calculated as

Revised minimum section characteristics can now be calculated:

Section is OK

2. Prestressing force at mid span and eccentricity

Use the Magnel diagram to solve the problem.

Since fcs Ztop > Mmax = -14.85 × 99.77 × 106 = 1481 kNm > 858.2 kNm OK

Since fts Zbot < Mmax = 3.019 × 47.34 × 106 = 142.9 kNm < 858.2 kNm OK

Equations 5.18a, 5.18b, 5.18c and 5.18d are applicable with Pi in kN and e in mm

(*) Figure 5.25 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–66, Figure 4-48 [4]

...........
135 RC D 4 8 01/1


If the cover is 35mm and tendons are assumed to be placed in three evenly
spaced layers at the vertical centre to centre of 40mm, then the maximum
possible eccentricity epl is approximately 595mm. Selecting e = 570mm, 1/P
varies from -0.5884 × 10 -3 kN-1 and 1/P = -0.8206 × 10 -3 kN-1 all fall within
the feasibility domain and therefore satisfy the four stress inequality equations.
The range of Pi varies between Pd = -1219 kN and Pb = -1700 kN, and a value
of Pi = -1280 kN is selected.

Assume that 12.9 mm 7-wire super grade strand is used, jacked to 75% of its
characteristic strength. As the characteristic strength per strand is 186kN, the
jacking force per strand is 0.75% × 186 = 139.5 kN. If the loss of prestress due
to elastic shortening is assumed to be 8%, then the initial force per strand at
transfer is (1-0.08) × 139.5 = 128.3 kN, therefore |-1280|/128.3 = 9.974 – so
say 10 strands are required.

In summary: 10 × 12.9 mm 7-wire super grade strand are required with

Prestressing force of -1283 kN and eccentricity e = 570mm at mid-span.

3. Determination of cable zone

Before the cable limits can be calculated, Mmin and Mmax must be expressed
as a function of x:

Mmin = wmin x (L- ×) / 2 = 4.140 x (21- ×) kNm

Mmax = wmax x (L- ×) / 2 = 7.784 x (21- ×) kNm

Substitution of equations above in Equations 5.19a, 5.19b, 5.19c and 5.19d

Note that, in the equations above, e is in mm and x is in m. Comparing the

right-hand sides of equations (a) and (b) clearly shows that equation (b) governs
the bottom cable limit. Similarly, (c) and (d) reveal that (d) controls the top
cable. The values of both cable limits are given in Table 5.12 and shown in
Figure 5.26*.

(*) Figure 5.26 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–68, Figure 4-49 [4]

...........
136
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

TABLE 5.10
Cable zone and cable eccentricity [4]

x Bottom cable limit Top cable limit Selected eccentricity

(m) eb(x) ed(x) e(x)
(mm) (mm) (mm)

0 444 -271 222

1.750 552 -25 309
3.500 641 176 396
5.250 710 333 483
7.000 760 445 570
8.750 789 512 570
10.500 799 534 570

5.3.7 Ultimate limit states design for prestressed concrete

During the flexural design for the ultimate limit state, the determination of the
concrete area under compression, the effective depth to the prestressing steel
and the area of steel needed to meet the requirements of flexural strength at
the ultimate limit state is essential.

The general equations based on moment and horizontal equilibrium of any

cross-section shape is given as follows:

Mu = Aps fps z Equation 5.21

Aps fps + fcu A’c = 0 Equation 5.22

Where z = internal lever arm

A’c = concrete area under compression at ultimate limit state.

For design, the above equations can be rewritten as follows:

Equation 5.23

Equation 5.24

The design process can be summarised as follows:

(1) Assume values for fps, z and for the overall section depth h.
• For bonded tendons it is suggested to initially take fps = fpu
• For unbonded tendons take fps = 0.7 fpu
• Since z varies between 0.6h and 0.9h, use 0.8h as initial value

(2) Obtain initial estimate of Aps, and calculate A’c

...........
137 RC D 4 8 01/1


(3) Once the preliminary section is selected, actual values of fps, z are then
calculated.
(4) The final step in the design procedure is to verify that the ultimate moment
of resistance of the section is larger than the moment produced by the
design ultimate loads.

5.3.7.1 Example 5.6 Ultimate limit state design

Design in flexure at ultimate limit state to the mid-span section of a 700 mm
deep prestressed concrete I-beam simply supported of 14m span. Other
characteristics are as follows:

fcu = 50 MPa, Ec = 34 GPa concrete, Live load wn = 9 kN/m. Use 12.9 mm

7-wire super grade strand for which fpu = 1860 MPa and Ep = 195 GPa. Stress
block coefficients: α= 0.45 and β=0.9

Solution

Assumptions fps = 0.87 fpu = 0.87 × 1860 = 1618 MPa, and z =0.8h = 0.8
× 700 = 560mm

Assume that self-weight of beam wD = 4.5 kN/m, the design ultimate moment
at the mid span section is calculated as follows:

wD + 1.6 wn = 1.2 × 4.5 + 1.6 × 9 = 19.8 kN/m

M = wL2 / 8 = 19.8 × 142 / 8 = 485.1 kNm

Equations 5.23 and 5.24

Using the approximate method as per SANS-10100-1, we will recalculate the

ultimate moment of resistance fps and z. Let us assume fse =1116 MPa

Table 5.6 gives

fps = 1.0 × 0.87 × 1680 = 1618 MPa and × = 0.2 d = 0.2 × 640 = 128 mm,
Compression zone fails entirely in flange, the internal lever arm is given by z
= d -0.45× = 640 – 0.45 × 128 = 582.4 mm.

Then Aps and A’c are calculated as shown in Figure 5.27*

(*) Figure 5.27 – Refer to your reference book, page 4–71, Figure 4-50 [4]

...........
138
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

These values are remarkably close. This results in 5 strands that will provide
Aps = 500 mm2

Final check: the ultimate moment of resistance of the section is calculated

and compared with the moment induced by the design ultimate loads.

Table 5.6 gives

fps = 1.0 × 0.87 × 1680 = 1618 MPa and × = 0.18 d = 0.18 × 640 = 115.2
mm, Compression zone fails entirely in flange, the internal lever arm is given
by z = d -0.45× = 640 – 0.45 × 115.2 = 588.2 mm.

Mu = Aps fps z = 500 × 1618 × 588.2 = 475.9 kNm, which is larger than the
applied moment M = 469.2 kNm
41

5.4 LOSSES OF PRESTRESS

5.4 LOSSES OF PRESTRESS

NOTE NOTE

This section provides additional information concerning chapter 5 “5.

PRESTRESSEDThisLOSSES”– pages
section provides 5–1 to
additional 5–40 in
information your reference
to concerning book.
chapter 5 “5. You
PRESTRESSED

are advised to read what

LOSSES”– is topresented
pages 5-1 in this book.
5-40 in your reference study
Youguide firstto and
are advised then
read first what is

to complete your reading with is the information in your reference book. isis the
presented in this study guide first and then to complete the your reading with what
information in your reference book.

5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.1 Introduction
After the wires or tendons have been jacked, the 1st loss occurs when the
prestress is transferred
After the wirestoorthe concrete.
tendons have been This
jacked,isthe
termed immediate
1st loss occurs losses.isThe
when the prestress transferred
difference between the prestressing force imposed at the jack, Pj, and the force
to the concrete., tThis is termed immediate losses. The difference between the prestressing

force in the steel

imposedimmediately after
at the jack, Pj, and transfer
the force at aimmediately
in the steel particular transfer at aPi,
aftersection, is thesection,
particular

immediate loss, astheshown

Pi, is immediateinloss,
Figure 5.28.
as shown in Figure 5.28.

Figure 5.28: Losses of prestress

FIGURE 5.28
Losses
The gradual loss of prestress oftakes
that prestress
place with time is called the time-dependent loss or
deferred loss, as illustrated in Figure 5.29. Both of these losses are made up of several
components. The immediate losses are caused by elastic deformation of the concrete as the
prestress is transferred, friction along the draped tendon in a post-tensioned member and slip at

...........
the anchorage. The time-dependent losses are caused by the gradual shortening of the concrete
at the steel level due to creep and shrinkage, and by relaxation of the steel itself.
139 RC D 4 8 01/1


The gradual loss of prestress that takes place with time is called the time-
dependent loss or deferred loss, as illustrated in Figure 5.29. Both of these
losses are made up of several components. The immediate losses are caused by
elastic deformation of the concrete as the prestress is transferred, friction along
the draped tendon in a post-tensioned member and slip at the anchorage. The
42
time-dependent losses are caused by the gradual shortening of the concrete at
the steel level due to creep and shrinkage, and by relaxation of the steel itself.

FIGURE 5.29
Figure 5.29: Levels of prestress losses [SAB4223 Prestressed Concrete Course, MAE1183]
Levels of prestress losses [SAB4223 Prestressed Concrete Course, MAE1183]
5.4.2 Elastic deformation losses

5.4.2
5.4.1.1Elastic deformation
Pretensioned members losses

Immediately after transfer, the change in strain in the prestressing steel Δεp caused by elastic
5.4.2.1 Pretensioned members
shortening of the concrete is equal to the strain in the concrete at the steel level, εcp. The
Immediately after transfer, the change in strain in the prestressing steel ∆εp
compatibility equation can be expressed as follows:
caused by elastic shortening of the concrete is equal to the strain in the concrete
at the steel level, εcp. The compatibility equation can be expressed as follows:
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
εcp = = ∆εp = Equation 5.23
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
Equation 5.23
The loss of stress in the steel, Δfp, is therefore
The
∆fploss
= of stress
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 the steel, ∆fp, is therefore
in 5.24
Equation
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
where fcp is the concrete
Equationstress at the steel level immediately after transfer.
5.24

where fcp is the concrete stress at the steel level immediately after transfer.
Note that SANS 10100-1 clause 5.8.2.3 and Chapter 1 section 1.1.3 of this study guide must
Note that SANS 10100-1 clause 5.8.2.3 and Chapter 1 section 1.1.3 of this
be referred
study guide to and be
must read throughout
referred in their
to and readentirety for further
in their details.
entirety for further details.
5.4.1.2 Post-tensioned members
5.4.2.2 Post-tensioned members
For post-tensioned members with one cable, or with two or more cables stressed simultaneously,
Forthepost-tensioned
elastic deformationmembers with
of the concrete oneduring
occurs cable,
the or with operation
stressing two or before
more the cables
tendons
stressed simultaneously, the elastic deformation of the concrete occurs during
are anchored. In this case, elastic shortening losses are zero. In a member containing more than
the stressing operation before the tendons are anchored. In this case, elastic
one tendon and where the tendons are stressed sequentially, the elastic deformation losses vary
shortening losses are zero. In a member containing more than one tendon
and where
Chapter the tendons
5: Prestressed are
Concrete stressed
Beams and Slabsequentially,
Design the elastic deformation
October 2020 losses
vary from tendon to tendon and are at a maximum in the tendon stressed first
and at a minimum (zero) in the tendon stressed last. It is relatively simple to
calculate the elastic deformation losses in any tendon, provided the stressing
sequence is known. However, these losses are generally small and, for practical

...........
140
 CHAP T ER 5: Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

purposes, the average elastic shortening loss is often taken as half the value
obtained from Equation 5.24:

Equation 5.25

5.4.3 Friction along the tendons

Friction occurs in the jack and anchorage and depends on the type of jack
and anchorage system used. This loss is usually allowed for during stressing
and need not unduly concern the designer.

In post-tensioned members, friction losses occur along the tendon during

the stressing operation. Friction between the tendon and the duct causes a
gradual reduction in prestress with the distance along the tendon s from the
jacking end. The magnitude of the friction loss depends on the total angular
change of the tendon, the distance from the jacking point and the size and
type of the sheathing containing the tendons. Based on Figure 5.30*, it has
been shown that the total friction losses over the length of segment s is given
by Equation 5.26, below:

(*) Figure 5.30 – Refer to your reference book, page 5–30, Figure 5-7 [4]

An equation of similar form is recommended by numerous building codes,

including ACI 318–83, BS 8110 (1985), and SANS 10100–1(200).

P2 = P1 e–(µa + Ks) Equation 5.26

where

P2 is the force in the tendon at any s point (in metres) from the jacking end.

P1 is the force in the tendon at the jacking end.

µ is a friction curvature coefficient which depends on the type of duct. For

strand in bright and zinc coated metal ducts, µ ≈ 0.2; for greased and wrapped
wire or strand, µ ≈ 0.15; and for strand in an unlined concrete duct, µ ≈ 0.50.
Higher values should be used if either the tendon or the duct are rusted. SANS
10100-1 recommends the following values for the coefficient of friction µ.

TABLE 5.11
Coefficient of friction µ as per SANS 10100-1 [5]

Tendon Type Coefficient of friction µ

Lightly rusted strand running in an unlined concrete duct 0.55

Lightly rusted strand or wire running in a lightly rusted
steel duct 0.30
Strand or wire running in a steel duct 0.25
Pulled-through oversized duct oiled with water soluble oil 0.17
Greased strands running in plastic sleeves 0.05

...........
141 RC D 4 8 01/1


α is the sum in radians of the absolute values of all successive angular deviations
of the tendon over the length s.

s is curvilinear length of the tendon between points 1 and 2

K is an angular deviation or wobble term and depends on the sheath (or duct)
diameter:

For ducts containing strand and having an internal diameter as follows:

≤ 50 mm 0.016 ≤ K ≤ 0.024
> 50 and ≤ 90 mm 0.012 ≤ K ≤ 0.016
> 90 and ≤ 140 mm 0.008 ≤ K ≤ 0.012
SANS 10100-1 recommends the following values for K

TABLE 5.12
Wobble coefficient K as per SANS 10100-1 [5]

Tendon Type Wobble coefficient K

per meter length

Value recommended for general use 33 × 10-4

Strong rigid sheaths or duct formers, so closely supported
that they are not displaced during the concreting
operation 17 × 10-4
Greased strands running in plastic sleeves 25 × 10-4

5.4.4 Anchorage losses

In post-tensioned members, as shown in Figure 5.31 below, some slip or
draw-in occurs when the prestressing force is transferred from the jack to the
anchorage. This causes an additional loss of prestress. The amount of slip
depends on the type of anchorage. For wedge-type anchorages for strand, the
slip ∆ may be as high as 6 mm. The loss of prestress caused by ∆ decreases
with distance from the anchorage owing to friction and may be negligible at
the critical design section.

However, for short tendons, this loss may be significant and should not be
ignored in design. The loss of tension in the tendon caused by slip is opposed
by friction in the same way as the initial prestressing force was opposed by
friction, but in the opposite direction, i.e. µ and βp are the same.

...........
142
 However, for short tendons, this loss may be significant and should not be ignored in design.
The loss of tension in the tendon caused by slip is opposed by friction in the same way as
the initial prestressing force was opposed by friction, but in the opposite direction, i.e. μ and
βp are the same. CHAP T ER 5: Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

FIGURE 5.31
Variation
Figure 5.31: in prestress
Variation due
in prestress totothe
due thedraw
drawin
in at theanchorage
at the anchorage
The graph of variation in prestressing force along a member due to friction
The graph of variation in prestressing force along a member due to friction
(calculated
(calculated usingEquation
using Equation 3.60)
3.60)is modified in the vicinity
is modified in theof vicinity
the anchorage by the
of the mirror
anchorage
by theimage reduction
mirror imageshown in Figure shown
reduction 5.32 The in
slope of the5.32
Figure draw-in adjacent
lineslope
The oftothe
the draw-in
anchorage
line adjacent
has the sameto magnitude
the anchorage has loss
as the friction theline,
same magnitude
but the as the friction loss
opposite sign.
line, but the opposite sign.

Chapter 5: Prestressed Concrete Beams and Slab Design October 2020

FIGURE 5.32(a) & (b)

Variation in prestress due to the draw-in at the anchorage [3]

In order to calculate the draw-in loss at the anchorage δPdi, the length of the
draw-in line Ldi must be determined. By equating the anchorage slip ∆ with
the integral of the change in strain in the steel tendon over the length of the
draw-in line, Ldi may be determined. From Figure 5.32b the loss of prestress
due to draw-in δP at distance x from point O is

δP = αx

where α is twice the slope of the prestress line as shown in Figure 5.32.
Therefore,

After rearranging

Equation 5.23

And

δPdi = αLdi

...........
143 RC D 4 8 01/1


The magnitude of the slip that should be anticipated in design is usually supplied
by the anchorage manufacturer and should be checked on site. Cautious
overstressing at the anchorage is often an effective means of compensating
for slip.

5.4.5 Time-dependent losses

5.4.5.1 Shrinkage losses

For a realistic estimate of the time-dependent behaviour of a prestressed section,
the method described in Section 5.2 is recommended.

The loss of stress in a tendon due to shrinkage of concrete may be approximated

by ∆fe = εshr Ep Equation 5.24

where εsh is the shrinkage strain at the time under consideration and may be
estimated using the procedures outlined in Section 5.2. When non-prestressed
reinforcement is present and offers restraint to shrinkage, the stress loss in the
tendon will be smaller than that indicated by Equation 5.24. However, the
non-prestressed reinforcement also relieves the concrete of compression, and
the change in the resultant compression in the concrete may be much greater
than the change in tensile force in the tendon. As time increases, more and
more of the compression exerted on the beam by the tendon is carried by the
non-prestressed steel and less and less by the concrete.

The shrinkage strain εshr per unit length is given in the following Table 5.13 as
per SANS10100-1

TABLE 5.13
Shrinkage of concrete as per SANS 10100-1

1 2 3 5

Shrinkage per unit length

Relative humidity

80% e.g. 60% e.g. most 35% e.g.

System
coastal towns inland areas environments
of unusually low
relative humidity,
such as Windhoek
and Upington

Pretensioning
Transfer at 3d to 5d after 180 × 10 -6 310 × 10 -6 420 × 10 -6
concreting

Post-tensioning
Transfer at 7d to 14d after 140 × 10 -6 250 × 10 -6 350 × 10 -6
concreting

...........
144
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Note that SANS 10100-1 clause 5.8.2.4 and Chapter 1 section 1.1.3 of this
study guide must be referred to and read in their entirety for further details.

5.4.5.2 Creep losses

Creep strain in the concrete at the level of the tendon depends on the stress
in the concrete at

that level. Because the concrete stress varies with time, a reliable estimate of
creep losses

requires a detailed time analysis. An approximate and conservative estimate

can be made by assuming that the concrete stress at the tendon level remains
constant with time and equal to its initial (usually high) value, fc (caused by Pi
and the permanent part of the load). With this assumption, the creep strain at
any time t after transfer (at age) may be calculated from this expression.

Equation 5.25

where φ(t, τo ) is the creep coefficient. If the tendon is bonded to the surrounding
concrete, the change of steel and fc is the stress on the concrete.

Note that SANS 10100-1 clause 5.8.2.5 and Chapter 1 section 1.1.3 of this
study guide must be referred to and read in their entirety for further details.

5.4.5.3 Relaxation of steel

The loss of stress in a tendon due to relaxation depends on the sustained stress
in the steel. Owing to creep and shrinkage in the concrete, the stress in the
tendon decreases with time at a faster rate than would occur due to relaxation
alone. This decrease in stress level in the tendon affects (reduces) the magnitude
of the relaxation losses. An equation similar to Equation 5.26 is often used to
modify the design relaxation to include the effects of creep and shrinkage.

The loss of prestress due to relaxation (as a percentage of the initial prestress)
may be approximated by

Equation 5.26

Where:

- R is the design relaxation in percent after a period of t days that may be

obtained from this equation: R = k1 k2 R1000 [ log (5.38 t)0.167] (AS 3600–1988) [3]

The coefficient k1 depends on the initial stress level in the tendon and is obtained
from Figure 5.33. The term k2 depends on the average annual temperature T
and may be taken as T/20 but not less than 1.0.

...........
145 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 5.33
Relaxation coefficients k1 (AS 3600-1988) [3]

- ∆fp is the loss of stress in the tendon due to creep plus shrinkage (from Equations
5.24 and 5.25); and fpi is the stress in the tendon immediately after transfer.
Note that SANS 10100-1 clause 5.8.2.2 must be referred to for further details.

5.5 SHEAR
NOTE

This section presents important highlights concerning chapter 7 “7. SHEAR”–

pages 7–1 to 7–31 in your reference book. You are advised to read what is
presented in this study guide first and then complete your reading with what
is in your reference book.

5.5.1 Introduction
The analysis and design of a prestressed concrete beam is complex because
of the difficulty of predicting the shear strength with the same precision as in
the case of normal flexure of beams. This is the reason why the code-based
approach is in common practice almost all around the world.
Experimentally, two types of cracking behaviour are mentioned, namely the
web-shear crack and the flexural cracks as illustrated in Figure 5.34. Flexure
cracks appear on places where the moment is high around mid-span, contrary
to the web shear cracks which are near the supports.

FIGURE 5.34
Types of inclined cracks (a) Flexure & Flexure shear, (b) Web shear [3]

...........
146
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.5.2 Shear capacity of prestressed concrete

The design shear stress is usually calculated as follows:

Equation 5.27

where Vmax is the design maximum shear force at the section under consideration,
bw is the average web width, and d is the distance from the extreme compression
fibre to the centroid of the steel area (Ap + Ast) in the tensile zone. In no case
should τ exceed 0.75 or 5 MPa, whichever is the smaller. Note that ƒcu
refers to the characteristic cube strength of the concrete. The design ultimate
shear resistance of the concrete alone, Vuc, is equal to Vco when the design
moment M* is less than Mo, and is the lesser of Vco and Vcr when. The moment
Mo produces zero stress in the concrete at the extreme tensile fibre. BS 8110
suggests that only 80% of the prestress should be taken into account when
calculating Mo.

The shear resistance Vco produces a maximum tensile stress at the centroidal
axis of ft = 0.24 .

When calculating Vco, only 80% of the design compressive stress at the centroidal
axis fcp (taken as + ve) should be considered. Vco may be calculated from

Vco = 0.67 b D Equation 5.28

where D is the overall depth of the member.

The design ultimate shear resistance when the section is cracked in flexure
may be calculated from

Equation 5.29

where fse is the effective stress in the tendon after all losses have occurred
(and should not be taken to be greater than 0.6 fpu); vc is a design concrete
shear stress given by

Equation 5.30

Equation 5.31

Mo is the decompression moment with respect to the extreme tensile fibre.

In this equation, the term 100(Ast + Ap) / bw d should not be taken as greater
than 3, the term 400/d should not be taken as less than 1.0, fcu should not be
taken as greater than 40 MPa, and γm is 1.4

For sections cracked in flexure, the vertical component of the prestressing

force (or the vertical component of the force in an inclined compressive chord)
should be combined with the external design load effects, wherever these
effects are increased.

...........
147 RC D 4 8 01/1


When Vmax < = Vuc + 0.4 b d, the minimum quantity of shear reinforcement
given by Equation 5.32 should be provided:

Equation 5.32

When Vmax Vuc + 0.4 bw d, then the required area of the stirrups is

Equation 5.33

where do is the depth to the centroid of the bottom layer of longitudinal steel
in the corners of the stirrups near the tensile face.

When Vmax < = 1.8Vuc, the spacing of stirrups along a member should not
exceed 0.75do or 4bw (in the case of flanged members). When Vmax > 1.8Vuc,
the maximum spacing is reduced to 0.5do. The lateral spacing of individual
stirrup legs across the width of a cross-section should not exceed do. Like
the ACI approach, the BS 8110 approach ignores the vertical component of
prestress Pv whenever the effect is beneficial.

5.5.2.1 Example 5.7 – Design for shear

(*) Figure 5.35 – Refer to your reference book, page 7–18, Figure 7-10 [4]

FIGURE 5.35
Details of the beam of example 5-5 [4]

A pretensioned, partially prestressed concrete beam has been designed to

support and uniformly distributed live load of 20kN/m and a superimposed
dead load of 0.6 kN/m over a 21m. Design the web reinforcement for shear,
assuming that the span can be partially loaded by the live load.

The prestress is provided by 10 @12.9 mm 7-wire super grade low relaxation

strands, initially tensioned to 75% of their characteristic strength fpu, while the
non-prestressed reinforcement consists of 4 Y32 mm bars, of which two bars
are curtailed as shown in Figure 5.35* above. This gives Aps = 1000 mm2,
while the values of As, appropriate to the properly anchored reinforcement
are considered as listed in Table 5.14

...........
148
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

TABLE 5.14
Prestressing force and available area of non-prestressed reinforcement at the
sections of interest

x Pi (x) η As
(m) (kN) (mm2)

0.7782 -1354 0.8671 1610

1.75 -1351 0.8647 1610
3.50 -1346 0.8592 1610
5.25 -1339 0.8507 1610
7.00 -1328 0.8376 3220
8.75 -1332 0.8435 3220
10.50 -1334 0.8455 3220

The properties of the materials are as follows:

For the concrete, fcu = 45 MPa and fci = 35 MPa

For the prestressed reinforcement, fpu = 1860 MPa
For the non-prestressed reinforcement, f y = 450 MPa
For the web reinforcement, f yv = 250 MPa

It can be shown that if the procedures prescribed by SANS 10100-1 for

calculating the prestress losses are followed, the values in Table 5.11 will be
obtained.

Design Loads, if self-weight of concrete γc = 24 kN/m3, wD = 24 × 345 = 8

kN/m
Dead load: wuD = 1.2 (wD + wsdl ) = 1.2 x (8.280 + 0.6) = 10.66 kN/m
Live load: wL = 1.6 wL = 1.6 × 20 = 32 kN/m
Total load = wuD + wL = 42.66 kN/m

Check the maximum nominal shear stress

Maximum shear stress force on the beam at the centre line of the support is

Vmax = wu L / 2 = 42.66 × 21 / 2 = 447.9 kN

Shear stress calculation

The effective depth d is the distance between the extreme compression fibre
to the centroid of all the steel contained in the tension zone (Aps and As

Equation 5.27 gives = 2.832 MPa

...........
149 RC D 4 8 01/1
 This is less than 0.75 = 0.75 × = 5.031 MPa, which means that
the section is satisfactory with regard to diagonal crushing of the concrete in
the web.

Section located at distance × = 3.5m from the support

Since the load can be partially loaded by the live load, the following load
cases are considered

• Load case of maximum moment is given in Figure 5.36a* by the following

• Load case of maximum shear force is given in Figure 5.36b* by the following

Section uncracked in flexure

Equation 5.28

(*) Figure 5.36 – Refer to your reference book, page 7–20, Figure 7-11 [4]

FIGURE 5.36
Load cases considered for this example [4]

At the section considered, = 3.352 MPa

Since the tendon is inclined at the section considered, the vertical component
of the prestressing force may be added to Vco. The angle of inclination of the
tendon is given by Θ = tan-1 = 2.846o, the vertical force is 0.8592
× (-1346) × sin 2.846o = 57.42 kN, Vco = 342.1+57.42 = 399.5 kN.

Section cracked in flexure

Before the shear capacity of the of the section correspondent to flexural shear
cracking Vcr can be calculated, the following quantities must be evaluated at
the section 3.5m.

...........
150
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Eccentricity 222 + 49.71 × = 222 + 49.71 × 3.5 = 396 mm

Effective depth: d = h –
= 857.3 mm

Stress in the concrete at the extreme tensile fibre due to prestressing only

Equation 5.34

= 13.02 MPa

Decompression moment with respect to the extreme tension fibre

Equation 5.31

= 493.3 kNm

Shear capacity of equivalent reinforced concrete section. When Equation 5.20,

a per SANS 10100-1, is used for calculating Vc, the term 400 /d must not be
taken as less than 1.

Equation 5.30

= 0.7592 MPa

Effective prestress fse must be based on an equivalent area of the tendons

Equation 5.35

= 1390 mm2

Hence

= 832.3 MPa

The critical value of Vcr is determined from the values yielded by each of the
following two load cases:

• Load case yielding maximum moment (× = 3.5m) MB = 1306 kNm and

VB = 298.6 kN

• Load case yielding maximum shear (× = 3.5m) MB = 1143 kNm and VB

= 307.9 kN

...........
151 RC D 4 8 01/1


From the above, it is clear that (VB - Vcr,B) = 87.69 kN is greater than (V V – Vcr,V)
= 76.88 kN

Therefore, the load case which yields maximum moment is critical because
the web reinforcement demand, as indicated by the magnitude of the quantity
(V - Vcr), is the greatest for this load case. Hence, Vcr = Vcr,B = 210.9 kN

Shear Capacity of the concrete

Since Vcr = 210.9 kN is less than Vco = 399 kN, the shear capacity of the
section at x = 3.5 m is given by Vc = Vcr = 210.9 kN

Design of web reinforcement

The load case which produces maximum moment is critical because Vc is

governed by the value of Vcr which was derived from this particular load case.
Therefore, V = VB = 298.6 kN. The detail shown in Figure 5.31c shows that
d1 = h – 56 = 944 mm, so that Vc + 0.4 b d1 = 210.9 + 0.4 × 200 × 944 ×
10 -3 = 286.4 kN, which is less than V = 298.6 kN This means that designed
web reinforcement, in excess of the minimum required reinforcement, must
be provided using the following Equation 5.33:

= 0.427 mm2 / mm

This can translate into two legged R10 stirrups spaced 350mm centre to centre
for which Asv / s = 0.449 mm2 /mm. Since the section is flanged and V = 298.6
kN is less than 1.8 Vc = 1.8 × 210.9 = 379.6 kN, the maximum spacing of
the stirrups is governed by the smaller of 0.75 d1 = 0.75 × 944 = 708 mm
and 4b = 800 mm. The maximum allowable is 708 mm, which larger that the
spacing provided. One can retain, therefore, the spacing of 350 mm.

5.6 DEFLECTIONS
NOTE

This section provides important highlights concerning chapter 8 “8.

DEFLECTIONS”– pages 8–1 to 8–34 in your reference book. You are advised
to read what is presented in this study guide first and then complete your
reading with what is in your reference book.

5.6.1 Introduction

5.6.1.1 Effect of prestress

For a typical beam, application of prestress force will produce upward deflection
or camber. The effect of concrete shrinkage, creep and steel relaxation is
to gradually reduce the camber produced by the initial force as that force
is diminished. The effect of creep is a double effect, although it produces a
loss of prestress force tending to reduce camber, creep strains in the concrete
usually increase camber.

...........
152
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.6.1.2 Effect of Loads

Dead and live loads usually produce downward deflections that superimpose
on the upward deflection due to prestress. In the case of sustained loads, these
too are time-dependent because of concrete creep.

5.6.1.3 Prediction of Deflections

Although the prediction of deflection of prestressed concrete members
is complicated by such factors as the gradual reduction of prestress force
due to time-dependent losses, relatively simple procedures can be followed
to calculate deflections within acceptable limits of accuracy. It should be
emphasised that all deflection calculations for prestressed concrete members
are merely estimates that are affected by uncertainties relating to:

• Time dependent material properties

• Temperature and humidity
• Loads: Time of application and duration

The calculation of deflections is generally conducted at transfer of the prestressing

and under service loads. It also depends on whether the member is uncracked
or cracked in flexure. Approximate codes-oriented methods are generally used
to predict the deflections, as is also the approach of SANS 10100-1.

5.6.2 Prediction of deflections of uncracked beams

5.6.2.1 Instantaneous deflections

For uncracked beams, it is assumed that the concrete as well as the steel
behave in a linear elastic fashion and the total instantaneous deflection δt is
the algebraic sum of the deflection due to the prestress δp and the deflection
due to external loads δw. Table 5.15 presents expressions for the midspan
deflection of simply supported beams.

TABLE 5.15
Midspan deflections for simply supported beam [4]
(*) Figure 5.37 – Refer to your reference book, page 8–3, Figure 8-1 [4]

The expression for the mid-span deflection of the uncracked, simply supported
prestressed beam due to the prestressing force P acting on a parabolic cable
profile with eccentricity e1 at mid span and e2 at the beam support position,
as shown in Figure 5.37, is governed by the following differential equation:

Equation 5.36

Where:

δ = deflection at any section x

M = bending moment at any section x, equal to P e
Ec = modulus of elasticity of the concrete
I = second moment of the area of the section.

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153 RC D 4 8 01/1


Expressing the eccentricity as a function of x, and substituting into M for

integration twice with application of boundary conditions, one finds the
deflection as:

Equation 5.37

this equation expresses the deflection in terms of the curvatures at mid-span

k1= Pe1 / Ec I and the curvature at support k2 = P e2 / Ec I.

Equation 5.38

The expressions for midspan deflection due to applied loading, given in terms
of midspan curvature in Table 5.15, lead to the generalisation of the critical
deflection in terms of curvature:

δw = K ks L2 Equation 5.39

where: K = deflection coefficient , depending on the type of load and the

boundary conditions of the beam (Table 5.16) and ks due to the applied loading
at the midspan section or the support section in the case of a cantilever. SANS
10100-1 uses this approach and suggests the following equation:

Equation 5.40

where Ms is the bending moment due to applied loading at the midspan section
or support section in the case of a cantilever.

...........
154
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

TABLE 5.16
Values of K for the various bending moment diagrams [4]

5.6.2.2 Long term deflections [4]

5.6.2.2.1 Long term deflection due to loss of prestress

The long-term change in deflection induced by the loss of prestress when

calculating the instantaneous deflection is accounted for simply by setting P
= ηPi with η being the loss factor.

5.6.2.2.2 Long term deflection due to creep of permanent Loads

The deflections induced by creep of the concrete is quantified using the effective
modulus method which expresses the instantaneous elastic plus long-term
creep deflection δ∞,w due to the permanent loads as follows:

...........
155 RC D 4 8 01/1


Equation 5.41

Where: Equation 5.42

Eeff = effective modulus

∅(t) = creep coefficient

Rearranging Equation 5.41 and 5.42, the yielding expression for δ∞,w is

Equation 5.43

Where: δw = instantaneous elastic deflection due to the permanent loads

∅u = ultimate value of the creep coefficient after long-term

5.6.2.2.3 Long-term deflection due to creep of prestress

The long-term creep deflection due to the prestressing δ∞,P can also be expressed
in terms of loss of prestress (loss factor η) and curvatures as follows:

Equation 5.44

The term ηPi e / Ec I represent the elastic curvature induced by the effective
prestressing force, including all losses, at the section under consideration.

5.6.2.2.4 Long term deflection due to shrinkage of concrete

According to SANS 10100-1, the shrinkage deflection is calculated as follows:

Equation 5.45

Where:

Ks = shrinkage deflection coefficient, depending on the boundary conditions

of the beam
Kcs = shrinkage curvature coefficient, defined as the curvature induced in a
beam of depth
h = 1 by a unit free shrinkage
εsu = ultimate value of the free shrinkage strain of the concrete after a long-time
h = overall depth of the section.

The values of Ks are proposed by SANS 10100-1 according to the beam

boundary conditions (Table 5.17)

...........
156
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

TABLE 5.17
Ks values

Boundary Conditions Ks

Cantilever 0.5
Simply supported 0.125
One end continuous 0.086
Both ends continuous 0.063

The term Kcs εsu / h gives the shrinkage curvature, and SANS 10100-1 recommends
the following expression for the shrinkage Kcs for use in uncracked members:

As = area bonded tension steel

A’s = area compression steel
h = width of the beam section
d = effective depth of the centroid of the tension steel
Kcs must not exceed 1, nor be less than 0, as per SANS 10100-1.

5.6.2.3 Example 5-8 Deflections of uncracked prestressed beams

A prestressed concrete beam has been designed to support a uniformly
distributed live load of 5.8kN/m and a superimposed dead load of 0.6 kN/m
over 21m. Calculate the instantaneous and long-term deflections of the beam
in which the cable profile is shown below in Figure 5.38*

The prestress is provided by 10 @12.9 mm 7-wire super grade low relaxation

strand initially tensioned to 75% of its characteristic strength fpu. For the concrete
used, assume that, at transfer, the concrete has the following characteristics:
Ect =29.5 MPa and that at 28 days Ec = 32.5 GPa

In this case, one also assumes that the relative humidity of the environment to
which the beam will be subjected is 60% and that the transfer takes place 3 days
after concreting. Under these conditions, it may be shown that Pi1 =-1334kN
and η1 = 0.8455 at midspan section, that Pi2 = -1355 kN and η2 = 0.8689 at
the support sections, and that ∅u = 3.7 and εsu = -367 x10 -6

(*) Figure 5.38 – Refer to your reference book, page 8–10, Figure 8-2 [4]

Since the beam was designed as a class 2 member, it may be assumed as

uncracked under service loads

...........
157 RC D 4 8 01/1


At transfer

Deflection due to prestress

At transfer, the instantaneous curvatures at the midspan section ki1 and at the
support sections ki2 due to prestressing force are obtained as follows:

At midspan: e1 = 570 mm

= -0.8027 × 10 -6 rad/mm

At the support: e2 = 222 mm

= -0.3176 × 10 -6 rad/mm

From Table 5.12, the instantaneous upward midspan deflection due to prestress
at transfer is

Deflection due to self-weight

γc = 24 kN/m3 wD = 1 × 24 × 345 × 10 -3 = 8.280 kN/m

= 22.14 mm (downward)

Total deflection

δt
= δip + δi,w = -40.29 + 22.14 = -18.15 mm (upward)

After a long time

Deflection due to prestress

Long-term elastic plus creep curvatures, and change in curvatures induced by

loss of prestress at midspan section k∞,1 and at the support sections k,2 due
to the prestressing force

At midspan

At support

...........
158
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Therefore, long-term elastic plus creep deflection is

Deflection due to permanent loads

Permanent loads = 8.28 + 0.6 = 8.80 kN/m

For relief effects

wperm,min = 1.0 wperm = 8.880 kN/m

For compounding effect

wperm,max = 1.1 wperm = 9.768 kN/m

Long-term elastic plus creep due to permanent loads is calculated using the
effective modulus method.

= 6.915 GPa

For relieving effect

= 101.3 mm (downward)

For compounding effect

= 111.4 mm (downward)

Deflection due to shrinkage

The shrinkage deflection is as per SANS 10100-1

d = e1 – ytop = 570 – (-321.8) = 891.8 mm and b = 1200mm

Note that it is assumed that As =Aps, the code does not provide any guidance
in this regard

Noting that Ks = 0.125 for simply supported beams and h = 1000 mm, the
long-term shrinkage deflection is calculated

...........
159 RC D 4 8 01/1


Deflection due to live load

The instantaneous deflection due to the live load is given by

= 14.07 mm (downward)

Total long-term deflections

The total long-term deflection due to prestress plus the permanent load is

δ∞,min = δ∞,p + δ∞,perm, min + δ∞ ,s = -155.9 + 101.3 + 4.329 = -50.33 mm

(upward)

While the maximum value of the long-term deflection is given by

δ∞,max = δ∞,p + δ∞,perm, max + δ∞ ,s + δL = -155.9 + 111.4 + 4.329 + 14.07=

-26.12 mm (upward)

5.6.3 Prediction of deflections of cracked beams

5.6.3.1 Instantaneous deflections

It is accepted that the idealised moment-deflection diagram of a cracked
prestressed concrete beam loaded into the service load range is as shown
below in Figure 5.39*. When the cracking moment Mcr is reached, the flexural
stiffness of the beam is reduced and a reduced value of the second moment
Icr of area of the section is appropriate.

(*) Figure 5.39 – Refer to your reference book page 8–14, Figure 8-3 [4]

Most of the available methods for estimating the deflection of a cracked

prestressed concrete beam are modifications of methods originally devised for
calculating the deflection of cracked reinforced concrete beams. SANS10100-
1 uses such a procedure, originally developed by Branson, as reported by
Marshall and Robberts [4]. This method is used if the second moment of area
Is is replaced by an effective second moment of area Ie which accounts for the
extent of cracking over the span of the beam. Branson proposed the following
expression for estimating Ie

Equation 5.47

Mcr = cracking moment at the section of maximum moment

Ma = maximum moment acting on the span under the loadings considered

In order to consider the effect of prestressing force P, Ma is replaced by Ma -Mo

where Mo is the moment at the determinant section corresponding to zero
deflection, and Mcr is calculated by the following equation:

Equation 5.48

...........
160
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

Where:

fr = Modulus of rupture of the concrete. According to SANS 10-100-1, fr = 0.65

for unrestrained beams and slabs and that fr = 0.30 for restrained
beams and slabs, pre-loading cracking is likely to occur.

P = effective prestressing force including all losses at the time under consideration
(ηPi after all losses have taken place)

A = Area of the gross concrete section

Ztens = section modulus of the gross section with respect to the extreme
tension fibre.

The instantaneous deflection of the cracked member is then calculated as

follows:

Equation 5.49

Where K is the deflection coefficient corresponding to the superimposed load.

5.6.3.2 Long-term deflections

The prediction of the long-term deflection of cracked prestressed concrete
members is complicated by a many factors, among which are:

• The time-dependent increase in the neutral axis depth induced by the

effect of creep
• The time-dependent redistribution of stress which takes place within
the compression zone of the concrete
• The widening of existing cracks and the development of new ones
• The time-dependent change in the properties of bond between concrete
and steel.

SANS10100-1 recommends a method originally developed by Branson, as

reported by Marshall and Robberts [4], in which the effect of the prestressing
force on the cracked section properties are accounted for. The method used the
following empirical expression to estimate the value of the distance from the
extreme compression fibre to the centroid of a cracked transformed prestressed
concrete beam section when load is initially applied:

Equation 5.50

Mcr = Cracking moment as defined in Equation 5.48

M1 = Ma Moment causing zero curvature

(ad)g = distance from the extreme compression fibre to the centroid of the
gross uncracked concrete section

(ad)cr = distance from the extreme compression fibre to the centroid of the fully
cracked transformed section (i.e. ignoring the presence of the prestressing force)

...........
161 RC D 4 8 01/1


(ad)i = distance from the extreme compression fibre to the centroid of the
cracked transformed prestressed concrete section.

As in the case of uncracked members, the shrinkage deflections will be

calculated using Equation 5.45 in which the shrinkage curvature coefficient
Kcs is as follows:

Equation 5.51

In South Africa, Equation 5.51 can be rewritten as follows:

Equation 5.52

= 1 for (ρ – ρ’) > 3.0

5.6.4 Deflection limitations

Limitation of deflections is necessary for the following reasons:

• Sensory acceptability which covers visual acceptability (e.g. sagging beams

or slabs, drooping cantilever, etc.) and tangible and audible effects which
arise from vibrations due to dynamic loads
• Loss of serviceability of the structure
• Effects of non-structural elements
• Effects on structural elements

SANS 10100-1 provides guidance on this matter for practical design:

Final long-term deflection should not exceed span/250. This is considered to

be the limit beyond which the deflection will give offence to the occupant

The deflection that takes place after the construction of the application of
finishes should be limited to span /350 or 20mm, whichever is lesser in the case
of flexible partitions. In the case of rigid brick walls or other brittle partitions,
this deflection should be limited to span /500 or 10 mm.

If finishes have to be applied to prestressed concrete elements, the total upward

deflection must not exceed span/300.

For bridge design, consult the relevant literature on this topic.

5.7 INTRODUCTION TO POST-TENSIONED SLABS

NOTE

This section provides additional information to chapter 10 “10. PRESSTRESSED

CONCRETE SLAB”– pages 10-1 to 10-72 in your reference book. You are
advised to read what is presented in this study guide first and then complete
your reading with what is in your reference book.

...........
162
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.7.1 Behaviour and design of two-way slabs

5.7.1.1 Introduction
The majority of prestressed slab concrete construction is performed in post-
tensioning, as this has revealed to be economically competitive compared to
the reinforced concrete slabs in most practical medium-to-long-span situations.
Prestressing overcomes many of the disadvantages associated with reinforced
concrete slabs. Deflection, which is almost always the governing design
consideration, is better controlled in post-tension slabs. A designer is better able
to reduce or even eliminate deflection by a careful choice of prestress. More
slender slab systems are therefore possible, and this may result in increased
head room or reduced floor-to-floor heights. Prestress also eliminates cracking
and may be used to produce crack-free and watertight floors. Prestressed slabs
generally have simple, uncluttered steel layouts. Steel fixing and concrete
placing are therefore quicker and easier.
In this chapter, the design and analysis of the following common types of
prestressed concrete slab systems are discussed, as illustrated in Figure 5.40.
• One-way slabs.
• Edge-supported two-way slabs: rectangular slab panels supported on all four
edges by either walls or beams. Each panel edge may be either continuous
or discontinuous.
• Flat plate slabs: continuous slab of constant thickness supported by a
rectangular grid of columns.
• Flat slab with drop panels: as for a flat plate but with a local increase in slab 7
thickness (drop panel) over each supporting column.

FIGURE 5.40
Type
Figure 5.40: Type of slabs [3] of slabs [3]

 ...........
Band-beam and slab system: wide, shallow, continuous, prestressed beams in one
direction (the longer span) with one-way prestressed163 RC D 4 8slabs
or reinforced 01/1 in the transverse

direction (the shorter span).



• Band-beam and slab system: wide, shallow, continuous, prestressed beams

in one direction (the longer span) with one-way prestressed or reinforced
slabs in the transverse direction (the shorter span).
Almost all prestressed slabs are post-tensioned using draped tendons. Typical
tendon used in post-tensioned slabs is made of flat-ducted tendons, consisting
of five or less super-grade strands in a flat sheath, and fan-shaped anchorages,
as shown in Figure 5.41. Individual strands are usually stressed one at a time
using light hydraulic jacks. The flat ducts are structurally efficient and allow
maximum tendon eccentricity and drape. These ducts are almost always
grouted after stressing to provide a bond between the steel and the concrete.

FIGURE 5.41
Details of typical flat-ducted tendons [3]
A YouTube video showing a practical post-tensioning of a multi-storey building
is shown in Video 5.2: Typical post-tensioned slab procedure (7:16)

5.7.1.2 Design and analysis of prestressed slabs

5.7.1.2.1 Effect of prestress

It is known that the prestressing operation results in the imposition of both

longitudinal and transverse forces on post-tensioned members. The concentrated
longitudinal prestress P produces a complex stress distribution immediately
behind the anchorage and the design of this anchorage zone requires careful
attention. At sections further away from the anchorage, the longitudinal prestress
applied at the anchorage causes a linearly varying compressive stress over the
depth of the slab. It has been shown that, wherever a change in direction of
the prestressing tendon occurs, a transverse force is imposed on the member.
For a parabolic tendon profile such as that shown below in Figure 5.42a, the
curvature is constant along the tendon and hence the transverse force imposed
on the member is uniform along its length. The uniformly distributed transverse
force caused by the prestress is given by:

Equation 5.53

...........
164
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

where h is the sag of the parabolic tendon and L is the span. If the cable spacing
is uniform across the width of a slab and P is the prestressing force per unit
width of slab, then wp is the uniform upward load per unit area.

FIGURE 5.42
Idealised and actual tendon profiles in a continuous slab [3]

The cable profile shown in Figure 5.42a, with the sharp kink located over the
internal support, approximates the more realistic and practical profile shown
in Figure 5.42b. The idealised profile is more convenient for the analysis and
design of continuous slabs and the error introduced by the idealisation is
usually not great.

The transverse load wp causes moments and shear which usually tend to be
opposite in sign to those produced by the external loads. In Figure 5.43, the
elevation of a prestressing tendon in a continuous slab is shown. The transverse
load imposed on the slab by the tendon in each span is indicated. If the
slab is a two-way slab, with prestressing tendons placed in two orthogonal
directions, the total transverse load caused by the prestress is the sum of wp
for the tendons in each direction.

FIGURE 5.43
Transverse loads imposed by tendons [3]

The longitudinal prestress applied at the anchorage may also induce moments
and shears in a slab. At changes of slab thickness, such as occur in a flat slab
with drop panels, the anchorage force P becomes eccentric with respect to
the centroidal axis of the section, as shown in Figure 5.44a.

...........
165 RC D 4 8 01/1
 The longitudinal prestress applied at the anchorage may also induce moments and shears in
a slab. At changes of slab thickness, such as occur in a flat slab with drop panels, the

 anchorage force P becomes eccentric with respect to the centroidal axis of the section, as
shown in Figure 5.44a.

FIGURE
Figure 5.44: Effect of change 5.44
in thickness [3]
Effect of change in thickness [3]
The moments caused by this eccentricity are indicated in Figure 5.44b and should also be
considered
The moments causedin analysis.
by this However, the moments
eccentricity produced
are indicated by relatively
in Figure 5.44bsmall
andchanges in slab
should also be considered
thickness in analysis.
tend to be small comparedHowever,
with thosethe moments
caused produced
by cable curvatureby
and, if the thickenin
relativelyissmall
belowchanges
the slab, itinis slab thickness
conservative tend them.
to ignore to be small compared with
those caused by cable curvature and, if the thickening is below the slab, it is
conservative to ignore them.
At some distance from the slab edge, the concentrated anchorage forces have dispersed and
At some distance
the slab isfrom the slab
uniformly edge,The
stressed. theso-called
concentrated
angle ofanchorage
dispersion, forces have in Figure 5.41,
θ, as shown
disperseddetermines
and the slab is uniformly stressed. The so-called angle of dispersion, θ,
the extent of slab in which the prestress is not effective. Specifications for θ vary
as shown in Figure 5.41, determines the extent of slab in which the prestress is
considerably. It is claimed in some trade literature (VSL 1988) that tests have shown θ to be
not effective. Specifications for θ vary considerably. It is claimed in some trade
literature 120º.
(VSLIn1988)
AS 3600–1988, is taken
that tests θhave as low
shown θ as
to 60°. A valueInofAS
be 120º. θ=90° is usually satisfactory for
3600–1988,
θ is takendesign
as low as 60°. A value of θ = 90° is usually satisfactory for design
purposes.
purposes.

Chapter 5: Prestressed Concrete Beams and Slab Design October 2020

FIGURE 5.45
Area of ineffective prestress at slab edges [3]

Care must be taken in the design of the hatched areas of slab shown in Figure
5.45, where the prestress in one or both directions is not effective. It is good
practice to include a small quantity of bonded non-prestressed reinforcement
in the bottom of the slab perpendicular to the free edge in all exterior spans.
An area of non-prestressed steel of about 0.0015bdo is usually sufficient,

...........
166
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

where do is the effective depth to the non-prestressed steel. In addition, when

checking the punching shear strength at the corner column in Figure 5.45, the
beneficial effect of prestress is not available. At sections remote from the slab
edge, the average P/A stresses are uniform across the entire slab width and do
not depend on changes of θ and variations of cable spacing from one region
of the slab to another.

5.7.1.2.2 Design approach

The first step in the design of a post-tensioned slab is the selection of an initial
slab thickness. Serviceability considerations usually dictate the required slab
thickness, which will ensure satisfactory service-load behaviour.

The second step in slab design is to determine the amount and distribution of
prestress. Load balancing is generally used to this end. A portion of the load
on a slab is balanced by the transverse forces imposed by the draped tendons
in each direction. To minimise serviceability problems, a substantial portion of
the sustained load should usually be balanced. Under the balanced load, the
slab remains plane (without curvature) and is subjected only to the resultant,
longitudinal, compressive, P/A stresses. It is the remaining unbalanced load
that enters into the calculation of service-load behaviour, particularly for
the estimation of load-dependent deflections and for checking the extent of
cracking and crack control.

At ultimate conditions, when the slab behaviour is non-linear and superposition

is no longer valid, the full factored design load must be considered. No part of
the external load is balanced by the prestress and the transverse force exerted by
the cable should not enter into the calculations. The factored design moments
and shears at each critical section must be calculated and compared with the
design strength of the section.

In the following sections, procedures for the calculation of design moments and
shears at the critical sections in the various slab types are presented. In addition,
techniques and recommendations are also presented for the determination of
the magnitude of the prestressing force required in each direction to balance
the desired load.

5.7.1.2.3 One-way slabs

A one-way slab is generally designed as a beam with cables running in the

direction of the span at uniform centres. A slab strip of unit width is analysed
using simple beam theory. In any span, the maximum cable sag h depends
on the concrete cover requirements and the tendon dimensions. When h is
determined, the prestressing force required to balance an external load wb is
calculated as follows:

Equation 5.54

In the transverse direction, conventional reinforcement may be used to control

shrinkage and temperature cracking and to distribute local load concentrations.
Minimum quantities of conventional steel for the control of shrinkage and
temperature-induced cracking in a variety of situations are necessary. Sometimes,

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167 RC D 4 8 01/1


the slab is prestressed in the transverse direction to eliminate the possibility of

shrinkage cracking parallel to the span and to ensure a watertight and crack-
free slab.

5.7.1.3 Two-way edge-supported slabs

5.7.1.3.15.7.1.3 Two-way edge-supported slabs
Load balancing

Consider5.7.1.3.1 Load panel

the interior balancing
of the two-way edge-supported slab shown in
Figure 5.46.
Consider the interior panel of the two-way edge-supported slab shown in Figure 5.46.

FIGURE
Figure 5.46: Edge supported 5.46
slab panel [3]
Edge supported slab panel [3]
The panel is supported on all sides by walls or beams and contains parabolic tendons in b
The panel is supported
x and y directions.onIfall
thesides
cables byinwalls
eachordirection
beams are
anduniformly
containsspaced,
parabolic
then the upward fo
tendons per
in both
unit area x and ybydirections.
the exerted the tendonsIfare:the cables in each direction are
uniformly spaced, then the upward forces per unit area exerted by the tendons
8 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ℎ𝑥𝑥 8 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ℎ𝑦𝑦
are: wpx = 2
and wpy = 2
Equation 5.53
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

Equation 5.53
where Px and Py are the prestressing forces per unit width in each direction and hx and hy
the cable drapes in each direction. If w is the uniformly distributed downward load to be
b
where Px and Py are the prestressing forces per unit width in each direction
balanced,
and hx and hy are then
the cable drapes in each direction. If wb is the uniformly
distributed downward
wb = load to be
wpx + wpy Equation balanced, then
5.54

wb = wpx + wpy Equation 5.54

In practice, perfect load balancing is not possible, since external loads are rarely perfectly
In practice, perfectdistributed.
uniformly load balancing is notforpossible,
However, practicalsince external
purposes, loads are
adequate rarely
load balancing can be
perfectly uniformly distributed. However, for practical purposes, adequate load
achieved.
balancing can be achieved.

Any combination of wpxofand

Any combination wpxwpy
and that
wpy satisfies Equation
that satisfies 10.410.4
Equation cancan
be used to to make up the
be used
make up the
balanced load. The smallest quantity of prestressing steel will result if all the load is balan
balancedbyload. The
cables smallest
in the short quantity of prestressing
span direction, i.e. wpx = wsteel will result
b. However, underif all the
unbalanced loads,
load is balanced by cables in the short span direction, i.e.
serviceability problems and unsatisfactory behaviour would
w px
= w . However,
almost
b certainly result. It is oft
under unbalanced loads, serviceability problems and unsatisfactory behaviour
preferable
would almost to distribute
certainly result. Itthe
is prestress in muchtothe
often preferable same way
distribute theasprestress
the load inis distributed to th
much the same way as the load is distributed to the supports, i.e. more prestress
Chapter 5: Prestressed Concrete Beams and Slab Design October 2020
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 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

in the short-span direction than in the long-span direction. The balanced load
resisted by tendons in the short direction may be approximated by

Equation 5.55

where α depends on the support conditions and is given by:

= 1.0 for 4 edges continuous or discontinuous

= 1.0 for 2 adjacent edges discontinuous
= 2.0 for 1 long edge discontinuous
= 0.5 for 1 short edge discontinuous
= 2.5 for 2 long and 1 short edge discontinuous
= 0.4 for 2 short and 1 long edge discontinuous
= 5.0 for 2 long edges discontinuous
α =0.2 for 2 short edges discontinuous

Equation 5.55 is the expression obtained for that portion of any external load
which is carried in the short-span direction if twisting moments are ignored
and the mid-span deflections of the two orthogonal unit wide strips through
the slab centre are equated. With wpx and wpy selected, the prestressing force
per unit width in each direction is calculated from Equation 5.56

Equation 5.56

Equilibrium dictates that the downward forces per unit length exerted over
each edge support by the reversal of cable curvature (as shown in Figure 5.42)
are wpy Ly (kN/m) carried by the short span supporting beams or walls per
unit length and wpx Lx (kN/m) carried by the long span supporting beams or
walls per unit length. The total force imposed by the slab tendons that must be
carried by the edge beams is which is equal to the total upward force exerted
by the slab cables.

Wpx Lx Ly + wpy Ly Lx = wb Lx Ly Equation 5.57

Therefore, for this two-way slab system, in order to carry the balanced load to
the supporting columns, resistance must be provided for twice the total load
to be balanced (i.e. in both the slab and in the beams). This requirement is
true for all two-way slab systems irrespective of construction type or material.

At the balanced load condition when the transverse forces imposed by the
cables exactly balance the applied external loads, the slab is subjected only to
the compressive stresses imposed by the longitudinal prestress in each direction:

where t is the slab thickness.

Equation 5. 58

5.7.1.3.2 Method of Analysis

In AS 3600–1988, a simplified method is proposed for the analysis of reinforced,

two-way, edge-supported slabs subjected to uniformly distributed design
ultimate loads. Moment coefficients derived from yield line theory are specified.
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169 RC D 4 8 01/1


Despite inherent difficulties in applying yield line analysis to prestressed edge-

supported slabs, the collapse load moment coefficients specified in the code
may be used reliably to calculate design ultimate moments.
The positive design moments per unit width at the mid-span of the slab in
each direction are:
Equation 5.59

where w* is the factored design load per unit area, Lx is the short span, and
βx and βy are moment coefficients which depend on the support conditions
and the aspect ratio of the panel (i.e. Ly/Lx). Values for βx and βy are given in
Table 5.18 or may be obtained from the following equations:

Equation 5.60

Equation 5.61

TABLE 5.18
Ultimate moment coefficient for rectangular edge-supported slabs

where:

γx = 2 if both short edges are discontinuous

= 2.5 if one short edge is discontinuous
= 3.0 if both short edges are continuous
and γy is as for γx
applied to the long edges.

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 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

The negative design moments at a continuous edge are taken to be 1.33 times
the mid-span value in the direction considered and, at a discontinuous edge,
the negative design moment is taken as 0.5 times the mid-span value.
For the purposes of calculating the shear forces in a slab or the forces applied
to the supporting walls or beams, AS 3600–1988 suggests that the uniformly
distributed load on the slab is allocated to the supports as shown in Figure 5.47.
It is recommended that the moment coefficients given by Equations 10.8a and
b and shown in Table 5.18 are used for ultimate strength calculations.

TABLE 5.19
Service load moment coefficients for rectangular edge-supported slabs (AS
3600-1988)

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171 RC D 4 8 01/1


However, for service load calculations, moment coefficients based on elastic

behaviour are perhaps more appropriate. It is therefore suggested that the
moment coefficients reproduced in Table 5.18 be used for serviceability
calculations. The coefficients in Table 5.18 may be used to predict both the
positive and negative moments at the critical sections using

Equation 5.62

where w is the unbalanced service load and βx and βy are obtained from Table
5.18

FIGURE 5.47
Distribution of shear force in an edge supported slab panel [3]

5.7.1.3.3 Example 5-9 Two-way slab

An exterior panel of a 180 mm thick two-way floor slab for a retail store is to
be designed. The rectangular panel is supported on four edges by stiff beams
and is discontinuous on one long edge as shown in Figure 5.48. The slab is
post-tensioned in both directions using the draped parabolic cable profiles
shown in Figures 5.48c and d. The slab supports a dead load of 1.5 kPa in
addition to its own self-weight and the live load is 5.0 kPa. The level of prestress
required to balance a uniformly distributed load of 5.0 kPa is required. Relevant
material properties are as follows:

Concrete compressive strength: fcu = 35 MPa

Concrete tensile strength: f t = 3.5 MPa
Elastic modulus of concrete: Ec = 30000 MPa
Characteristic strength of steel: fp = 1840 MPa
Elastic modulus of prestressing steel: Ep = 195000 MPa

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 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

FIGURE 5.48
Details of edge supported slab panel [3]

Load balancing

Flat ducted tendons containing four 12.5 mm strands are to be used with duct
size 75 mm × 19 mm, as shown in Figure 5.48b. With 25 mm concrete cover
to the duct, the maximum depth to the centre of gravity of the short-span
tendons is:

ds = 180 -25 –(19 – 7) = 143 mm

The cable drape in the short-span direction is therefore hx = + 53 =

79.5 mm

The depth dy of the long-span tendons at mid-span is less than dx by the thickness
of the duct running in the short-direction, i.e. dy =143−19= 124 mm. The
cable drape in the long-span direction is shown in Figure 5.44

hx = + 53 = 79.5 mm

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173 RC D 4 8 01/1


The self-weight of the slab is 24 × 0.18=4.3 kPa and, if 30% of the live load
is assumed to be sustained, then the total sustained load is

wsus = 4.3 + 1.5 + (0.3 × 5) = 7.4 kPa

In this example, the effective prestress in the tendons in both directions balances
an external load of wb = 5.0 kPa. From Equation 5.55, the transverse load
exerted by the tendons in the short-span direction is:

× 5 = 3.06 kPa

and the transverse load imposed by the tendons in the long-span direction is
calculated using

wpy = 5 – .3.06 = 1.94 kPa

The effective prestress in each direction is obtained from Equation 10.56:

= 401 kN/m

To determine the jacking forces and cable spacing in each direction, both the
deferred losses and friction losses must be calculated. For the purposes of
this example, it is assumed that the time-dependent losses in each direction
are 15% and the immediate losses (friction, anchorage, etc.) in the x-direction
are 8% and, in the y,-direction are 12%. Immediately after transfer, before the
time-dependent losses have taken place, the prestressing forces at mid-span
in each direction are:

and, at the jack

Using four 12.7 mm strands/tendon, Ap=400 mm2/tendon and the breaking

load per tendon is 4 × 184 =736 kN If a limit of 0.85 fp Ap is placed on the
maximum force to be applied to a stress-relieved posttensioned tendon during
the stressing operation, the maximum jacking force/tendon is 0.85 fp Ap = 0.85
× 736 = 626kN and the required tendon spacing in each direction is therefore

Select a tendon spacing of 1200 mm in each direction with each tendon stressed
to 626 kN, the revised prestressing forces at the jack per metre width are:

and at mid-span, after all losses,

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 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

The load to be balanced is revised using Equation 5.56:

and

and therefore

wb = 3.2 + 1.9 = 5.10 kPa

Flexural strength check

It is necessary to check the ultimate strength of the slab. As previously calculated,

the dead load is 1.5+4.3 = 5.8 kPa and the live load is 5.0 kPa.

The factored design load (using the load factors specified in AS 3600–1988

The design moments at mid-span in each direction are obtained from Equation
5.59 with values of βx = 0.047 and βy = 0.028 taken from Table 5.15:

The maximum design moment occurs over the beam support CD (the long
continuous edge) and is

A safe, lower bound solution to the problem of adequate ultimate strength

will be obtained if the design strength of the slab at this section exceeds the
design moment.

The ultimate strength per metre width of the 180 mm thick slab containing
tendons at 1200 mm centres (i.e. Ap=400/1.2 = 333 mm2/m) at an effective
depth of 143 mm is obtained.

Such an analysis indicates that the cross-section is ductile, with the depth to
the neutral axis at ultimate equal to 24.5 mm (or 0.17d), which is much less
than the maximum limiting value of 0.4d. The tensile force in the steel is 583
kN/m (σpu = 1750 MPa) and the strength is:

Conventional reinforcement is required to supplement the prestressed steel over

the beam support CD. From Equation 4.27, with the internal lever armltaken to
be 0.9d, the required area of additional non-prestressed steel is approximated
by:

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175 RC D 4 8 01/1


Try 12 mm diameter bars (fy = 400 MPa) at 300 mm centres as additional

steel in the top of the slab over beam support CD. With this additional steel
in place, an ultimate strength analysis of the cross-section indicates that the
depth to the neutral axis increases to 30.7 mm (0.21d) and Mu = 95.4 kN m/m.

Therefore, ∅Mu = 76.3 kNm/m > Mx*

which is acceptable.

Checking strength at other critical sections indicates that:

(a) at mid-span in the x-direction:

No additional reinforcement is required at mid-span in the x-direction.

(b) At mid-span in the y-direction:

No additional reinforcement required at mid-span in the y-direction.

(c) At the short continuous supports:

No additional reinforcement is required at the short continuous support.

Summary of reinforcement requirements

Tendons consisting of four 12.7 mm strands at 1200 mm centres in each

direction are used with the profiles shown in Figures 5.48c and d. In addition,
12mm diameter non-prestressed reinforcing bars in the x-direction at 300 mm
centres are also placed in the top of the slab over the long support CD.

5.7.2 Serviceability of two-way slabs

5.7.2.1 Introduction
Prestressed concrete slabs are typically thin in relation to their spans and,
although possessing adequate strength, may not possess adequate stiffness. If
a slab is too thin, it may suffer excessively large deflections when fully loaded
or exhibit excessive camber after transfer.

The initial selection of the thickness of a slab is usually governed by the

serviceability requirements for the member. The selection is often based on
personal experience or on recommended maximum span to depth ratios. Whilst
providing a useful starting point in design, such a selection of slab thickness
does not necessarily ensure serviceability.

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176
 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

5.7.2.2 Initial sizing of slabs guidelines

In South Africa, it is common practice to use span-depth ratios in the range
28 for heavily loaded slabs, to 40 or 42 for lightly loaded slabs, such as slabs
for domestic dwellings, or roofs. Table 5.19 can also be used.

TABLE 5.19
proposed span-depth ratios for prestressed slabs [6]

Type of construction Loading Span/Depth ratio

Flat plates Light 30 to 48

Normal 34 to 42

Heavy 28 to 36

Waffle slabs Heavy 28 to 32

The following semi empirical formula is used to estimate the depth of the slab
at preliminary stage

Equation 5.63

Where:

PL = Permanent load in kPa (3.5 is a creep factor)

L = Live load in kPa

Q = proportion of permanent load carried by prestress. (The factor of 3.5 for

creep is multiplied

by 0.9 to allow for possible losses.)

K1 = Factor for end span or internal span: K1 = 0.90 for end span and K1 =
1.0 for internal span

K2 = Factor for cracking by temperature stress or shrinkage

K2 = 0.95 if cracking is likely

K2 = 1.0 if it is not

K3 = (Ec / 26)1/3 where E is the expected short-term E of the concrete to be

used (26 GPa is the expected E of C30 concrete (30MPa)

K4 = Factor for drops or flat plates: K4 = 1 for flat plates and K4 = 1.15 for slab
with adequate drops

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177 RC D 4 8 01/1


Although permissible span-to-depth ratios may be used for preliminary design,

deflections should always be calculated for the final design and compared
with permissible values.

5.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

(1) Determine the geometric properties of the section below using the list
presented in Figure 5.49

FIGURE 5.49
Geometric properties of an I section

(2) Consider a 15m span simply supported pretensioned beam with a section
as shown below in Figure 5.50. It has an initial prestressed force of 1100kN
and carries a uniformly distributed imposed load of 12kN/m. Determine
the extreme fibre stresses at mid-span under the self-weight of the beam
if the short-term losses are 10% and the eccentricity is 325 mm below
the beam centroid. Determine the same stresses under the service load
when the prestress force has been reduced by a further 10%

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 CHAP T ER   5:  Pr e s t r e ss e d co n c r e te b e a ms a n d s l a b s d e si g n

FIGURE 5.50
Elastic stresses calculation of a simply supported prestressed beam

(3)
Use Magnel equations to design in flexure a class 1 prestressed concrete
T-beam which is simply supported over a span of 18m.The beam supports
a uniformly distributed live load of 5.8 kN/m and a superimposed dead
load of 0.6 kN/m. Assume fcu = 45 MPa and fci = 35 MPa, all prestress
losses = 17% (η = 0.83) Use provisions SANS 10100-1 provisions where
necessary. Also check the shear.

FIGURE 5.51
Magnel method and shear stress of a prestressed T-beam

(4)
Determine the tendons required in the 220 mm thick flat slab shown in
the Figure 5.52, below. The live load on the slab is 3 kPa and the dead
load 1 kPa, plus the slab self-weight. All columns are 600 mm by 600 mm
and 4 m long above and below the slab. At the top of each column, a 300
mm column capital is used to increase the supported area, as shown.

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179 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 5.52
Prestressed slab

5.9 REFERENCES
[1] Nawy E D, 2003. Prestressed Concrete – A fundamental approach.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers, State
University of New Jersey, Fourth Edition.

[2] https://youtu.be/91fCagGP5Is

[3] Gilbert R I and Mickleborough N C, 2005. Design of prestressed concrete,

School of Civil Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney,
Australia. Spon Press – Taylor & Francis Group.

[4] V Marshall and J M Robberts, 2000. First Edition. Midrand, South Africa.
Prestressed Concrete – Design and Practice, Concrete Society of Southern
Africa, Prestressed Concrete Division.

[5] The Structural Use of Concrete – Part 1: Design, The South African
Standard, Code of Practice, SANS 10100-1, 2000.

[6] Joint Structural Division of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering,
and the Institution of Structural Engineers. Design of prestressed concrete
flat slabs, Report No 2, ISBN 0–620-17667-9.

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180
CHAPTER
6  6

Deep foundations – pile and Caisson

6

design

6.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

FIGURE 6.1
Concrete piles foundation

FIGURE 6.2
Construction site caisson foundation

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181 RC D 4 8 01/1


Deep foundations are used when the soil strata underneath the building
forming the structure are not capable of supporting the load safely in terms of
acceptable settlement and shear failure.

In this module, two types of deep foundation will be discussed, namely,

concrete piles and caissons, sometimes referred to as piers or wells foundation,
as shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2, above.

In this chapter on the design of piles and caissons, it is assumed that you have
a prior background of geotechnical engineering design, as more emphasis is
put on structural aspects of design of concrete elements. At the end of this
chapter, you will be able to design concrete piles and caissons using SANS
10100-1. The assessment criteria are therefore summarised as follows:

Outcome Assessment criteria

Apply the understanding of • Understand the difference between shallow and

structural analysis, loadings, deep foundations
drawing and computer literacy • Understand different classifications of piles,
to design deep foundations, e.g. according to load transfer, material used, and
namely concrete piles and method of installation
caissons • Be able to define the limit states of piles, e.g.
Ultimate and Serviceability limit states load,
resistance factors
• Be able to define and calculate the tip resistance
and the shaft resistance, including structural
design, of pile shafts.
• Be able to perform static analysis and design of
piles using in situ tests, e.g. Cone Penetration Test
- CPT, Standard Penetration Test - SPT
• Be able to perform dynamic analysis of piles –
dynamic formulae
• Analyse laterally loaded piles, e.g. Long flexible piles
displacement and maximum moment and short
flexible piles – displacement and maximum moment.
• Be able to design pile groups, e.g. Ultimate
capacity, and group efficiency
• Caissons design
• Present pile and caisson designs using drawings
created in Prokon software (Assignments)

Piles are relatively long, slender members that are driven into the ground or
cast-in-situ. In contrast piers, caissons or wells are larger structures constructed
by excavation and that are sunk to the required depth on firm soil strata or rocks.
They are normally used to carry very heavy loads, such as those from bridge
piers or multi-storeyed buildings. It is often difficult to distinguish between
piles and piers as some foundations combine features of both.

History reveals that pile foundations have been around for quite a while,
that is since several hundred years ago. It has been shown that the use of
the piling technique can be traced back to the 4th century BCE when Greek
and Roman engineers used this technique to build structures on the banks of
the Mediterranean coast [1]. Though undocumented, there are references of

...........
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 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

piling techniques adopted by Swiss lake dwellers to elevate their dwellings

to protect the occupants against attacks. (Tritech Ground Engineering, 2011.)
in the early days of civilisation, most villages were situated near rivers for
defence, strategic, communications or transportation purposes [1]. Therefore,
it was important to strengthen the bearing ground with piling. The earliest
types of piles available were timber piles which were driven into the ground
by manual labour, or by first digging a pit, planting the piles, and strengthening
the base with sand and stones. A breakthrough in modern piling techniques
can be attributed to Christoffer Phloem who, in 1740, invented pile-driving
equipment. Steel piles have been used since the 1800s, while the concrete
pile was introduced around 1900 [1]. Today, pile foundations are as frequently
as used as any other type of deep foundation where the soil conditions are
unfavourable.

6.1.1 Type of foundations

A quick reminder of the most common types of foundation found in the
construction industry is necessary for the introduction of the subject of pile
and caisson design. There are many types of foundations, among which one
can mention the following:

6.1.1.1 Shallow Foundation

This classification indicates the depth of the foundation relative to its size,
as well as the depth of the soil that provides most of the support. According
to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its
width, and deep when its depth exceeds its width. In this category of shallow
foundations, one can specifically mention the following:

6.1.1.1.1 Pad Foundation or Spread Footing

A pad foundation or spread footing is usually used to support a single point

load coming from a support column. The geometrical shape of the padding
could be anything – circular, square or rectangular – depending upon the
requirements. The pad could be of uniform thickness, or it could be stepped
or hunched if this is required to spread the load from a large column to the
maximum surface area underneath.

6.1.1.1.2 Strip Foundation or Spread Footing

Unlike the spread footing or pad foundation that supports a high-intensity point
load, a strip foundation supports line load which may or may not be high in
intensity. The strip foundation can be used in most subsoils, but better results
are yielded if the subsoil has a relatively good load-bearing capacity.

6.1.1.1.3 Mat or Raft Foundation

A mat foundation – also called a raft foundation – can be defined as a large

slab, with or without beams for stiffening – which supports the columns and
walls and transferring the load from the structure to the ground. This type of
a foundation is usually used when the allowable bearing capacity is too low

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183 RC D 4 8 01/1


and the excess pressure could result in non-acceptable settlement that might
render the structure unsafe.

6.1.1.2 Deep foundation

A foundation is classified as a deep foundation if its depth (D) is greater than
twice the width (B) of the base of the foundation footing, i.e. if, D>2B. In
other words, a deep foundation is one which has a depth of embedment (D)
larger than twice the foundation width (2B). Figure 6.3 illustrates the difference
between the two types of foundation.

FIGURE 6.3
Shallow versus deep foundation [Google image]

This type of foundation is usually used if the load-bearing capacity of the

underlying soil layers is very poor and a shallow foundation would not be a
viable option. Pile foundations are the part of a civil structure designed to carry
and transfer the load and other forces arising from the superstructure above
it to the bearing ground. In some cases, the transfer of forces to the ground is
done through friction and the pile is then called friction pile.

6.1.2 Pile foundation classification

Pile foundations can be better defined by their function as columnar elements
which transfer load from the superstructure through weak compressible strata
or through water onto stiffer or more compact and less compressible soils, or
onto rock. In the case of tall structures subjected to overturning forces from
winds or waves, they may be required to carry uplift loads. Piles used in marine
structures are subjected to lateral loads from the impact of berthing ships and
from waves. Piles can also carry a combination of vertical and horizontal loads
that are usually created by retaining walls, bridge piers and abutments, and
machinery foundations.

Piles may be classified in a certain number of ways, but for the sake of simplicity,
and due to the fact that this course will put more emphasis on the structural

...........
184
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

design of piles than on their geotechnical aspects, one can present the following
classification:

6.1.2.1 Classification of piles based on load transfer and functional behaviour [2]
Piles can be classified based on the way they interreact with the surrounding
ground in terms of load transfer mechanism. The ground bearing capacity and
other specific requirements of the ground dictate which types of piles can be
used and what load transfer method should be employed. The different types
of piles are introduced below:

6.1.2.1.1 End bearing piles

In general, end-bearing piles transfer the load through their tips onto suitable
bearing strata of soil or rock. In this system, the piles act as columns for load
transfer, through weaker layers or water.

6.1.2.1.2 Friction piles

Contrary to the end bearing piles, friction piles do not transfer the load directly
to the bedrock, instead, the support capacity develops from the resistance of
the soil friction and adhesion mobilised along the pile. In other words, the
load transfer to any depth is done through friction of material by means of
skin friction along the surface area of the pile. A friction pile is mostly used
where the ground beneath is mainly soft clay and where it is difficult to find
stable bedrock at a plausible depth.

6.1.2.1.3 Combined end-bearing and friction pile

Combined end-bearing and friction pile is a pile in which the bearing capacity
is developed from a combined end-bearing resistance at the bottom tip and
adhesion resistance between pile surface and surrounding material surface. In
most cases, piles are driven deep enough to gain sufficient frictional resistance.
In some cases, the bearing area at the bottom is increased by forcing a bulb
of concrete just above the tip to enlarge the area around.

6.1.2.1.4 Batter piles

When a pile foundation is inclined with reference to the vertical, such a pile
system is called a batter pile. In a batter pile system, the piles are used to resist
horizontal and inclined forces, especially in waterfront structures.

6.1.2.1.5 Tension or uplift piles

Piles constructed as anchor structures are designed to resist all forces emanating
from uplift due to hydrostatic pressure or to overturning moment due to
horizontal forces.

6.1.2.1.6 Sheet piles

These piles are commonly used as bulkheads, or cut-offs to reduce seepage

and uplift in hydraulic structures.

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6.1.2.1.7 Laterally loaded piles or soldier piles

These piles are normally used to support retaining walls, bridges, dams, and
wharves and as fenders for harbour construction.

6.1.2.2 Classification of piles based on material used and composition [2]

Several different materials have been used for piling in construction, depending
on their availability, costs and project requirements – thus prompting a
classification of piles according to the material composition. The following
pile materials are frequently used:

6.1.2.2.1 Timber

Timber is generally used as piling material in places where it is found in

abundance, especially for projects such as light housing schemes, light bridges
underneath embankments and so on. Piling requires timber of good quality,
generally of sizeable dimensions, e.g. length 8 m, diameter 30 to 40 cm.
Maximum design load is about 250 kN. Timber piles perform well either
in fully dry condition or submerged condition, but alternating wet and dry
conditions reduce their design life.

6.1.2.2.2 Concrete piles

Concrete piles are among the most commonly used type of piles in construction
industry. These may be ‘precast’ or ‘cast-in-situ’. Precast piles are reinforced to
withstand handling stresses during casting and installation. They require space
for casting and storage, more time to cure and heavy equipment for handling
and driving. Cast-in-situ piles are installed by pre-excavation, thus eliminating
vibration due to driving and handling. The common types are Raymond piles,
MacArthur piles and Franki piles.

6.1.2.2.3 Steel piles

Steel piles are usually H-piles (rolled H-shape), pipe piles, or sheet piles (rolled
sections of regular shapes). They may carry loads up to 1000 kN or more. Steel
piles generally provide a higher bending resistance when laterally loaded in
an unsupported case. Corrosion is one of the major problems that need to be
considered during the design.

6.1.2.2.4 Composite piles

Composite piles are also referred to as hybrid piles because of their different
material properties. Two different materials are assembled such that they act
and function together as one single pile and so that the beneficial properties
of each of the materials is well utilised. The most common composite piles
are a combination of steel, concrete and reinforcement. Such a combination
is effective when the design length of the pile is greater than allowed for cast-
in-situ piles. Composite piles are not considered an economical option and
are used only in exceptional cases.

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6.1.2.3 Classification of piles on the method of installation and effect on soil [2]
The installation of the piles can be done in several ways. The effect of installation
varies based on the process of pile installation. Two most common installation
methods with a distinct effect on the ground are explained below.

6.1.2.3.1 Driven piles

Driven piles are also called displacement piles due to the process involved
in piling. During the process, the piles are driven and the soil is moved as
the pile enters the ground. The movement of the soil could also be vertical,
depending upon how loose or compacted the soil layer is. A foundation based
on driven piles can resist compressive, uplift and lateral loads. Driven piles
can also be used to provide lateral support during the construction of earth
retaining walls. The most common types of driven piles are precast concrete,
steel sheet piles and unconcreted steel tube piles. Several other materials can
also be used to build with a high degree of tolerance. Driven piles maintain
their shape during the installation process, as seen in this video 6.1: Driving
of square concrete foundation piles (4:55)

6.1.2.3.2 Bored piles

Bored piles require extra work for boring the earth to make way for the pile.
At site, boring is done to make a void and then piles are cast as cast-in-situ
concrete piles. Depending upon soil conditions, a casing may be required. For
example, in unstable ground such as gravel, casings should be used for casting,
but placing only a cloth at the bottom is sufficient where there is hard soil. A
bored piling machine is used for casting the drilled shaft. The machine has a
specially designed drilling tool, buckets, and grabs that are used to remove
the soil and rock, as shown in this video 6.2, Bored piles construction step
by step (7:50)

6.1.2.4 British classification of piles [3]

The British Standard Code of Practice for Foundations (BS 8004:1986) places
piles in three categories. These are as follows:

6.1.2.4.1 Large displacement piles

Large displacement piles are comprised of solid-section piles or hollow-section

piles with a closed-end. These are driven or jacked into the ground and thus
displace the soil. All types of driven and cast-in-place piles come into this
category. Large diameter screw piles and rotary displacement auger piles are
increasingly used for piling in contaminated land and soft soils.

Subcategory 1: Large displacement piles (driven types)

(1) Timber (round or square section, jointed or continuous)

(2) Precast concrete (solid or tubular section in continuous or jointed units)
(3) Prestressed concrete (solid or tubular section)
(4) Steel tube (driven with closed end)
(5) Steel box (driven with closed end)
(6) Fluted and tapered steel tube

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(7) Jacked-down steel tube with closed-end

(8) Jacked-down solid concrete cylinder.

Subcategory 2: Large displacement piles (driven and cast-in-place types)

(1) Steel tube is driven and withdrawn after placing concrete

(2) Steel tube driven with closed end, left in place and filled with reinforced
concrete
(3) Precast concrete shell filled with concrete
(4) Thin-walled steel shell driven by withdrawable mandrel and then filled
with concrete
(5) Rotary displacement auger and screw piles
(6) Expander body.

6.1.2.4.2 Small displacement piles

These are also driven or jacked into the ground but have a relatively small
cross-sectional area. They include rolled steel H or I-sections and pipe or
box sections driven with an open end such that the soil enters the hollow
section. Where these pile types plug with soil during driving, they become
large displacement types.

The following pile types form part of the small displacement pile category:

(1) Precast concrete (tubular section driven with open end)

(2) Prestressed concrete (tubular section driven with open end)
(3) Steel H-section
(4) Steel tube section (driven with open end and soil removed as required)
(5) Steel box section (driven with open end and soil removed as required).

6.1.2.4.3 Replacement piles

These are formed by first removing the soil by boring using a wide range of
drilling techniques. Concrete may be placed into an unlined or lined hole, or
the lining may be withdrawn as the concrete is placed. Preformed elements
of timber, concrete or steel may be placed in drilled holes. Continuous flight
auger (CFA) piles have become the dominant type of pile in, for instance, the
UK for structures on land.

Forming part of the replacement pile category are the following:

(1) Concrete placed in hole drilled by rotary auger, baling, grabbing, airlift
or reverse circulation methods (bored and cast-in-place)
(2) Tubes placed in hole drilled as above and filled with concrete as necessary
(3) Precast concrete units placed in a drilled hole
(4) Cement mortar or concrete injected into a drilled hole
(5) Steel sections placed in a drilled hole
(6) Steel tube drilled down.

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6.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

6.2.1 Introduction
In the past, and even today, pile foundation structures are still being designed
using the stress working method called also allowable stress design. This
method consists of applying a global safety factor against the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil in order to obtain the safe working load. The following
genera l equation is then used:

(Equation 6.1) [4]

Where: L is the applied load to be safely carried
Ru is the ultimate resistance, and
F is the safety factor, varying generally between 2 and 3
Locally, the Geotechnical Division of the South African Institution of Civil
Engineering (SAICE), on behalf of the geotechnical fraternity, has adopted
Eurocode as a reference and basis of all their future designs. As a result, the
limit state design has also been adopted as a preferred recommended design
method for all geotechnical problems. Being an international code, Eurocode
allows countries that adopt it to write local annexes to reflect local conditions.
This process in underway locally, with the South African National Annex
currently being drafted to replace SANS10160-5. The new annex will be then
serve to complement the loading code SANS10160.
There are two main limit states: the ultimate limit state and the service limit
state that control, respectively, the strength and the functionality of a structure.
Drilling further down, five major limit states can be identified as follows:
(1) Loss of equilibrium (EQU)
(2) Internal failure or excessive deformation of structure or structural element
(STR, STR-P)
(3) Failure or excessive deformation of ground (GEO)
(4) Loss of equilibrium due to upliftment (UPL), and
(5) Hydraulic heave or internal erosion (HYD)
Other limit states, such as accidental actions, overall stability and durability
can also be checked if relevant to perfect the limit state method.

The ultimate limit state design implies satisfaction of equations ensuring a safe
functioning of structure by choosing the partial factors γ of actions (loads or
deformations) and resistance factors ϕ (material properties) that will achieve
the chosen level of probability of success. These equations are of the form:
γ L < ϕ R (Equation 6.2) [4]
In the case of complex loading and multiple resistances, Equation 6.2 becomes:
∑γi Li < ∑γi Ri (Equation 6.3) [4]
where γi is the load factors; Li is the loads; ϕi is the resistance factors and Ri is
the resistances.
This approach of using load and resistance factors makes it possible to address
separately the uncertainty associated with each load and each resistance.
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For South African designs, one has to verify the ultimate limit states by means
of two independent sets of calculations as follows:

• Using SANS 10160 as STR limit state or DA-1-1 in EN1997-1: this verification
controls the design most of the time. In this category is the STR-P which is
used for self-weight dominated structures.
• The GEO limit state, or DA-1-2 in EN1997-1, often control the failure of
ground.

Other limit states, such as loss of equilibrium (EQU) and accidental and seismic
actions (ACC) may also exist and be checked.

6.2.2 Ultimate limit state load and resistance factors

Improperly designed pile foundations can fail due to many reasons, amongst
which the most important are:

• the bearing capacity failure of the pile soil system

• an excessive settlement due to compression and consolidation of the
underlying soil, or
• a structural failure of the pile shaft or its connection to the pile cap.

In addition, pile foundations may perform unsatisfactorily due to:

• an excessive settlement or bearing capacity failure caused by improper

installation methods
• structural failure resulting from detrimental pile-installation procedures, or
• structural failure related to environmental conditions.

Apart from the last factor mentioning the environmental conditions, all the rest
are clearly design-related factors. This highlights why the design process must
be taken seriously and why designs must also be robust with safety features
built inside.

Definition of a geotechnical parameter characteristic value

A characteristic value of a geotechnical parameter is a value which determines

the probability of a worse value governing the occurrence of the limit state
under consideration and which is not greater than 5%. The code also permits
the definition of a cautious estimate of a value affecting the occurrence of the
limit state under consideration.

Similarly, to equation 6.3, design actions are calculated by multiplying

the characteristic values of the action or action effect by a practical factor
corresponding to the relevant limit state and load type.

Combination factors are used with accompanying variable actions (Qki) to

consider the probability of simultaneous occurrence of the accompanying
action with the corresponding leading variable action (Qki). In general, the
design action Ld can be calculated as:

Ld = ∑ γG,i x Gk,i + γQ1 × Qk,1 + ∑ γQ,i × ϕi × Qk,i (Equation 6.4) [5]

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Combination of action for accidental and seismic (Ad) design (ACC) is then:

Ld = ∑ γG,i × Gk,i + ∑ γQ,i × ϕi × Qk,i + Ad (Equation 6.5) [5]

The design value of a geotechnical parameter is determined by dividing the

characteristics value by a partial material factor. Table 6.1 presents partial
action factors and partial resistance factors as per SANS 10160

TABLE 6.1
Partial action, material, and resistance factors (SANS 10160) [5]

STR STR-P GEO ACC

(DA1-1) (DA1-1) (DA1-2)

Actions
Partial Action Factors

Permanent unfavourable 1.2 1.35 1.0 1.0

Permanent unfavourable 0.9 - 1.0 1.0

Variable leading unfavourable 1.6/1.3(1) 1.0 1.3 1.0

Variable accompanying unfavourable 1.6/1.3(2)ϕ 1.0ϕ 1.3ϕ 1.0

Variable leading favourable 0 0 0 0

Soil Parameters

Angle of shear resistance ∅’ 1.0 1.0 1.25(3) -

Partial material and resistance factors

Cohesion c’ 1.0 1.0 1.25 -

Undrained shear strength cu 1.0 1.0 1.4 -

Unconfined strength qu 1.0 1.0 1.4 -

Weight density γ 1.0 1.0 1.0 -

Resistances

Pile combined – compression (4) 1.0 1.0 1.6 1.0

Pile shaft – tension (4) 1.25 1.25 1.7 1.0

Pre-stressed anchors 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

Notes:

(1) Values apply to variable actions other than wind, and wind respectively
(2) ϕ is an action combination factor
(3) This factor is applied to tan ∅’
(4) These factors might be altered in the NA to EN1997-1 for SA to include
values for various pile types.

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6.2.3 Serviceability limit state load and resistance factors

The design for serviceability of pile foundations is verified using the following
equations:

• Irreversible serviceability combination

Ld = ∑ γG,i × Gk,i + γQ1 × Qk,1 + ∑ γQ,i × ϕi x Qk,i (Equation 6.6) [5]

• Reversible and long-term serviceability combination

Ld = ∑ γG,i × Gk,i + ∑ γQ,i × ϕi x Qk,i + Ad (Equation 6.7) [5]

Serviceability limit state partial factors are given in Table 6.2, below.

TABLE 6.2
Partial factors for serviceability limit state combination [5]

Serviceability limit state γG,unfav γG,fav γQ,wind γo

Irreversible 1.1 1.0 0.6 1

Reversible & long term 1.1 1.0 - -

All partial factors for geotechnical material properties and resistances are
taken as 1.

6.2.4 Correlation factors as per Eurocode 7

Eurocode 7 recommends the use of coefficient of correlation for the design of
axially loaded piles by static, dynamic and ‘model tested pile’ methods. In the
first two cases, the characteristic value of pile resistance Rk, is determined from
the mean and minimum pile capacity of measures or estimated pile capacities,
each divided by a correlation factor. This equation is as follows:

(Equation 6.8) [6]

For the ‘model tested pile’ at different ground investigation points on a site,
the overall mean and minimum of the pile capacities over the site must be
established and each must be divided by a correlation factor ζ. The value of
ζdepends on the type of test, the number of piles tested or ground investigation
points on site. Recommended values of correlation factors are given in Eurocode
7, but each country specifies its own set of values. Below are UK National
Annex (2014) values presented in Table 6.3 [4]

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TABLE 6.3
Correlation factor ζ to derive characteristic values from static pile load tests (BSI,
2014) [5]

ζ for n 1 2 3 4 5

ζ1 1.55 1.47 1.42 1.38 1.35

ζ2 1.55 1.35 1.23 1.15 1.08

Note: ζ1 is applied to the mean value and ζ2 is applied to the min value

TABLE 6.4
Correlation factor ζ to derive characteristic values from ground tests results (BSI,
2014) [5]

ζ for n 1 2 3 4 5 7 10

ζ3 1.55 1.47 1.42 1.38 1.36 1.33 1.30

ζ4 1.55 1.39 1.33 1.29 1.26 1.20 1.15

Note: ζ3 is applied to the mean value and ζ4 is applied to the min value

The design resistance of the pile, Rd is then given by the following formula:

(Equation 6.9) [5]

γR and γRd are taken from Table 6.1. If the “model” pile method is used, the
value of γRd is 1 and 1.4 for the alternative method.

6.2.5 Structural design of pile shafts

6.2.5.1 Material strength and properties

The design of the pile shaft is normally carried out according to the concrete
grade and yield streel strength as provided in Tables 6.5 and 6.6. It is based
on an appropriate characteristic strength of reinforcement.

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TABLE 6.5
Characteristic strength of concrete [5]

Grade Characteristic Cube strength at an age of

Strength fcu (MPa)
3 months (MPa) 6 months (MPa) 1 year (MPa)

20 20 23 24 25

25 25 29 30 31

30 30 34 35 36

40 40 44 46 48

50 50 54 56 58

TABLE 6.6
Characteristic strength of reinforcement steel [5]

Designation of reinforcement Nominal sizes (mm) Characteristics

strength f y (MPa)

Hot rolled mild steel (SABS 920) All sizes 23

Hot rolled high yield steel (SABS 920) All sizes 29

Cold worked high yield steel (SABS 920) All sizes 34

Hard drawn steel wire Up to and including 12 54

Exceptional cases of pile design using a characteristic value of 5MPa for cast-in
piles with a temporary casing or 10MPa for deep cast-in-situ under water or
bentonite were mentioned in literature. Some 10Pa CFA piles were also were
mentioned, depending on their depth and diameter.

Durability

Always check the chemistry of the ground in terms of aggressivity towards the
concrete to be used for pilling and specify accordingly the shaft materials. The
Portland Cement Institute can be approached for this or relevant literature
may be consulted.

6.2.5.2 Pile shaft design

The structural design of pile shafts is based on SANS 10100-1: 2000: The
structural use of concrete Part 1: Design. This code has adopted the limit state
design philosophy but does not cover specifically the design of pile shafts,
thus, some kind of interpretation is then required.

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Pile shafts are normally analysed as columns with varying degrees of fixity at
the head and toe of the pile shaft. When the pile shaft is fully embedded in soil
and has remained so throughout its working life span, the pile can be analysed
as a stiff braced axially loaded column, as given in Clause 4.4 of SANS 10100.
Different fixity conditions have been highlighted by Tomlinson in Figure 6.4.

Learners are encouraged to consult Tomlinson book [3] to deepen their

understanding of geotechnical engineering aspects of this section.

FIGURE 6.4
Pile head fixity conditions after Tomlinson (2015) [3]

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195 RC D 4 8 01/1
 In a pile group, piles are fully embedded and the pile shaft is designed as short
braced axially loaded column with allowance made for eccentricity due to
construction tolerances. The ultimate axial load N for a short column without
significant moments is given by the following:

N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.67 Asc f y (Equation 6.10a) [5]

Where: fcu = the characteristic strength of concrete

Ac = Area of the concrete

Asc = The area of longitudinal reinforcement
Fy = The characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement

When there is no moment at all, the reinforcement must be able to resist the
ultimate axial load given by the following:

N = 0.4 fcu Ac (Equation 6.10b) [5]

Design of spiral reinforcement

Most often, the section of piles is circular as illustrated in the figure below
and the spiral reinforcement is used to confine the main reinforcement, thus
increasing the ultimate axial capacity of the piles. The following equation is
then used.

N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.67 Asc f y + 1.36 Vsp f yp (Equation 6.11a)

Where: Vsp = π Asp Dk / p

µsp = Vsp / Ak >= µsp (min) and

µsp (min) = 0.36 (Equation 6.11b)

Ak = Area of core of spirally reinforced column measured to the outside

diameter of spiral
Dk = Diameter of the cross-sectional core
Vsp = Volume of spiral reinforcement in one spiral’s pitch (p)
p = Pitch of spiral (centre to centre spacing of the spiral reinforcement)
µsp = Volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core
Asp = Cross sectional area of spiral reinforcement.

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6.2.5.3 Design for lifting of reinforced concrete piles

The lifting of prefabricated reinforced concrete piles or concrete prestressed
piles, from fabrication to installation, creates bending stresses that need to
be taken into account during the design of the piles. Sometimes, the amount
of longitudinal reinforcement due to the bending of piles during the lifting
governs the entire structural design of the piles, as the resistance to flexure of
piles is low (slender element). The length and the cross section of the pile is
first determined by the geotechnical considerations of the site, and then the
pick-up points are selected depending on the type of piling plant and cranage
to be used. The bending moment due to the factored self-weight of the pile is
calculated corresponding to the selected pick-up point. The design bending
resistance M of the pile as a beam is then determined and compared to the
applied design bending moment Ma so that Ma ≤ M

Table 6.7 gives the bending moments due to self-weight when square piles
are lifted at various pick-up points.

FIGURE 6.5
Methods of lifting prefabricated reinforced concrete piles [3]

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TABLE 6.7
Bending moments induced by lifting and pitching piles

Condition Maximum static bending moment

Lifting by two points at L/5 from each end WL/40 (Figure 6.3a)
Lifting by two points at L/4 from each end WL/32 (Figure 6.3b)
Pitching by one point 3L/10 from head WL/22 (Figure 6.3c)
Pitching by one point L/3 from head WL/18 (Figure 6.3d)
Pitching by one point L/4 from head WL/18 (Figure 6.3e)
Pitching by one point L/5 from head WL/14 (Figure 6.3f)
Pitching from head WL/8 (Figure 6.3g)
Lifting from centre WL/8 (Figure 6.3h)

6.2.5.4 Practical requirements

• Minimum steel reinforcement is 0.8% of ‘required column area’ or 0.4%
of the ‘actual column area’, whichever is greater.
• When ultimate axial load does exceed N above, with no moment, the
longitudinal reinforcement should be not less than1.0% of the ‘actual
column area’.
• If piles are resisting significant moment and axial loads, clauses 4.7.4.1
and 4.7.4.2 of SANS should be used. Note that the code deals only with
rectangular section. For circular column sections resisting combined axial
load and moments, tables published by BSB110-1:1997 should rather be used.
• Sections of pile designed for shear and axial load (compression or tension)
should be checked as per clause 4.3.4.4 of SANS 10100 Part 1. The design
stress v’c is calculated using equation:

v’c = vc + (Equation 6.12)

vc = The design shear stress of concrete (see clause 4.3.4.1), which should
not be adjusted in accordance with 4.3.4.2
N = The design axial force
V = The design shear force due to ultimate loads
h = The overall depth
Ac = The gross area of concrete section. N/Ac is intended to be the average
stress in the concrete, acting at the centroid of the section), and
M = The design ultimate moment at the section under consideration.
The value of V*h/M should be taken as not greater than 1

Where it is necessary to avoid shear cracking prior to the ultimate limit

state, the shear stress should be limited to the value given by this equation:

v’c = vc (1 + N / Ac vc)0.5 (Equation 6.13)

if v exceeds v’c shear reinforcement should be provided as in in 4.3.4.1 but

using v’c instead of vc. The value of v should not exceed the limiting values
given in 4.3.4.1.1

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6.3 RESISTANCE OF PILES TO LOADING

The assessment of the resistance capacity of a pile foundation is a complex
problem in the sense that its behaviour is governed by the pile/soil
interaction, combining the structural capacity of the pile itself and the strength
characteristics of the surrounding ground.

The structural strength of the pile is defined by its mechanical properties,

which are normally well known, and the design is carried out using existing
well-established design principles in structural engineering. One example of
assumption made in pile design is to consider a pile as a column subjected to
vertical or horizontal forces in a restraint or confined soil medium.

The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile is the maximum load which it can carry
without failure or excessive settlement of the ground. In other words, it is the
capacity of the soil to carry the loads transferred by the pile without failure.
This capacity depends primarily on the type of soil through which it passes
and/or on which it rests, the strength and stiffness of the soil, and on the pile
installation method.

6.3.1 Pile behaviour under axial load

The loading is exerted from the top of the pile through its shaft, where the
latter is regarded as a structural column that is fixed at the toe point and usually
restrained at the top. Assuming that there is no buckling of the pile shaft, the
ordinary pile in sand or clay is normally designed as a short column. The
transfer mechanism of the load into the soil happens in two ways:

• At small loads, the load transfer occurs almost entirely by frictional shear
along the surface of the pile – called ‘skin friction’, and
• When the load increases, the friction transfer also increases before reaching
its ultimate value, when the load is then transferred to the base of the pile,
through the tip-in compression, termed ‘end-bearing’ or ‘point-bearing’.

It has been proven, as illustrated in Figure 6.6, that the full pile skin friction
capacity is mobilised at relatively small deflections (less than 15 mm) while
the full pile end-bearing capacity is mobilised at relatively large deflections
(approximately 10% of the pile base diameter.[4]

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FIGURE 6.6
Idealised compressive curve of pile behaviour [5]

The idealised behaviour of a pile in compression is presented in Figure 6.6,

where one can distinguish the following points:

• Point A – the load is totally resisted by the skin friction (Figure 6.6A).
• Section A to B – the load is still increasing with the skin friction reaching its
maximum value in B. The hysteresis phenomenon is observed (Figure 6.6B).
• Point C – while the end bearing resistance is increasing, the end point
deflection reaches approximately 10% of the pile base diameter. End bearing
resistance reaches its ultimate resistance value and the pile is on the point
of failure (Figure 6.6 C).
• Section C to D – just a small increase in load will result in a large deflection
of the pile, bringing it to failure. No hysteresis phenomenon is observed
in this range.

6.3.2 Methods of evaluating axial load capacity of piles

The large variety of pile types, as presented in section 6.1, and the diversity in
their methods of installation are good indications as to how diverse and how
numerous are methods of evaluating axial loads in piles. In order to illustrate
the complexity of the subject, PJ Bosscher presents an overview covering
different methods of calculation of pile capacity in form of a tree diagram in
Figure 6.7 [7]

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200
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.7
Tree diagram of axial load capacity analyses methods (After PJ Bosscher) [7]

6.3.2.1 Static Analysis

The load applied to a single pile is carried jointly by the soil beneath the tip
of the pile and the soil around the shaft. The maximum load that the pile can
support, which corresponds to the ultimate pile resistance, is therefore the sum
of the end-bearing resistance and the resistance due to skin friction, which is
the pile capacity:

Qp = Qb + Qs (Equation 6.14) [5]

where:

Qp = Ultimate pile resistance,

Qb = End-bearing resistance of the pile,
Qs = Skin-friction resistance of the pile.

Equation 6.1, above, is valid for normal pile geometry, with the assumption
that the friction skin resistance Qs and the end-bearing resistance Qb are not
interdependent. The evaluation of the ultimate skin friction capacity Qs is
carried out by integrating the pile/shear strength along the shaft, using the
following shear strength equation:

τ = ca + σn tan ∅s (Equation 6.15) [5]

where: τ = Pile/soil shear strength at a particular point on the shaft

ca = Pile shaft adhesion

σn = Normal stress between pile and soil
∅s = Angle of friction between pile and soil
...........
201 RC D 4 8 01/1


The pile end-bearing resistance can be re-written using the shallow foundation
design described by Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equation as follows:

Qb = Ab (cu Nc + σv Nq + 0.5 γ d Nγ) (Equation 6.16) [5]

where: Ab = Area of base

cu = Cohesion of soil
σv = Vertical stress in soil at pile tip
γ = Unit weight of soil
d = Pile diameter
Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factors depending on soil properties and pile.

Four different categories, namely cohesive soils, non-cohesive soils, c-∅ soils
and rock will be used as examples for calculation of pile capacity.

6.3.2.1.1 Piles in fine grained soils or cohesive soils

For piles in clay, the undrained resistance is generally taken to be the critical
value. The undrained shear strength cu is used for the calculation of both the
ultimate shaft and ultimate base capacities. In stiff, over-consolidated clays,
the drained rather than the undrained resistance may be the critical value and
effective stress parameters can be used. The ultimate pile capacity is given
by the following:

Qu = Qb + Qs = Nc cu Ab + Ca As (Equation 6.17) [5]

Where:

Qb = The base-end bearing capacity of both driven and bored piles:

Nc = Bearing capacity factor generally = 9 for penetration of at least five pile
diameters into the bearing stratum. Nc values up to 20 have been measured
for driven piles with an expanded base.
cu = Undrained cohesion at the pile toe
Ab = Area of pile base
Qs = The shaft capacity
Ca = Average pile-soil adhesion over pile shaft length
As = Surface area of pile shaft

Figure 6.8 shows the variation of Nc with the depth of penetration after Skempton
(1951)

...........
202
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.8
Bearing capacity factors after Skempton (1951) [5]

The calculation of the ultimate pile shaft capacity in clay is influenced by the
nature of the cohesion soil, as well as the method of installation and type of pile.

Driven piles

The traditional method of calculating the static pile load capacity uses the
undrained pile/soil adhesion ca and the undrained shear strength cu which has
been studied by several authors for driven displacement piles and is generally
equal to or greater than unity for soft clays and decreases markedly with an
increase in the undrained shear strength. The relationship giving the shaft
adhesion factor α, as defined in equation 6.5 for varying shear strengths of
clay, is given in Figure 6.9, below.

α = Ca /Cu (Equation 6.18) [5]

...........
203 RC D 4 8 01/1
 25

α= Ca/Cu (Equation 6.18) [5]



Figure 6.9: Pile adhesion factors for driven piles (After Tomlinson 1970) [5]
FIGURE 6.9
Pile adhesion factors for driven piles (After Tomlinson 1970) [5]
New research at the Imperial College of London on driven piles in clay and sand, has led to the
development
New researchof a new
at design methodology
the Imperial which
College ofisLondon
presented
onunder the static
driven piles calculation
in clay andusing
in-situ testing.
sand has led to the development of a new design methodology which is
Bored piles
presented under the static calculation using in-situ testing.
The ultimate skin friction of bored piles is calculated using the following equation:
Bored piles
Qs = Ca As (Equation 6.19) [5]

TheThe ultimate
shaft adhesionskin
factorfriction of the
α, relating bored piles
pile soil is calculated
adhesion ca and theusing the shear
undrained following
strength
cu,equation:
has been extensively studied locally and abroad for both residual and transported clay soils.
Values of α once again vary considerably, but α is generally between 0.2 and 0.8, with a trend
of α = Ca As in(Equation
Qsincreasing values given6.19) [5] 6.8. If accurate values of α are required for the
in Table
determination of pile capacity, pile testing will be required to determine the value for the particular
siteThe shaft adhesion
or measured values factor α, relating
for similar foundingthe pile soil
conditions adhesion ca and the undrained
used.
shear strength cu, has been extensively studied locally and abroad for both
residual and transported clay soils. Values of α once again vary considerably,
but α is generally between 0.2 and 0.8, with a trend of α increasing in values
given
Deep in Table
Foundations – Pile6.8.
and Caisson Design values of α are required for
If accurate the determination
OctoberAug 2 2020
of pile capacity, pile testing will be required to determine the value for the
particular site or measured values for similar founding conditions used.

...........
204
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

TABLE 6.8
Typical values of factor α and pile adhesion ca [5]

Undrained Shear SPT Dutch Cone Factor α Pile Adhesion

Strength Cu (kPa) ‘N’ Point qc (kPa) (kPa)

<10 <2 <150 1.0 <10

10–20 2–4 150–300 1.0 15

20–30 4–6 300–450 1.0 25

30–40 6–8 450–600 0.9 32

40–50 8–10 600–750 0.8 38

50–60 10–12 750–900 0.7 41

60–70 12–14 900–1050 0.6 42

70–80 14–16 1050–1200 0.55 42

80–90 16–18 1200–1350 0.50 43

90–100 18–20 1350–1500 0.45 43

100–110 20–22 1500–1650 0.40 43

110–120 22–24 1650–1800 0.38 45

120–130 24–26 1800–1950 0.36 46

130–140 26–28 1950–2100 0.34 47

140–150 28–30 2100–2250 0.32 48

150–170 30–31 2250–2750 0.30 50

170–190 31–32 2750–3250 0.29 53

190–210 32–35 3250–3750 0.28 57

210–230 35–38 3750–4350 0.27 61

230–250 38–42 4350–5000 0.26 65

250–300 42–50 5000–6300 0.25 75

300–400 50–65 6300–8800 0.22 85

400–500 >65 8800–12000 0.20 100

...........
205 RC D 4 8 01/1


6.3.2.1.2 Piles in coarse grained soils or cohesionless soils

End-Bearing Capacity

A. Driven Piles

The calculation of the capacity of piles in cohesionless soils is generally

governed by the internal friction angle of the soil ∅’ as well as the method of
installation and type of pile

The ultimate end-bearing Capacity of driven piles in coarse grained soils is

given by the following equation:

Qb = Nq Po’ Ab (Equation 6.20)

where:

Nq = bearing capacity factor given by Berezantsev et al (1961)

Po’ = vertical effective stress in at the pile-toe level
Ab = Area of base

The relationship of Nq to the internal friction angle of the soil ∅’ has been
given by Berezantsev et al (1961) in Figure 6.10 below:

FIGURE 6.10
Bearing Capacity factors in cohesionless soils After Berezantsev et al 1961) [5]

The internal angle of friction should consider the soil density over a depth of
four diameters above the pile-toe and one diameter below the pile-toe, as well
as pile installation effects on the soil surrounding the base.

For driven piles in granular soils, including silts, the vertical stress Po does not
increase indefinitely with depth. Beyond a certain depth, known as critical
depth dc, the vertical stress remains constant. The critical depth is approximately

...........
206
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

10 to 20 times the pile diameter, with the lower and upper ends of the range
for loose and dense granular soils respectively.

Two categories of relationships of soil density, SPT ‘N’ value, and ∅’ for
cohesionless soils have been developed, namely dependent on vertical effective
stress and independent of vertical effective stress. Figures 6.11 and Figure 6.12
represent the two groups:

28

Figure 6.11: ∅’ Independent of vertical FIGUREstress

6.11 after (a) Peck et al 1974 and (b) Kahl et al
(1968)
Figure[5]
6.11: ∅’ Independent
∅’ Independent of vertical
of vertical stress afterstress
(a) Peckafter
et al(a)1974
Peck et (b)
and al 1974
Kahl and
et al(b) Kahl et al
(1968)
(1968) [5] [5]

Figure 6.12: ∅’ Dependent of vertical stress6.12

FIGURE after (a) Mitchell et al 1978 and (b) Esopt (1974)
Figure
[5] 6.12: ∅’ Dependent of vertical stress after (a) Mitchell et al 1978 and (b) Esopt (197
∅’ Dependent of vertical stress after (a) Mitchell et al 1978 and (b) Esopt (1974) [5]
[5]
Note the use of these correlations needs to be checked with tabulated values if correction for
Note
Note the
rnodthe use
energy
use ofof
and these correlations
overburden
these needs
stress isneeds
correlations to to
required, be checked
where:
be checked with
with tabulated
tabulated values
values if correction for C
if correction
rnod energy andforoverburden
rod energystress
and overburden
is required, stress
where:is required, where: C
N1 = SPT corrected for 100kPa overburden pressure
N1N
N=
60
1
= SPT
SPT
= SPT corrected
corrected
‘N” forfor
corrected 100kPa
100kPa
to 60% theoverburden
ofoverburden pressure
pressure
theoretical pressure
N = SPT ‘N” corrected to 60% of the theoretical pressure
(N60
N60 1)60
= = SPT
SPT ‘N”‘N’ correctedtofor60%
corrected bothof the theoretical pressure
(N1)60 = SPT ‘N’ corrected for both
(NB. Bored Piles
1)60 = SPT ‘N’ corrected for both
The base capacity of bored piles in cohesionless soils is difficult to predict and cannot be relied
B.upon
Bored Piles
below the water table due to the disturbance of the soil during piles installation. A low value
The base capacity of bored piles in cohesionless soils is difficult to predict and cannot be relied
upon below the water table due to the disturbance of the soil during piles installation. A low valu
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design ...........
OctoberAug 2 2020

207 RC D 4 8 01/1
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020


B. Bored Piles

The base capacity of bored piles in cohesionless soils is difficult to predict and
cannot be relied upon below the water table due to the disturbance of the soil
during pile installation. A low value of ∅’= 28° to 30° can be considered and
equation 6.7 used. For normal pile design, where soil disturbance is likely,
the contribution of the base to the ultimate load capacity should be ignored.

Skin Friction Capacity

29
The ultimate pile skin friction capacity of piles in cohesionless soils is given
by∅’=
of the28°
following equation:
to 30° can be considered and equation 6.7 used. For normal pile design, where soil
disturbance is likely, the contribution of the base to the ultimate load capacity should be ignored.
Qs = 0.5 Ks Pd’ tan δ As (Equation 6.21) [5]
Skin Friction Capacity
where:
The ultimate pile skin friction capacity of files piles in cohesionless soils is given by the following
equation:
Ks = coefficient of earth pressure
Psd’==0.5Vertical
Q effective
Ks Pd’ tan stress in
δ As (Equation at the
6.21) [5] pile-toe level
δ = Angle of friction between pile and soil.
where: Ks = coefficient of earth pressure
As = Pile shaft surface area
Pd’ = Vertical effective stress in at the pile-toe level
Angle of
δ =Driven
A. friction between pile and soil.
piles
As = Pile shaft surface area
The estimation of Ks tan δ is presently not well defined and there is substantial
A. Driven piles
evidence that, in a uniform soil profile, shaft friction reaches a limiting value
at a critical depth Zc. Poulos (1980) simplified this approach by defining the
The estimation
critical depthofZKs intan δ is presently
terms not well vertical
of a maximum defined and there isstress
effective substantial evidence that, in
at a depth
c
aZuniform
c
soil profile, shaft friction reaches a limiting value at a
. Poulos the proposed a method of relating Zc/d (where d = pile diameter/ critical depth Zc ., Poulos (1980)
simplified to ∅
breadth) this approach
o
given in by Figure
defining6.13a.
the critical value Zofc in∅terms
The depth o of soil
is the a maximum
frictionvertical
angle effective
stress at a depth
after pile Zc. Poulos
installation andthe is proposed
related toa method
∅’ the ofsoil
relating Zc/d angle
friction (wherebefore
d = pile pile
diameter
/breadth) to o given in Figure 6.13a. The value of ∅o is the soil friction angle after pile installation
installation as follows:
∅
and is related to ∅’ the soil friction angle before pile installation as follows:
∅o = 0.75 ∅’ + 10o (Equation 6-22) [5]
∅o = 0.75 ∅’ + 10o (Equation 6-22) [5]
Values of K tan δ for driven piles are plotted in Figure 6.13b.
s
Values of Ks tan δ for driven piles are plotted in Figure 6.13b.

FIGURE
Figure 6.13: Values of Ks tan δ after 6.13(1980) [5]
Poulos
Values of Ks tan δ after Poulos (1980) [5]
Tomlinson (1977) proposed a simplified approach in determining Ks tan and values are tabulated
in Table 6.9
...........
208
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

Tomlinson (1977) proposed a simplified approach in determining Ks tan and

values are tabulated in Table 6.9

TABLE 6.9
Ks tan δ values after Tomlinson (1977)

Pile Type δ Ks

Low Relative Density High Relative Density

Steel 20° 0.5 1.0

Concrete 0.75 ∅’ 1.0 2.0

Wood 0.67 ∅’ 1.5 4.0

B. Bored Piles

Poulos proposed using ∅’ in determining values of Ks tan δ for bored piles as

plotted in Figure 6.13c. In determining the critical depth Zc, Poulos proposed
using ∅’ -3o in calculating the Zc/d values given in Figure 6.11a. Touma and
Reese (1974) used a similar approach, but proposed using δ= ∅’ and Ks =
0.7 for bored piles.

6.3.2.1.3 Piles in C – ∅soils

Where the soil is a sandy clay, a clayey sand or a sand silt and there are
appreciable frictional as well as cohesive characteristics, the pile capacity
should be derived using both these characteristics. Where ∅’is less than 25o,
the soil should be considered as primarily cohesive and designed as ∅=0 soil.
Where cu is less than 30KPa, the soil should be considered as non-cohesive
with Cu=0.

The approach used in calculating the ultimate capacity of piles in C – ∅soils

follows the principles and methods noted above, where the adhesion (cohesive
soils) and friction (cohesionless soils) are calculated separately and added
together in calculating the shaft friction. The end-bearing capacity is calculated
using Terzaghi’s (1967) coefficients Nc and Nq in the equation:

Qb = Ab [ 1.3cu Nc + P’o (Nq-1) + 0.4 γ d Nγ ] (Equation 6.23) [5]

6.3.2.1.4 Piles in rock

End bearing Capacity

It has been shown that the capacity of piles on rock depends on the soundness
of the rock mass on which or in which they are founded. Strong rock with an
unconfined uniaxial compressive strength qa of more than 100MPa exhibits
brittle behaviour, while weaker rocks exhibits plastic or ductile behaviour.
It is generally accepted that the ultimate end bearing capacity of driven and
bored piles is between 4 and 11 times qa with an average of 5qa. When the
piles are socketed into the bedrock, the base resistance increases, depending
...........
209 RC D 4 8 01/1


on the ratio between the length of the socket and the diameter. The value of
the ultimate end bearing exceeding 20qa has been mentioned in such cases.

Skin friction Capacity

The skin friction, which is mobilised when the piles are socketed or driven
into rock, is a function of the strength of the rock, the method of installation
and the jointing of the rock mass. The ratio of the ultimate skin friction to
unconfined compressive strength for medium to hard rock (10MPa < qa <
100MPa) is generally between 0.05 and 0.1 and 0.01 to 1.2 for soft rocks,
as shown in Figure 6.14. For weak rocks, e.g. Miocene and cretaceous age
occurring in southern Africa, the ultimate shaft friction can be estimated using
the equation:

fs = αβ qa (Equation 6.24) [5]

where: α and β can be read off from Figure 6.14

FIGURE 6.14
Skin friction resistance values after Williams (1980) [5]

6.3.2.2 Static calculation of pile capacity using in situ test [5]

6.3.2.2.1 Cone Penetration Test

Cohesionless soils

For cohesionless soils, the ultimate base capacity is related to the average
point resistance qc over a depth of 1.5 pile diameters above the pile-toe. The
Imperial College Pile (ICP) methodology proposed the following relationship
between the ultimate base resistance to the CPT point resistance:

Qb = qc [1 – 0.5 log (D / DCPT)] (Equation 6.24)

The equation above is valid for close ended driven tubular piles and halves for
fully plugged open-ended piles. The ultimate base resistance for unplugged
open-ended piles is equal to the CPT point resistance, with the base capacity
developed on the annular area.

...........
210
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n
3
Using the ICP method, Tomlinson has graphically represented the mobilised
pile shaft friction versus the distance from the pile-toe as shown in Figure 6.15.

FIGUREversus
Figure 6.15: Shaft friction resistance 6.15 qc after Tomlinson (2001)
Shaft friction resistance versus qc after Tomlinson (2001)
Cohesive soils
Cohesive soils
The ICP method for cohesive soils is complex and should be consulted in relevant publications.
In summary, the method suggests the following equation in calculating the ultimate base
The resistance:
ICP method for cohesive soils is complex and should be consulted in
relevant
Qb = publications.
α qc (Equation 6.25)
Where: qb = Ultimate base resistance
In summary, the point
qc = Average method suggests
resistance thepile-toe
at the following
level equation in calculating the
ultimate base resistance:
= Coefficient dependent on pile types and loading, as given in Table 6.10, below

Qb = α qc (Equation 6.25)
Table 6.10: End-bearing capacity coefficient α
Where:
Loading and End condition of tube α

qb = Undrained loading, closed-ended piles

Ultimate base resistance 0.8
Drained loading, closed-ended piles 1.3
qc = Average point resistance at the pile-toe level
Undrained loading, open-ended plugged piles
= Coefficient dependent on pile types and loading, as given in Table 6.10, 0.4
Drained loading, open-ended plugged piles 0.65
below
Undrained loading, open-ended unplugged piles 1.0
Drained loading, open-ended unplugged piles 1.6

Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020

...........
211 RC D 4 8 01/1


TABLE 6.10
End-bearing capacity coefficient α

Loading and End condition of tube α

Undrained loading, closed-ended piles 0.8

Drained loading, closed-ended piles 1.3

Undrained loading, open-ended plugged piles 0.4

Drained loading, open-ended plugged piles 0.65

Undrained loading, open-ended unplugged piles 1.0

Drained loading, open-ended unplugged piles 1.6

The skin friction resistance is given by the following equation:

Qs = πD∑ τf dz (Equation 6.26)

Where:

Qs = ultimate skin friction capacity

τf = A function of a Mohr Coulomb failure rule is given by equation τf = σrf
tan σ
D = Pile diameter

6.3.2.2.2 Standard Penetration Test

For non-cohesive soils, the Meyerhof formula (1956) gives the correlation
between SPT N’ value and the ultimate base capacity.

Qb = 400 ‘N’ Ab (Equation 6.27)

Where:

Qb = ultimate base capacity (kN)

‘N’ = Average SPT ‘N’ value above and below the base
Ab = Coefficient dependent on pile types and loading

The same Meyerhof also proposed the following equation for shaft friction
capacity:

Qs = 4 “N” Ab (Full displacement) (Equation 6.28)

Qs = 2 “N” Ab (Low displacement) (Equation 6.29)
With “N” being the average SPT ‘N’ value over length of shaft

For cohesive soils use the correlation SPT N’ to the undrained shear strength
Cu presented in in Figure 6.12a and 6.12b in Section 6.3.2.1.2

...........
212
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

6.3.2.2.3 Correlations SPT and CPT

Table 6.11 gives the factors that must be multiplied by the test value (qc in MPa)
to obtain the ultimate shaft capacity values in kPa. In the same way, Table 6.12
shows the factors for calculating the ultimate base capacity (KPa) using in situ
testing. Values in this latter table (Ultimate base capacity) have been obtained
under the assumption that the piles are founded a minimum of five pile base
diameters into the founding horizon and the average test value is taken over
a depth of four pile base diameters above and one base diameter below pile-
toe. Note that both tables are normally used for preliminary design for various
types of piles, and in cohesive and non-cohesive soils.

TABLE 6.11
Factors for calculating Ultimate Shaft Capacity (kPa) using in situ tests

Pile/Test Auger Auger CFA Oscill. Precast Tube Franki Franki Forum Forum
U/S Wet Ram Wet Wet
Shaft Shaft Shaft Shaft

Piles in non-cohesive soils

CPT qc 5 5 5 5 8 8 8 12 5 8

SPT ‘N’ 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4 4 4 6 2.5 4

Max (kPa) 125 80 125 125 150 150 150 200 125 150

Piles in cohesive soils

CPT qc 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 30 10 15

SPT ‘N’ 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 4.5 2.5 3.5

α 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.5

Max (kPa) 150 80 150 150 100 100 150 200 150 150

Note: Values based on qc in MPa

...........
213 RC D 4 8 01/1


TABLE 6.12
Factors for calculating Ultimate Base Capacity (kPa) using in situ tests

Pile Auger Auger CFA Oscill. Precast Tube Franki Franki Forum Forum
------------ U/S Wet Ram Wet Wet
Test Shaft Shaft Shaft Shaft

Piles in non-cohesive soils

CPT qc 500* 500* 500* 500* 1000 1000 1200*** 1200*** 1000** 1000**

SPT ‘N’ 300* 300* 300* 300* 400 400 500 500 400** 400**

Max (kPa) 8000 8000 8000 8000 20000 15000 15000 15000 15000** 15000**

Piles in cohesive soils

CPT qc 450 10 10 10 15 15 15 30 10 15

SPT ‘N’ 50 50 50 50 50 50 60 60 50 50

Nc 9 9 9 9 9 9 9–20 9–20 9–12 9–12

Max (kPa) 4500 4500 4500 4500 4500 4500 150 200 150 150

Note: Values based on qc in MPa

(*)  V
 ery low base resistance values are likely for bored piles below the water
table in cohesionless soils due to installation effects and the contribution
of the base to the load capacity should be conservatively ignored.

(**)  If the base of the tube cannot be sealed against water ingress, the
contribution of the base to the load capacity should be conservatively
ignored.

(***) M
 eyerhof indicates that ultimate base capacity = 2qc can be achieved
and values given are conservative.

6.3.2.3 Uplift resistance of piles

The best way of restraining piles against uplift is to make the pile sufficiently
long to take the whole of the uplift load in shaft friction. Sometimes it is not
always possible where there is rock beneath a shallow soil overburden. A
solution with base enlargement is then envisaged.

When bored piles are constructed in clay soils, base enlargements can be
formed to anchor the piles against uplift. The size and stability of an enlargement
formed in coarse-grained soil is problematical, and will not be investigated.
The enlargement of pile base in fine grained soils was studied by Meyerhof
et al as reported by Tomlinson [5] and the uplift capacity was calculated and
graphically illustrated as shown in Figures 6.16 and 17.

...........
214
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.16-17
Uplift capacity of a circular plate in c-∅ soil or sandy c=0 (After Meyerhof, GG and
al (1968)

For D<H Qu = π c B H + s(π/2)γ B D2Ku tan∅+ W (Equation 6.30)

For D>H Qu = π c B H + s(π/2)γ B (2D-H)Ku tan∅+ W (Equation 6.31)
where
Qu = The ultimate uplift resistance of the plate
B = The diameter of the plate
H = The height of the block of soil lifted by the pile as shown above in Figure
6.15
c = The cohesive strength of the soil
s = A shape factor (see below in Table 6.13)
γ = The density of the soil (the submerged density being taken below
groundwater level)
D = The depth of the plate
Ku = A coefficient obtained from Figure 6.15
φ = The angle of shearing resistance of the soil
W = The weight of the soil resisting uplift by the plate as above in Figure 6.15
The shape factor s for deep foundations (including piles) is equal to (1 + m
H/B), where m depends on the angle of shearing resistance φ of the soil.

TABLE 6.13
Shape factor s for deep foundation after Meyerhof (1968)

∅ 20 25 30 35 40 45 48

H/B 2.5 3 4 5 7 09 11

M 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.6

S(max) 1.12 1.3 1.6 2.25 3.45 5.5 7.6

...........
215 RC D 4 8 01/1


The ultimate uplift resistance Qu calculated above should not exceed

the combined resistance of the enlarged base (considered as a buried deep
foundation) and the pile shaft friction as outlined in section 6.3. This value
should be reduced for piles with shallow embedment.

6.3.2.4 Dynamic Analysis

6.3.2.4.1 Dynamic formulae

In this analysis, piles are usually forced into the ground by a pile driver or
hammer and a relationship is established between the pile ultimate capacity
and the resistance offered due to the driving of the hammer. Dynamic pile
formulas are semi empirical equations used to determine the ultimate static
capacity of piles in granular soils. These formulas are based on the conservation
of energy during the driving which can be expressed by the following relation:

Energy input = energy used + energy lost

A safety factor (SF), varying from 3 to 6, is then applied to this ultimate capacity
to determine the allowable safe capacity. The following formulas are the most
reliable:

Hiley (SF = 3) (Equation 6.32)

Janbu (SF = 3 to 6) (Equation 6.33)

where: Ku = Cd [1 + (1 + γe / Cd )0.5 ] ; Cd = 0.75 + 0.15 γe Wp/W ; γe = W

H L / A E S2

Danish (SF = 3 to 6) (Equation 6.34)

Modifier ENR (SF = 6) (Equation 6.35)

Where: c = 2.54mm, ENR (Engineering New Record)

Where: Qult = Ultimate load capacity (KN)

Wp = Weight of the pile (KN)
Ψ = Efficiency of the hammer blow
W = Weight of the hammer (KN)
n = Coefficient of restitution varying between 0.25 to 0.9
H = Hammer drop (m)
L = Length of the pile (m)
A = Area of the pile (m2)
Ep = Modulus of elasticity of the pile shaft (KN/m2)
S = Set taken as an average penetration per blow over the last ten blows (mm)
C1 = Temporary compression of pile -head and cap (m)
C2 = Temporary elastic compression of the pile shaft (m)
C3 = Temporary quake of the ground (m)

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216
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

6.3.2.4.2 Wave equation analysis

In 1960, Smith proposed a calculation method including the wave propagation

in the analysis. The dynamic process of pile driving is similar to the impact
of a concentrated mass upon an elastic rod. The rod is restrained partially by
skin friction and by end bearing at the tip. The system can be approximated
by a lumped mass elastic model (Ramot, 1967), as shown in Figure 6.18. The
discredited mass of the pile is represented by a series of small concentrated
masses M linked by springs represented by a spring constant K that simulates
the longitudinal resistance of the pile. The hammer, the cap block, the helmet,
and the cushion are also similarly represented. The soil is represented as a series
of springs tied to the pile element with a dashpot for dynamic effects and a
sliding block for maximum resistance. The soil model for the static resistance
is an elastic, perfectly plastic model as shown in Figure 6.16. The quake Q is
defined as the movement that is required to reach plastic plateau, as presented
on the displacement force graph in Figure 6.18. The dynamic resistance of the
pile soil system is given by the following equation:
RDYN = RSTA (1 + J v) (Equation 6.36) [4]
Where: RDYN = Dynamic resistance of the soil
RSTA = Static resistance of the soil
J = Damping coefficient
v = Velocity of the pile element
Q = Quake in mm
These input parameters have been suggested by many researchers. e.g. Lowery
and al, 1967, Coyle, as reported by JL Briaud, and can be found in relevant
literature, but their accuracy has been always an inconvenience as far as the
utilisation of this method.

FIGURE 6.18
Pile and soil modelling for wave equation analysis after Lowery et al (1967) [4]

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217 RC D 4 8 01/1


6.3.3 Laterally loaded piles

There are many interrelated factors that govern the behaviour of laterally loaded
piles, among which the most important are the pile stiffness (which influences
the way the deflection will occur and the type of loading that the structure
can sustain) and the surrounding soil characteristics. The lateral load capacity
of a pile will depend on the fixity of the pile-head and the relative flexibility
of the shaft with reference to the soil stiffness.

6.3.3.1 Ultimate Capacity

Using the free body diagram in Figure 19, the ultimate capacity Hou of a pile
can be written using the horizontal equilibrium as follows:

Hou = p B zmax (Equation 6.37)

Where p is the mean pressure against the pile within the depth

B is the pile width or diameter and

zmax is the depth to zero shear force (maximum bending)

Using onsite pile load tests data, Briaud found that p was equal to 0.75pL
(pressure meter limit pressure). Equation 6.37 can then be written as follows:

Hou = 0.75 pL B zmax (Equation 6.38)

Where:

zmax = (π/4) lo for L > 3 lo Long flexible piles

zmax = L/3 for L < lo Short rigid piles

lo = (Equation 6.39)

K = 2.3 Eo (Equation 6.40)

Hou = Ultimate horizontal load that breaks the soil around the pile
pL = Average limit pressure from the pressure meter test within z depth
B = Projected pile width
Ep = Modulus of the pile
I = Pile moment of inertia
K = Soil stiffness,
L = Length of the pile,
Lo = Transfer length
Eo = Pressure meter first load modulus.

...........
218
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.19
Horizontal loaded pile in form of free body

6.3.3.2 Displacement and maximum moment – Long flexible pile

Assuming that a pile is horizontally loaded as shown below in Figure 6.20, with
an overturning force Ho and an overturning moment Mo at the top of the pile,
this pile will move horizontally over an appreciable distance before rotation
or failure of the soil–pile system occurs. The lateral load capacity of a vertical
pile depends upon the nature of the soil, the size of the pile, and the conditions
at the pile head. If the pile head is fixed rigidly in a pile cap, its lateral load
capacity will be more than when it is free. The ultimate internal resistance of
a vertical pile and the deflection of a laterally loaded pile are complex matters
involving the interaction between the structural element and the soil. The pile
can behave as short rigid element or as an infinitely long flexible member. In
the latter case, one can then continue with the following reasoning.
The deformation of the pile can be calculated using the theory of elasticity,
assuming the infinitesimal element of the pile loaded as shown in Figure 6.20.

FIGURE 6.20
Elastic pile under horizontal load and predicted vs. measured horizontal capacity
(After JL Briaud, 1993)

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219 RC D 4 8 01/1


The forces and moments acting on this infinitesimal element in Figure 6.20
above are the shear V (kN) and the moment M (kNm) at both ends of the
element and the soil resistance P (kN/m) as a line load.

Taking the fundamental horizontal equilibrium and moment equilibrium around

O (point where P dz is applied), one can write:

∑ FH = 0 = Pdz + V – (V + dV) or (Equation 6.41)

P= (Equation 6.42)

∑ M @ O = 0 = M + dM - M – Vdz/2 – (V + dV) dz/2 (Equation 6.43)

One can neglect the higher order terms, we are left with:

V= (Equation 6.44)

This is just to say the shear in a pile is the first derivative of the bending
moment. The pile behaviour can be described by relating the bending moment
M applied to the pile to the curvature generated in the pile, expressed as a
second derivative of the y. This is simply written as follows:

M= (Equation 6.45)

Where the proportionality constant term Ep I is called the bending stiffness,

with Ep the modulus of the pile material and I the moment of inertia of the
pile cross section around the axis of the moment. The constitutive equation
of soil behaviour is expressed simply by a linear relationship between the line
load P(kN/m), characterising the soil resistance and the deflection y(m) of the
soil-pile interface. The equation is written as follows:

P = - K y (Equation 6.46)

Where K is the proportionality constant termed spring constant K (kN/m2)

characterising the stiffness of the soil.

The governing differential equation can then be assembled as follows:

P= (Equation 6.47)

Or = = 0 (Equation 6.48)

Solving this differential equation with the following boundary conditions z

= infinity, y = 0; z = 0, M = Mo; and z = 0, V = Ho will imply a solution
that is a function such that when differentiated four times, stays the same.
A combination of exponential and trigonometric function in the general form
of the one below is therefore chosen:

(Equation 6.49)

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220
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

From the above, the following constants are then found:

(Equation 6.50)

(Equation 6.51)

(Equation 6.52)

(Equation 6.53)

Now, the equations for the deflection y, the slope y’, the bending moment
M, the shear force V, and the line load P can be finally obtained as follows:

(Equation 6.54)

(Equation 6.55)

(Equation 6.56)

(Equation 6.57)

Where:

y(z) = The pile displacement at depth z,

y’(z) = The slope at depth z,
M(z) = The bending moment at depth z, and
V(z) = The shear force at z
Ho = Shear at ground surface
Mo = Moment at ground surface
K = The spring constant of the soil
Io = The transfer length given by Equation 6.45

The profile is these parameters is given in Figure 6.21 below:

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221 RC D 4 8 01/1
 Mo = Moment at ground surface
K = The spring constant of the soil
Io = The transfer length given by Equation 6.45
 The profile is these parameters is given in Figure 6.21 below:

Figure 6.21: Elastic displacement,FIGURE 6.21 moment, shear forces and soil reactions
slope, bending
ElasticJLdisplacement,
(After Briaud, 2013) slope,
[4] bending moment, shear forces and soil reactions
(After JL Briaud, 2013) [4]

In In summary, for
summary, forthe
thelong flexible
long piles for
flexible which
piles forL >which
3 lo, using
L> the3above equations,
lo, using the
the above
displacement at ground level is given by the following equation:
equations, the displacement at ground level is given by the following equation:
2𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜 2𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = + (Equation 6.58)
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜 𝐾𝐾 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 𝐾𝐾 (Equation 6.58)

The pressure close to the ground surface is:

The pressure close to the ground surface is:

(Equation 6.59)
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020
The slope at the ground level

(Equation 6.60)

The maximum depth at maximum bending moment is found, setting the shear
force equal to 0

zmax = lo tan-1 (Equation 6.61)

Note zmax is calculated in radian.

6.3.3.3 Displacement and maximum moment – Short rigid pile

When the length of the pile is such that L < lo, the pile is regarded as a short
rigid pile and, in this case, the pile does not bend when horizontally loaded.
The constitutive model for the pile is of a deflected shape, namely a straight line.

y = a z +b (Equation 6.62)

where:

y = Horizontal displacement of the pile at depth z

a = First derivative of y with respect to z which is the slope of the pile y’o
b = The horizontal displacement at ground level (yo at z = 0)

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222
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

The constitutive law for the soil is also linear between the line load P and the
horizontal displacement y through the soil stiffness module K

P = -K y (Equation 6.63)

The shear force V at depth z is then calculated by integration of the of line

load as follows:

(Equation 6.64)

By integration of the shear force V, one can find the bending moment at any
depth z in the pile.

(Equation 6.65)

Applying the following boundary conditions: for z = 0, V = Ho, M = Mo and

for z = L, V = 0, M = 0

The value of a (displacement) and b (slope) are found as follows:

(Equation 6.66)

(Equation 6.67)

The pressure at ground surface is also calculated the same way as previously:

(Equation 6.68)

For the pressure meter, the yield pressure Py is about 50% of the limit pressure
PL in clays and 33% for sand. Alternatively, a safety factor can be used instead.

The depth zmax is also given by the following equation:

zmax = (Equation 6.69)

The maximum moment can be then calculated plugging the value obtained
using Equation 3.65 into Equation 3.69

6.4 DESIGN OF A GROUP OF PILES

6.4.1 Introduction to group action in piled foundation

In practice, single piles are rarely used, rather a group of piles, which act in
the double role of reinforcing the soil, and also of carrying the applied load
down to deeper, stronger soil strata. Failure of the group may occur either by
failure of the individual piles or as failure of the overall block of soil. The load
carrying capacity of a pile group can be considerably less than the sum of
individual capacities, particularly for friction piles with close spacing or piles
bearing on a thin founding horizon. Terzaghi and Peck (1967) have studied
group friction piles and demonstrated that the group should be analysed as
acting in block and the block capacity should be calculated as such, refer to
Figure 6.22. Group action in piled foundation could result in failure or excessive

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223 RC D 4 8 01/1


settlement, even though loading tests made on a single pile have indicated
satisfactory capacity as in Figure 6.22a-b.

FIGURE 6.22
Pile group foundation effect after Terzaghi, Peck (1967) and possible failure of a
group founded on a thin bearing stratum after (Tomlinson, 1977)

6.4.2 Bearing capacity of pile groups

Pile groups driven into sand may provide reinforcement to the soil. In some
cases, the shaft capacity of the pile driven into sand could increase by factor
of 2 or more. But in the case of piles driven into sensitive clays, the effective
stress increase in the surrounding soil may be less for piles in a group than for
individual piles, this will result in lower shaft capacities.

In general, the bearing capacity of pile group may be calculated as a block

failure in a similar way to that of single pile, by means of equation 6.17 with
As taken as the block surface area and Ab as the base area of the block or by
rewriting the general equation we get:

Qu = Qb + Qs = Nc cu Abb + Ca Asb – (Wp -Ws) (Equation 6.70)

Asb = Surface area of block

Abb = Base area of block
Cu, Ca = Average cohesion of clay around the group and beneath the group.
Nc = Bearing capacity factor. For depths relevant for piles, the appropriate
value of Nc is 9
Wp and Ws = Weight of pile respective weight of soil

6.4.3 Group efficiency factor

The ratio between the ultimate load capacity of a pile group and the sum
of ultimate capacity of individual piles is defined as a group efficiency (or
reduction) factor η, defined as follows:

There are a number of empirical formulae that have been proposed, generally
relating the group efficiency factor to the number and spacing of piles in the
group. One approach proposed by Cox et al, 1983 is presented below.

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224
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

6.4.4 Efficiency factor and spacing of piles group

6.4.4.1 Overturning moment

Assuming a rectangular group of piles with n piles in one direction and m piles
in the other, the distances between the centre line of the group and individual
piles is ai. The pile group is B wide and L long as shown in Figure 6.23. the
change in load due to the moment M is given by:

∆Q = ∆ Qmax where ∆ Qmax is the change in axial load in the pile located
far away from the centre line at B/2. The resisting moment provided by the
pile group is given by the following:

∆Qmax = (Equation 6.71)

Where: ∆ Qmax = Maximum change of the load

M = Global moment applied

B = Width of the piles group
m = The number of piles in the length direction (L)
n = The number of piles in the width direction (B)
ai = The distance between pile I to the centre line of the group

Once ∆Qi is determined for each pile, the problem reverts to be a vertical
load problem.

FIGURE 6.23
Overturning of a pile group [4]

6.4.4.2 Ultimate capacity

The ultimate horizontal load that can be applied to a pile group can be
estimated as:

Hou(group) = η.n Hou(single) (Equation 6.72)

where Hou(group), Hou(single) are the ultimate horizontal load for the group and for
the single pile respectively, n is the number of piles in the group and η the
efficiency factor of the group.

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225 RC D 4 8 01/1
 The ultimate horizontal load that can be applied to a pile group can be es

Hou(group) = η.n Hou(single) (Equation 6.72)

 where Hou(group), Hou(single) are the ultimate horizontal load for the group an
respectively, n is the number of piles in the group and η the efficiency fa
It has been shown that the load resisted by piles differs depending on the
relative position of piles withbeen
It has reference
showntothat
thethe
acting
loadload. Theby
resisted piles indiffers
piles front ofdepending on the
the group (leading piles) develop more resistance than the piles behind (trailing
with reference to the acting load. The piles in front of the group (leading p
piles), as shown in Figure
more6.24
resistance than the piles behind (trailing piles), as shown in Figure 6

FIGURE
Figure 6.24: 6.24 load on a pile group (Plan view) [4]
Horizontal
Horizontal load on a pile group (Plan view) [4]
One can then assume that all the leading piles carry the same load and th
One can then assumecarry
that the same
all the load, then
leading pilesand thethe
carry following influence
same load factors can then be
and that
all the trailing piles carry the same
Hou(leading piles) =load, and the(Equation
ηlp Hou(single) following6.73)
influence factors
can then be defined:
Hou(trailing piles) = ηtp Hou(single) (Equation 6.74)
Hou(leading piles) = ηlp Hou(single) (Equation 6.73)
The group ultimate capacity, is therefore the sum of the above two equati
Hou(trailing piles) = ηtp Hou(single) (Equation 6.74)
Hou(group) = (ηlp nlp + ηtp ntp) Hou(single) (Equation 6.75)
The group ultimate capacity, is therefore the sum of the above two equations:
Where: ηlp = Efficiency factor for leading piles
Hou(group) = (ηlp nlp + ηtpnlpn=tp)Number
Hou(single)of(Equation 6.75)
trailing piles
Where: ηlp = Efficiency
ηtpfactor for leading
= Efficiency factorpiles
for leading piles

ntp piles
nlp = Number of trailing = Number of trailing piles
ηtp = Efficiency factor for leading piles
Hou(group) = Ultimate horizontal load for the group
ntp = Number of trailing piles
Hou(group) = Ultimate horizontal load for
Cox et al (1983) the groupthrough measurements of the behaviour of p
developed,
efficiency factors for line groups which is illustrated in Figure 6.25.
Cox et al (1983) developed, through measurements of the behaviour of piles
groups, the global efficiency factors for line groups which is illustrated in
Figure 6.25.
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design Octo

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226
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.25
Efficiency for side-by-side and inline groups (After Cox et al 1983) [4]

Furthermore, they also showed that the leading piles carry more load than the
trailing piles. The ratio λ between the ultimate leading piles and the trailing
piles depends on the spacing of the piles.

Hou(leading piles) = λ Hou(trailing piles) (Equation 6.76)

The values of λ are shown in Figure 6.26. Equation 6.27 can then be rewritten
as follows:

Hou(group) = (ηlp nlp + ntp (ηtp / λ)) Hou(single) (Equation 6.77)

FIGURE 6.26
Ratio of load on leading pile over the trailing piles (After Cox et al 1983) [4]

6.4.5 Interaction Diagrams

The use of circular cross sections for structural members is popular in both
geotechnical and structural design, due to the simplicity of construction they
offer and, more importantly, the equal strength under horizontal loading in
all directions. This latter reason is the main factor contributing to the use of
the circular piles in deep foundations. However, the design of piles of circular
sections subjected to a combination of compression or tension with bending
moment is generally conducted using the interaction diagrams. In terms of
interpretation of these interaction diagrams, it should be highlighted that note
must be taken of five salient points corresponding to the failure strain profiles.

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227 RC D 4 8 01/1
 6.4.5 Interaction Diagrams

The use of circular cross sections for structural members is popular in both geotechnical and
structural design, due to the simplicity of construction they offer and, more importantly, the equal
strength under horizontal loading in all directions. This latter reason is the main factor contributing
to the use of the circular piles in deep foundations. However, the design of piles of circular

sections subjected to a combination of compression or tension with bending moment is generally
conducted using the interaction diagrams. In terms of interpretation of these interaction diagrams,
In Figure 6.27, each set of points results represents a combination of axial force
it should be highlighted that note must be taken of five salient points corresponding to the failure
and moment. Any combination of applied moment and axial force that falls
strain profiles have to be noticed. In Figure 6.27, each set of points results represents a
combination of axial force and moment. Any combination of applied moment and axial force that
inside this curve is therefore safe against failure. A number of important points
falls inside this curve is therefore safe against failure. A number of important points can be
can be identified on a typical interaction diagram, as indicated:
identified on a typical interaction diagram, as indicated:

Figure 6.27: Typical interaction diagram

FIGURE 6.27
Typical interaction diagram
 Pure axial compression (Point 1)
At this point, the column is subjected to an axial force only, with M = 0. The capacity of the
• Pure axial compression (Point 1)
section is equal to Nu. All the combination points (M, N) inside the points 1 -2 - Nb are safe and
failing in compression.
At this point, the column is subjected to an axial force only, with M = 0. The
 Balance point (Point 2)
capacity of the section is equal to Nu. All reaches
This is the point where the concrete
the combination points (M, N) inside
its ultimate strain at the same time that the
the points 1 -2 – tension
Nb are safe and
reinforcement failing
yields. in compression.
For combinations of N and M that fall below the balance point, the
failure mode is ductile with the reinforcement yielding before the concrete fails in compression.

• Balance point (Point 2)

This is the point where the concrete
Deep Foundations reaches
– Pile and Caisson Design its ultimate strain atOctoberAug
the same 2 2020 time

that the tension reinforcement yields. For combinations of N and M that fall
below the balance point, the failure mode is ductile with the reinforcement
yielding before the concrete fails in compression.

For any combination of N and M that falls above the balance point, the failure
mode is brittle where the concrete crushes without yielding of the tension
steel. Unfortunately, the failure mode in a column cannot be controlled by
reinforcement quantities as it can be in beams.

• Pure bending (Point 3)

Pure bending means N = 0 and the behaviour represents that of a beam in
bending. This point represents a section that is in pure bending. At this stage,
the concrete suffers a tensile failure when the ultimate strain in concrete is
reached.

• Pure tension (Point 4)

At this point, the section of the column is fully in tension, and the moment M
is equal to 0. All the combination points (M, N) above this lower point and
up to the balanced design point (Mb, Nb) are failing in tension. Note that all
the combinations of points falling inside the curves are safe, and a balanced
design.

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228
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

Franki has prepared interaction diagrams that can be used as design aid tools.
From these diagrams, in Figures 6.26, 6.27, 6.28, 6.29 and 6.30, one can
read off the reinforcement required for any pile size varying from 355mm to
1200mm when having the design values of moment and compression axial or
tensile loads. The interaction diagrams were compiled for a 30MPa concrete
strength and 450 MPa steel reinforcement [5].

FIGURE 6.28
Interaction diagram (After Franki, 2019) [5]

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229 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 6.29
Interaction diagram (After Franki, 2019) [5]

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230
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.30
Interaction diagram (After Franki, 2019) [5]

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231 RC D 4 8 01/1


FIGURE 6.31
Interaction diagram (After Franki, 2019) [5]

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232
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.32
Interaction diagram (After Franki, 2019) [5]

6.5 CAISSONS

6.5.1 Introduction to caissons

6.5.1.1 Drilled pier or pier

A drilled pier is constructed by drilling a cylindrical hole of the required depth
and subsequently filling it with concrete. The shaft may be straight, or the base
may be enlarged by under reaming. This structural member is also called as
follows:

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233 RC D 4 8 01/1
 6.5 CAISSONS

6.5.1 Introduction to caissons

6.5.1.1 Drilled pier or pier



(a) Drilled shaftA drilled pier is constructed by drilling a cylindrical hole of the required depth and subseque
filling it with concrete. The shaft may be straight, or the base may be enlarged by
(b) Drilled caisson (or sometimes, simply, a caisson)
under reaming. This structural member is also called as follows:
(c) Bored pile (but usually
a. Drilled shaftrestricted to D < 760 mm)
b. Drilled caisson (or sometimes, simply, a caisson)
If the base is enlarged the
c. Bored pilemember takes
(but usually one of
restricted these
to D < 760names:
mm)

(d) Belled pier (or belled

If the caisson)
base is enlarged the member takes one of these names:
(e) Under-reamed foundation
d. Belled pier (or belled caisson)
e. Under-reamed foundation
In this course, the term caisson will be used in the context of the above
definition and willIn focus
this course, the termon
succinctly caisson will be used
the analysis andindesign
the context of the above
of drilled piers.definition and will fo
succinctly on the analysis and design of drilled piers.
Practical examples of drilled piers or caissons, e.g. foundation of aeolian
Practical examples of drilled piers or caissons, e.g. foundation of aeolian turbines and bridg
turbines and bridge piers, are shown below in Figures 33 and 34.
piers, are shown below in Figures 33 and 34.

FIGURE
Figure 6.33: Aeolian 6.33 turbine tower (Google image)
monopole
Aeolian monopole turbine tower (Google image) 59

Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020

Figure 6.34: Suspended bridges caisson foundation (Google image)

FIGURE 6.34
Suspended
6.5.1.2 bridge caisson foundation (Google image)
Standard caisson

The term caisson is also used to describe large prefabricated box-type structures, generally in
reinforced concrete, that can be sunk through soft ground or water at a site to provide a dry
6.5.1.2 Standard caisson
workspace. The standard caisson is a prefabricated concrete element that is transported over
water, and immersed until it rests on the river or seabed, where it must fulfil its function. For
The term caisson is also used to describe large prefabricated box-type structures,
positioning and to prevent undue settlements of the caisson, the bed must be prepared with a
generally in reinforced concrete, that can be sunk through soft ground or water
stone layer, concrete pads or a sill (see Figure 6.35). The standard type of caisson, sometimes
referred to as 'box caisson', has a bottom plate, side and head walls to enable it to float.
at a site to provide a dry workspace. The standard caisson is a prefabricated
Sometimes there is a roof, which can be prefabricated or constructed after partial immersion.
concrete element that is transported over water, and immersed until it rests
on the river or seabed where it must fulfil its function. For positioning and
to prevent undue settlements of the caisson, the bed must be prepared with
a stone layer, concrete pads or a sill (see Figure 6.35). The standard type

...........
234 Figure 6.35: Standard caisson standing free (left) partially embedded (middle &right) [8]
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

of caisson, sometimes referred to as ‘box caisson’, has a bottom plate, side

and head walls to enable it to float. Sometimes there is a roof, which can be
prefabricated or constructed after partial immersion.

FIGURE 6.35
Standard caisson standing free (left) partially embedded (middle &right) [8]

6.5.1.3 Pneumatic caisson

The other main caisson type, the pneumatic caisson, is constructed on ground
level and must be subsided into the soil, which can be achieved by digging from 60
within the caisson under compressed air. Because of the ‘diving bell principle’
used
6.5.1.3for this caisson,
Pneumatic caisson it is called a ‘pneumatic’ caisson. The pneumatic caisson
method comprises the on-ground construction of a reinforced concrete caisson
having
The otheramainworking
caisson chamber inside caisson,
type, the pneumatic at the islower part,onpressurized
constructed ground level andairmust
supply
be
subsided
to into the soil,
the working which canto
chamber be prevent
achieved by digging from within
underground the caisson
water under
from entering there,
compressed air. Because of the 'diving bell principle' used for this caisson, it is called a
excavation work of soils in the working chamber and, finally, sinking the whole
'pneumatic' caisson. The pneumatic caisson method comprises the on-ground construction of a
caisson
reinforcedstructure. Pneumatic
concrete caisson caissons
having a working are utilised
chamber forlower
inside at the a variety of structures:
part, pressurized air
foundations of bridges
supply to the working chamber and buildings
to prevent and main
underground waterstructures
from comingofinsewage treatment
thereentering there,
facilities,
excavation underground
work of soils in thewater
workingregulating
chamber and,reservoirs, shafts
finally, sinking for insertion
the whole of shield
caisson structure.
Pneumatic caissons are utilizsed for a variety of structures:
tunnelling machines, underground railways, and tunnels. The principle foundations of bridges and buildings
on which
and main structures of sewage treatment facilities, underground water regulating reservoirs,
the pneumatic caisson is built upon is shown and described in Figure 6.36
shafts for insertion of shield tunnelling machines, underground railways, and tunnels. The
principle on which the pneumatic caisson is built upon is shown and described in Figure 6.36

Figure 6.36 Pneumatic caisson principle [9]

FIGURE 6.36
6.5.2 Capacity of caissons in compression
Pneumatic caisson principle [9]
The ultimate capacity of a caisson (see Figure 6.37) in compression is the smaller of
Qult = S Q'si + S QL + QP (Equation 6.78a)
6.5.2
Or Capacity of caissons in compression
Qult = S Q’si + S QL + Q’P (Equation 6.78b)
The ultimate capacity of a caisson (see Figure 6.37) in compression is the
where
smaller of
S Qsi = Ultimate skin resistance defined as Qult i = S Qsi + QB + W
S Q'si = Limiting skin resistance, generally < Qsi
Q ult
= ∑ Q’si + ∑ QL + QP (Equation 6.78a)
Qp = Ultimate point bearing
Q'p = Point bearing just at transition from ultimate to limiting skin resistance and is generally < Qp
Or
S QL= Bearing resistance from any ledges produced by changes in shaft diameter

...........
S Qsi = Sum of perimeter x fs x ∆L of the several (or single) shaft elements making up total length
L - ultimate value
235 RC D 4 8 01/1
Qb = Bell pull-out resistance and/or any point suction. Similarly, as for piles the point suction
contribution is transient and so is seldom used.

Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020



Qult = ∑ Q’si + ∑ QL + Q’P (Equation 6.78b)

where

∑ Qsi = Ultimate skin resistance defined as Qult i = ∑ Qsi + QB + W

∑ Q’si = Limiting skin resistance, generally < Qsi
Qp = Ultimate point bearing
Q’p = Point bearing just at transition from ultimate to limiting skin resistance
and is generally < Qp
∑ QL= Bearing resistance from any ledges produced by changes in shaft
diameter
∑ Qsi = Sum of perimeter x fs x ∆L of the several (or single) shaft elements
making up total length L – ultimate value
Qb = Bell pull-out resistance and/or any point suction. Similarly, as for piles
the point suction contribution is transient and so is seldom used.
W = total pier weight including shaft and bell

FIGURE 6.37
Capacity of a straight or stepped shaft and belled caisson [10]

6.5.3 Structural design of caissons

Since caissons generally have big diameters, the shaft is supported by the
surrounding soil and column slenderness effects are not an issue. Thus, the
design is considerably simplified. Design requirements are usually met if the
shaft diameter is large enough to carry the design load without exceeding
the allowable concrete and steel (if used) stresses. Refer to section 6.2.5 for
further details.

6.6 DESIGN EXAMPLES OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

6.6.1 Example 6.1: Eurocode 7 Design Method (SANS 101600)

This worked example illustrates the design of a bored pile from static load test
results using recommended partial factor values.
...........
236
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

Design situation

Piles are required to support the following loads from a building:

• Characteristic permanent vertical load Gk = 6,0 MN

• Characteristic variable vertical load Qk = 3,2 MN
The design involves determining the number of piles to support the building.
The number of piles is to be determined on the basis of static pile load tests.

Geometry

It has been decided to use bored piles, 1,2 m in diameter and 15 m long.

Measured pile resistance

Static pile load tests have been performed on site on four piles of the same
diameter and length as the chosen piles.

The results of the load-settlement curves are plotted in the figure opposite.

In is assumed that the settlement of the pile top equal to 10% of the pile
base diameter sg = (10/100) × 1,2 × 103 = 120 mm has been adopted as the
“failure” criterion for the piles.

From the load-settlement graphs for each pile (Figure 6.34) this gives:

• Pile 1 Rm = 2,14 MN o Pile 2 Rm = 1,96 MN

• Pile 3 Rm = 1,73 MN o Pile 4 Rm = 2,33 MN

Hence the mean and minimum measured pile resistances are:

(Rm)mean = 2,04 MN
(Rm)min = 1,73 MN

...........
237 RC D 4 8 01/1
 From the load-settlement graphs for each pile (Figure 6.34) this gives:
o Pile 1 Rm = 2,14 MN o Pile 2 Rm = 1,96 MN
o Pile 3 Rm = 1,73 MN o Pile 4 Rm = 2,33 MN
Hence the mean and minimum measured pile resistances are:
 (Rm)mean = 2,04 MN
(Rm)min = 1,73 MN

Figure 6.38: Load-settlement graphs

FIGURE 6.38
Load-settlement
Characteristic resistance graphs
The characteristic pile resistance is obtained by dividing the mean and minimum mea
Characteristic resistance
resistances by the correlation factors ξ1 and ξ2 and choosing the minimum value.
For four load tests, recommended ξ values are ξ1 =1,1 and ξ2 = 1,0
The characteristic pile
Hence resistance is obtained
the characteristic pileby dividing the mean and minimum
resistance
measured pile (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑚𝑚)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑚𝑚)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 {( ); ( )}
𝜁𝜁1 𝜁𝜁2
); ( ξ1 minξ2
2.04 1.73
resistances by the 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,
correlation
𝑘𝑘 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 {(factors
1.1 1.0
)} =and and1.73)
(1.85, choosing the minimum
value.

For four load tests, recommended ξ values are ξ1 =1,1 and ξ2 = 1,0
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020
Hence the characteristic pile resistance

Design Approach

Combinations of sets of partial factors

DA1.C1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1

DA1.C2: A2 “+” M1 “+” R4

Design actions

DA1.C1 – (STR) Ld = ∑ γG,i × Gk,i + γQ1 × Qk,1 = 1.2 ×6.0 + 1.6 × 3.2 =
12,3 MN
DA1.C2 – (GEO) Ld = ∑ γG,i × Gk,i + γQ1 × Qk,1 = 1.0 × 6.0 + 1.3 × 3.2 =
10,2 MN

Characteristic resistances

...........
238
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

Design equation

∑γi Li < ∑ϕi Ri

Hence equating design actions and design resistances for n piles:

DA1.C1 – (STR) 12.3 =1.73 n therefore n = 1 2.3 /1.73 n = 7.1 piles

DA1.C2 – (GEO) 10.2 =1.08 n therefore n = 1 0.2 /1.08 n = 9.4 piles

Design number of piles

Hence DA1.C2 – GEO controls the DA1 design and the number of piles
required is 10.

6.6.2 Example 6.2 – Short Piles

Design a short pile, subject to the given ultimate loads:

Design axial dead load G = 1343 kN ; Design axial Live load L = 700 kN

Concrete strength fcu = 25 MPa, Steel strength fy = 450 MPa, Cover 35 mm

Use a circular column with spiral reinforcement having fy = 240 MPa

Solution:

Longitudinal reinforcement:

Pu = 1.2 G + 1.6 L = 1612 + 1120 = 2732kN, and

N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.67 Asc f y (Equation 6.10)
N = 0.4 × 25 × Ac + 0.67 × Asc × 450 = 10Ac + 301.5Asc = 2732000
Assume µ = Asc/Ac = 1 %
Ac = 207757mm2.

FIGURE 6.39
Cross section of column-pile

...........
239 RC D 4 8 01/1
 D=√ =√ = 515mm, and Dk = 445mm
3.14 3.14

Asc/Ac = 1 % therefore Asc = 2078mm2 and we can use 12Y16


Design of spiral reinforcement

N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.67 Asc fy + 1.36 Vsp fyp (Equation 6.11a)

Ak =
Asc/Ac = 1 % therefore AscπD 2 /4 = π x
= k2078mm2 445
and we2 /4 = use
can 15512Y16
450 mm2

Design of spiral reinforcement

Vsp = (2732000 – 0.4x25x155450 - 0.67x2078x450) /1.38x240 =
N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.67 Asc f y + 1.36 Vsp f yp (Equation 6.11a)
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
μsp2(min) = 0.36 ( ) ( − 1) (Equation 6.11b)
Ak = πDk /4 = π × 445 /4 = 155 450𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
2
mm 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2

Vsp = (2732000 – 0.4 × 25 × 155450 – 250.67 ×207800

2078 ×−450) × 240
μ sp (min) = 0.36 ( ) ( 1) =/1.38
0.0375 =
x 0.3368 = 0.013
1664 mm 3 240 155450

µsp (min) = 0.36 (Equation

Vsp (min) = μsp (min) x Ak =6.11b)
0.013 x 155450 = 2 021mm3

µsp (min) = 0.36 μsp = Vsp / Ak >= μsp (min)× ,0.3368

= 0.0375 = 0.013 Vsp (min) = 2 021 and
use therefore
Vsp (min) = µsp (min) × Ak = 0.013 × 155450
Assuming Y8mm=steel
2 021mm 3
for spiral
µsp = Vsp / Ak >= µspp(min)
=π , use
Asptherefore
Dk / Vsp V=sp3.14x50.2x445
(min)
= 2 021 and / 2021 = 35mm

Assuming Y8mm steel for spiral

p = π Asp Dk / Vsp = 3.14 × 50.2 × 445/2021 = 35 mm

6.6.3 Example 6.3: Long flexible piles

6.6.3 Example 6.3:ALong

longflexible piles
flexible hollow steel pile, shown in Figure 6.40, below, is
Hosteel
A long flexible hollow = 89.1
pile,kN and in
shown a Figure
moment Mobelow,
6.40, = 89.1
is kNm.
horizontally
loaded by a force Ho = 89.1 kN and a moment Mo = 89.1 kNm.

FIGURE
Figure 6.40: Long6.40
flexible pile
Long flexible pile
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design

...........
240
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE
Figure 6.41: Load-settlement 6.41
graphs
Load-settlement graphs
Calculate the following:
Calculate the following:
a. the ultimate load Hou
(a) the ultimate load
b. the Hou and slope at the ground surface under the working load
deflection
(b) the deflection and slope bending
c. the maximum at the ground
momentsurface
under theunder theload
working working load
(c) the maximum bending moment under the working load
d. the factor of safety against yielding of the soil near the ground surface under the worki
(d) the factor of safety against yielding of the soil near the ground surface
load. load.
under the working
Solution
Solution
a. Ultimate load Hou
a. Ultimate load Hou
From the soil profiles, a value of K = 15 000 kPa is selected.
From the soil profiles, a value of K = 15 000 kPa is selected.
Transfer length lo:
Transfer length lo:
4 4𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Lo = √ , Pile moment of inertia I = (D2o-D2l) = (0.614 – 0.5914) = 8.08 x10-4 m4
𝐾𝐾 64 64

E = 2 x108 kPa
E = 2 × 108 kPa
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020

Check if the pile is long and flexible

...........
241 RC D 4 8 01/1


b. Deflection at the ground surface under the working load

= 0.0046 + 0.00022 = 4.86 mm

Slope at the ground surface under the working load

= -1.81 × 10 -3 -0.17 × 10 -3 =

-1.98 rad

c. Depth zmax to maximum moment

Maximum bending moment under the working load

= 228 × 0.44 × 0.673 + 10.9 × 0.44 × (0.73+0.673) = 67.5 + 6.7 = 74.2 kNm

Factor of safety against yielding of the soil near the ground surface under
working load

P = K y = 15000 × 0.00486 = 72.9 kN/m

Pa = P/B = 72.9 / 0.61 = 119.5 kPa
PL within the loaded depth is at least 0.6 MPa = 600 kPa

Ultimate horizontal load:

Hou = 0.75 pL B zmax = 0.75 × 600 × 0.61 × 2.1 = 576.5 kN

The applied load of 89.1 kN is safe load.

6.6.4 Example 6.4: Bearing capacity piles group effect

Calculate the bearing capacity and group efficiency of pile foundation installed
in uniform clay of bulk unit weight, γ of 20kN/m3 and undrained shear strength
of Cu of 50kN/m2. The foundation consists of 25 piles, each 18m long, 0.4m
in diameter and with a weight of 60kN. The weight of the pile cap is 600kN
and founded 1m below the ground level. The adhesion factor α for the soil/
pile interface has a value of 0.8

Assuming that there is only axial load acting on the piles (no moment), check
the main reinforcement required for each pile if fcu = 30MPa Fy =450mm and
the cover 40mm using the interaction diagrams, using SANS 10100.

...........
242
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.42
Group of piles

Solution

Pile block capacity

Calculate single pile bearing capacity:

Rs = α ⋅ Cs ⋅ As = 0.8 ⋅ 50 ⋅ 18⋅ π ⋅ (0.4) = 904 kN (*)

Rb = Nc ⋅Cb ⋅ Ab = 9 ⋅ 50⋅ π ⋅ (0.2)2 = 56.6 kN
∴ Rci = Rsi + Rbi = 904 + 56.6 = 960

(Wp +Wcap) – Ws = (60 × 25+(600-20 × 5.0 × 5.0 × 1.0)) – (20 × 18 ⋅ π ⋅ (0.2) 2 ⋅ 25 = 469 kN (**)
∴ Total load capacity of 25 piles = Ruc25 = (Rci = Rsi + Rbi) ⋅ 25 – {(Wp +Wcap) - Ws}
= 960⋅ 25 – 469 = 23 531 kN

Calculate block load capacity: Rb = 4 × As × Cs × α + Cs × Ab × Nc

= 4 × (18 × 4.4 × 50⋅ 0.8) + 50⋅ 4.4 × 4.4 ⋅ 9 = 25 650 kN
(*) surface area of pile group
(**) weight of soil replaced by pile cap

...........
243 RC D 4 8 01/1


Main Reinforcement

N = 0.4 fcu Ac (Equation 6.10b)

Checking the minimum area of pile section.

Due to the block effect, a pile ultimate capacity has increased from 904KN
to 1024kN, therefore the minimum area of the pile is:

Ac min = 1024000/0.4 × 25 = 102400 and Dmin = 320mm < 400mm OK

Using Figure 6.26, one reads off that the percentage of still is 0.3%, which
is less than the minimum required of 0.8%. according to SANS 10100. This
corresponds to 5Y16. On the interaction diagram, 6Y16 will then be adopted.

6.6.5 Example 6.5: Group Piles – Interaction Diagrams

A summary of critical ultimate loads for a chimney pile foundation of a power
station is given in Table 6.14 below, with the layout provided in Figure 6.43.

TABLE 6.14
Chimney pile design loads

Load case Pile Load Detail Compression Shear Moment

(ULS) Number N (kN) (kN) M(kNm)

Maximum 1 Maximum compression 12595 789 2099

dead plus
seismic repute Maximum moment
1.5LC1
Maximum horizontal

18 Maximum tension -1832 422 1171

Maximum 1 Maximum compression 9920 700 1488

dead plus
seismic Repute Maximum moment
1.5LC3
Maximum horizontal

18 Maximum tension -4448 512 1396

...........
244
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.43
Chimney piles foundation layout

Assuming that all the piles are sitting at 20.5 m on hard rock, determine the
size of the pile as well as the main reinforcement if the concrete characteristic
strength fcu is 30MP and the steel characteristic strength is f y is 450MPa. Use
the cover of 75mm for the pile. Also design the transversal reinforcement in
form of a spiral.

Solution

Main Reinforcement

Assessment of pile diameter.

N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.67 Asc f y (Equation 6.10a)

From the minimum steel requirement of 0.8%, one can determine the minimum
area which is required.

12595000 = 0.4 × 30 × Ac + 0.67 × 0.8 × Ac × 450

Ac = 874653 mm2 and the minimum diameter D = = 1056 mm

One can then choose the next diameter size of pile, which is 1200 mm.

...........
245 RC D 4 8 01/1
 4𝑥𝑥874653
Ac = 874653mm2 and the minimum diameter D = √ = 1056mm
3.14


One can then choose then the next diameter size of pile, which is 1200mm.

Main
Mainreinforcement
reinforcement using
using the interactiondiagram.
the interaction diagram.

Plottingall
Plotting allthe
thecritical
critical 4
4 load
loadcases
cases points
pointson
onFigure
Figure6.44
6.44one found
one thatthat
found the the
last case LC3-18 is
last
thecase
oneLC3-18 is the the
determining onemain
determining the main
steel design. steel design.
Therefore, 22Y32 Therefore, 22Y32 corresponding
bars or 17685mm2
bars or 17685 mm2 corresponding to 1.56% is retained (after interpolation)
to 1.56% is retained (after interpolation)

FIGUREdiagram
Figure 6.44: Design aid - Interaction 6.44
Design aid – Interaction diagram
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020
Spiral Reinforcement

The reinforcement requirements for shear are checked using the recommendation
given in SANS 10100-1 for the shear resistance of beams (Clause 4.3.4). This
requires that the pile be modelled as an equivalent rectangular section and an
assumption be made with regard to the percentage of tension reinforcement.
In this case, we used an equivalent square section of 1064 mm with tension
reinforcement of 40% of the pile main reinforcement.

Load case LC1-1

Equivalent base b = 1064 mm; Equivalent height h = 961 mm, V = 789kN,

M = 2099 kNm

As = 70740 mm2, Concrete strength fcu = 30MPa, Steel strength f y = 450MPa,

Cover 75 mm

V= = 0.772 N/mm2

Maximum stress vmax = 0.75 × = 4.1N/mm2 < 4.75 N/mm2

...........
246
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

v’c > v No shear reinforcement required but use construction or nominal steel.

Load case LC3-18

Equivalent base b = 1064 mm; Equivalent height h = 961 mm, V = 512kN,

M = 1396kNm

As = 70740 mm2, Concrete strength fcu = 3

 0MPa, Steel strength fy = 450MPa,
Cover 75 mm

Other cases can be seen in the summary table (Table 6.15) below

TABLE 6.15
Summary of design check for shear

...........
247 RC D 4 8 01/1


6.7 QUESTIONS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT

(1) A 12 m long and 400mm diameter concrete pile is driven into sand where
the friction angle of the sand is ∅’= 38°. The unit weight of the sand is
18kN/m3. Estimate the maximum load allowed on the pile.
(2) A 400 mm diameter and 15 m long concrete pile is driven into 12 m of
loose sand that was underlain by very stiff clay. Estimate its load carrying
capacity. The geotechnical parameters of the sand and stiff clay are
respectively as shown in Figure 6.45:
Sand ∅’= 29°; Unit weight γ = 18 kN/m3
Stiff clay cu = 90kN/m2; Unit weight γ = 18 kN/m3 73

FIGUREcharacteristics
Figure 6.45: Geotechnical 6.45
Geotechnical characteristics
3. A precast concrete 300mm x 300mm pile is driven through 6m of very soft clay into a stiff clay
(3) A precast concrete 300
with the mm ×characteristics:
following 300 mm pile is driven through 6 m of very
soft clay into a stiff clay with the following characteristics:
Dead load (permanent unfavourable) = 250kN
Dead load (permanent unfavourable) = 250kN
Imposed load (variable unfavourable) = 115kN
Imposed load (variable unfavourable) = 115kN
Uplift load (variable unfavourable) = 200kN
Uplift load (variable unfavourable) = 200kN
Undrained shear tests were conducted on three samples and results is are shown below in
Undrained shear tests6.46.
Figure were conducted
Determine on penetration
the required three samples and
of the pile intoresults areto carry the
the stiff clay
shown below inspecified
Figureloading.
6.46.Use
Determine
the Eurocodethe required
EC7 and SANSpenetration
10100 methods. of the
pile into the stiff clay to carry the specified loading. Use the Eurocode
EC7 and SANS 10100 methods.

Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020

...........
248
 CHAP T ER   6:  D e e p f o u n d at i o ns – p i l e a n d c a iss o n d e si g n

FIGURE 6.46
Figure 6.46: Cu versus Depth in m
Cu versus Depth in m

(4) A 300 × 300 mm 4. A square

300 x 300mm
precastsquare precast concrete
concrete pile, 25pile, 25m long,
m long, is driveninto
is driven into the ground with a
the ground withhammer
a hammer of 40kNofwith
40kNa free fall ofa1m
with andfall
free having an efficiency
of 1m and havingof 0.8. The weight of the
an efficiency of 35kN.
0.8. The weight ofof the
The coefficient ram isis 0.35.
restitution 35kN.
TheThe coefficient
modulus of elasticityofof the concrete is 2
restitution is 0.35.
andThe modulus
the unit weight ofoftheelasticity
concrete isof the 3concrete
24kN/m . Estimate theis 25GPa
maximum allowable load o
and the unit weight of the
pile using all concrete
four dynamic isformulae,
24kN/mnamely 3
. Estimate the maximum
Hiley, Janbu, Danish and Modified ENR.
allowable load on the pile using all four dynamic formulae, namely Hiley,
Janbu, Danish and Modified ENR.
5. Using the pile in question 4, assuming that the pile is in reinforced concrete of fcu = 40M
(5) Using the pile in question 4, assuming that the pile is in reinforced concrete
of fcu = 40MP, f450y
=MPa,
450calculate the steel reinforcement of the pile corresponding to the worst case
MPa, calculate the steel reinforcement of the
pile corresponding scenario
to theduring
worsttransportation
case scenarioand picking up operations
during from fabrication
transportation and yard to the site
handling.
picking up operations from fabrication yard to the site handling.
(6) A square group of 9 piles was driven into soft clay extending to a large
depth. The diameter and length of the piles were 300 mm and 9 m
respectively. If the unconfined compression strength of the clay is 90 kN/
Deep Foundations – Pile and Caisson Design OctoberAug 2 2020
m2, and the pile spacing is 900 mm centre to centre, what is the capacity
of the group? Assume a factor of safety of 2.5 and adhesion factor of 0.75.

6.8 REFERENCES
[1] Design Implementation of Pile Foundation, M Jaiswal, Helsinki Metropolia
University of Applied Sciences, Civil Engineering, Finland, BSc. Thesis,
June 2017.

[2] Geotechnical Engineering, C Venkatramaiah, New Age International

Publishers, Revised third edition, 2006.

...........
249 RC D 4 8 01/1


[3] Piles Design and Construction Practice, M Tomlinson and J Woodward,

Taylor & Francis Group, Sixth edition, London, and New York, 2015

[4] Geotechnical engineering: Unsaturated and saturated soils, J L Briaud,

John Willey & Sons, Incorporated, 2013

[5] A Guide to Practical Geotechnical Engineering in Africa, Franki – A Keller

Company, 5th Edition, 2019.

[6] Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules, 2004

[7] Pile and Pier Foundation Analysis and Design, Pieter J Bosscher, University
of Wisconsin – Madison USA, Online presentation material, 2011.

[8] Hydraulic Structures – Caissons Lecture notes: M Z Voorendt, W F Molenaar

and K G Bezuyan, Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands, February 2011.

[9] OSJB Holding Corporation – Oriental Shiraishi Corporation, Tokyo Japan

web site.

[10] Foundation Analysis and Design Fifth Edition, J E Bowles, The Mc-Graw-
Hill Companies, Illinois, 1997.

...........
250
CHAPTER
7  7

Software applications for designing

7

structural components

7.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Nowadays, the use of software applications in design of structural elements
in civil engineering in general and structural engineering in particular is
undeniable. Almost everyone in consulting engineering firms, contracting
businesses or governmental organisations uses software applications. This is due
to the high level of penetration of information technology in our professional
lives and, with the dawning of the fourth industrial revolution, this trend will
only increase. This section, therefore, is more informative than descriptive due
to the variety in the software engineering market. By the end of this chapter,
you will have been informed of and encouraged to use certain of the software
applications that are commonly encountered in the consulting environment.
The assessment criteria are therefore summarised as follows:

Outcome Assessment criteria

Increased awareness of the • Using a commercial software application PROKON

use of commercial software to design structural elements, e.g. beams, slabs,
applications such as Prokon columns, prestressed beams, piles.
and Staad to design structural • Submission of the design project containing
elements – this, given the calculation notes and drawings in form of a
theoretical understanding of technical report. (Project)
structural analysis, drawing
and computer literacy skills
that students already have.

7.2 RIBBED AND WAFFLE SLABS

One might think that any software application that helps to design conventional
solid slabs will also have, in principle, a specific designated module to design
ribbed and waffle slabs. Unfortunately, this is not the case. As far as waffle
and ribbed slabs (being special cases of solid slabs) are concerned, not many
software applications (such as RTSLAB – RIB [1]) are to be found on the market.
This program can accommodate most of the international codes, such as the
American, European and Chinese codes. Unfortunately, however, it does not

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251 RC D 4 8 01/1


cater for South African code. FLOORCAD [2] software is an example of a

package used in South Africa and elsewhere to design hollow cored slabs.

Please note that our mentioning these software brands does not imply any
tacit recommendation to you. Rather, it should serve as a motivation for you to
search on the market for software which is more appropriate for the problem
you want to solve. As we are all aware in software engineering, there is never
any one solution that fits all problems. The emphasis, really, is to encourage
you to seek out the correct program, try it and then to be satisfied with the
results it produces with reference to your specific problem.

7.3 PRECAST, COMPOSITE ELEMENTS AND PLAIN WALLS

The purpose of this section on software applications is to inform you that
there are many software applications on the market and to motivate you to
do your own research and decide on what is appropriate for your problem.
For the design of precast and composite elements, as well as plain walls the
following software applications have been found to be useful: AStrut Tie 2017
[3], PROKON [4], and STAAD [5].

You are encouraged to do some research before deciding which program

is best to use for your problem. Personal involvement in the search for and
satisfaction with software outputs should be among your motivations to acquire
any product.

7.4 DEEP CONCRETE BEAMS

For deep concrete beam design, AStrut Tie 2017 [3] has been picked up as one
of the most mentioned in this category. Other software may exist and you are
encouraged to search for it and find out exactly what you want.

7.5 PRESTRESSED BEAMS AND SLABS

Prestressed concrete element design, being a popular topic, is well served
in terms of software applications. One can cite the following STAAD [5],
PRECONSLAB [6], PROKON [4], SAFE 2020 [7], PRE-STRESS-STRUSOFT [8],
and many others.

Most of these programs design and analyse prestressed or reinforced concrete

flooring and beams systems using European (Eurocode) , American (ACI), British
BS, and South African codes (SANS).

Make sure that the choice you make for your software application is appropriate,
as there is no such thing as one size fits all when solving problems using
specialised engineering software.

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 CHAP T ER  7:   S o f t w a r e a p p li c at i o ns f o r d e si g ni n g s t r u c t u r a l co m p o n e nt s

7.6 PILES AND CAISSONS

You need to be well informed on the software applications used to design
piles and caissons as there are many software applications on the marketplace.
The most prominent ones are REPUTES [9], PLAXIS [10], GEO 5 [11]. The
first-mentioned, namely REPUTES, can, for instance, be used to design single
piles and pile groups under any loading conditions. It should be mentioned
that the choice of a piece of software for a consulting company will depend
on many factors, among which are the company’s size and exposure to deep
foundation construction work. Two extreme cases are possible. If the company
is big, of international renown and involved in huge geotechnical projects,
REPUTES could well be appropriate, but if the frequency of working on deep
foundations is less important (in the case of small and medium consulting
houses), one may even – in the worst case scenario – not even need a program
because the design can be handled by hand. In between are a whole range
of medium-sized companies that can use any software they can afford and
have found appropriate for their use. This is the reason why we insist that you
conduct your own research in the market and find the software appropriate
for the type of work you are doing.

7.7 REFERENCES
[1] https://www.rib-software.com/en/solutions/structural-engineering/
structural-member-design/rtslab-simple-building-construction-slab

[2] https://www.floorcad.com

[3] http://astruttie.aroad.co.kr/main/main.php

[4] https://www.prokon.com

[5] 
https://www.bentley.com/en/perspectives-and-viewpoints/
topics/campaign/staad-above-the-rest?mkwid=sJdwj0L4N_
pcrid_440423600807_pkw_staad_pmt_b_pdv_c_
slid__pgrid_102184174753_ptaid_kwd320412558706_&intent=STAAD
+Search&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIiKboqYbS6gIVCbLtCh3
DpQD0EAAYASAAEgKPFvD_BwE

[6] http://www.flooroffice.eu/en/design-engineer-preconslab.html

[7] https://www.csiamerica.com/products/safe

[8] https://strusoft.com/precast/software/pre-stress

[9] https://www.geocentrix.co.uk/repute/

[10] https://www.finesoftware.eu/geotechnical-software/

[11] https://www.bentley.com/en/products/brands/plaxis

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253 RC D 4 8 01/1
 8 List of symbols

Symbol Meaning Unit

fc Compressive strength of concrete MPa

ft Tensile strength of concrete MPa

Ec,28 Modulus of elasticity of concrete at 28 days GPa

fcu Characteristic compressive strength of concrete MPa

fcu,28 Characteristic compressive cube strength of concrete at 28 days MPa

G Shear modulus GPa

ν Poisson’s ratio GPa

E Young’s modulus GPa

Final shrinkage value

Ultimate creep coefficient

fy Characteristic tensile strength of steel reinforcement MPa

f yv Characteristic tensile strength of shear reinforcement MPa

β Lifetime reliability index

Dn Deal load effect kN

γi Partial load factor for limit state design

Qnj Dominant imposed loads kN

Qni Non-dominant imposed loads kN

yi Load combination factor

t Topping slab thickness mm

Mu Factored bending moment one-way slab kNm

F Strength reduction factor for flexure one-way slab

b Web width mm

lc Centre-to-centre distance between ribs – one-way slab mm

Wu Maximum bending moment – one-way slab kNm

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254
 L is t o f s y m b o ls

Symbol Meaning Unit

fr Module of rupture of the topping – one-way slab MPa

Ft Transverse force loop connection kN

Ny Yield load loop connection kN

θ Strut inclination

∅ Diameter of U-bar mm

σc,rad Radial stress loop connection MPa

r Radius of the bend of loop connection U mm

M Bending moment kNm

fc Maximum stress in concrete of a composite beam MPa

ft Maximum stress in a steel beam MPa

It Second moment of area of transformed section mm4

Is Second moment of area of transformed section mm4

Ec Module of elasticity of concrete GPa

Es Module of elasticity of transformed section GPa

fct Maximum stress in transformed section MPa

Cr Compressive force in concrete kN

Tr Tensile force in steel kN

As Area of steel beam mm2

be Effective breadth of concrete slab mm

a Depth of compressive stress block mm

Mrc Moment of resistance kNm

PRd Stud shear resistance – shear connection kN

fu Specified tensile strength of the stud MPa

fck Characteristic compressive strength of concrete MPa

Ecm Mean value of the secant modulus of concrete MPa

γv Partial safety

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255 RC D 4 8 01/1


Symbol Meaning Unit

d Diameter of the shank of the stud mm

l Slenderness ratio

h Effective height – plain wall m

ho Height of plain wall m

Pu Ultimate strength of panel kN

Φ Strength reduction factor

Ac Gross area section mm2

H Height of panel mm

t Thickness of member mm

Asc Area of steel in tension mm

NRD Axial resistance of plain wall kN

e Eccentricity mm

etot Eccentricity total mm

wk Crack width mm

Sr,max Maximum crack spacing mm

εsm Reinforcement mean strain

εcm Mean strain in the concrete between cracks

σs Stress in tension reinforcement MPa

αe Stiffness ratio Ec / Es

ρp,eff Area ratio As / Ac,eff

kt Time dependent factor

∅eq Equivalent diameter for a section mm

k1,k2,k3,k4 Eurocode 2 recommended coefficients

Fi Force in the strut or tie kN

li Length of a member i m

εmi Strain in member i

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256
 L is t o f s y m b o ls

Symbol Meaning Unit

σRd,max Design strength of concrete strut MPa

f yd Design tensile strength of reinforcement MPa

f yk Characteristic tensile resistance of steel MPa

fctd Design tensile strength MPa

fctk Characteristic axial tensile strength for concrete MPa

γs Partial safety factor for steel

γc Partial safety factor for concrete

αcc Long-term effect of concrete = 1, if not given

As;min Minimum steel reinforcement mm2

As;max Minimum steel reinforcement mm2

fbd Ultimate bond stress of steel MPa

Ibd Design anchor length mm

P Prestressed force kN

A Area about the centroid axis of cross section mm2

I Second moment of area of transformed section mm4

y Distance from centroid mm

M Moment on uncracked section kNm

γm Partial safety factor for concrete

εco Strain at intersection of parabola and straight line concrete

model

εcu Maximum strain in concrete parabolic rectangular model

(0.0035)

ftop Stress in extreme top fibre MPa

fbot Stress in extreme bottom fibre MPa

Ztop Section modulus with reference to top fibre mm3

Zbot Section modulus with reference to top fibre mm3

fr Modulus of rupture MPa

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257 RC D 4 8 01/1


Symbol Meaning Unit

Mcr Cracking moment MPa

Mu Ultimate moment of section with bonded tendon MPa

Aps Area of prestressing tendons mm2

fps Design tensile stress in tendons at failure MPa

dn Depth to centre of compression zone mm

d Effective depth to centroid of steel area Aps mm

fpu Characteristic strength of the prestressing steel MPa

fpy Defined yield stress of the prestressing steel MPa

fps Ultimate stress in the prestressing steel MPa

fse Design effective prestress in tendons after losses MPa

Ep Modulus of elasticity prestressing steel GPa

Ec Modulus of elasticity concrete GPa

Dn Deal load – Self-weight kN

Ln Imposed live load kN

Wn Wind load kN

fci Concrete compressive strength at transfer MPa

η Coefficient of prestress losses

ftop,t Stress at top fibre at transfer MPa

fbot,t Stress at bottom fibre at transfer MPa

ftop,s Stress at top fibre at serviceability state MPa

fbot,s Stress at bottom fibre at serviceability state MPa

ftt Allowable tensile stress at transfer MPa

fts Allowable tensile stress at serviceability state MPa

fct Allowable compressive stress at transfer MPa

fcs Allowable compressive stress at serviceability state MPa

Mmax Maximum external moment kNm

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258
 L is t o f s y m b o ls

Symbol Meaning Unit

Mmin Minimum external moment kNm

A’c Concrete area under compression at ultimate mm2

fcp Concrete stress at steel level immediately after transfer MPa

∆fp Elastic stress loss in pretensioned/post-tensioned steel MPa

µ Coefficient of friction

εc (t) Creep losses for concrete MPa

Vmax Design maximum shear force kN

Vcr Ultimate shear resistance of cracked section MPa

Vco Shear resistance of uncracked section MPa

vc Design shear stress MPa

δw Instantaneous elastic deflection mm

δ∞, w Long-term creep deflection due to permanent load mm

∅(t) Creep coefficient

δ∞, p Long-term creep deflection due to prestress mm

δ∞, s Long-term creep deflection due to shrinkage load mm

Px Prestressing force per unit length in x direction kN/m

Py Prestressing force per unit length in y direction kN/m

wpx Balancing force per unit length in x direction kN/m2

wpy Balancing force per unit length in y direction kN/m2

Mx * Prestressed slab design moment in x direction per unit width kNm/m

My* Prestressed slab design moment in y direction per unit width kNm/m

βx Moment coefficient depending on support condition in x

direction

βy Moment coefficient depending on support condition in x

direction

Rc,k Characteristic pile resistance MN

ζ1, ζ2 Correlation factors

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259 RC D 4 8 01/1


Symbol Meaning Unit

Rd Design resistance

N Ultimate axial load short column kN

Asp Area of spiral reinforcement mm2

µsp Volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core

p Pitch of spiral mm

Dk Diameter of cross sectional core mm

Qp Ultimate pile resistance kN

Qb End bearing pile resistance kN

Qs Skin friction pile resistance kN

τ Pile shear strength MPa

ca Pile shaft adhesion kPa

σn Normal stress between pile and soil MPa

Ab Area of base mm2

cu Cohesion of soil kPa

Cu Undrained shear strength kPa

Ks Coefficient of earth pressure

Nc,Nq ,Nγ Bearing capacity factors

Qult Ultimate pile capacity by (Dynamic formulae) KPa

SF Safety factor

Hou Ultimate horizontal load for piles KPa

K Soil stiffness – Spring constant of soil KPa

Lo Transfer length m

Eo Pressure meter first load modulus GPa

PL Average limit pressure within z depth kPa

y(z) Pile displacement at depth z mm

y’(z) Slope at depth z rad

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260
 L is t o f s y m b o ls

Symbol Meaning Unit

M(z) Bending moment at depth z kNm

Ho Shear at ground surface kN

L Pile length m

Asb Surface area of block of piles m2

Abb Base area of block of piles m2

η Pile group efficiency factor

n Number of piles in the group

Hou(group) Ultimate horizontal load for the group kN

Hou(single) Ultimate horizontal load for a single pile kN

ηlp Efficiency factor for leading piles

ηtp Efficiency factor for leading piles

λ Ratio between ultimate leading piles and trailing piles

Qult c Ultimate capacity of a caisson kN

ΣQsi Ultimate skin resistance for a caisson N/mm2

ΣQ’si Limiting skin resistance for a caisson N/mm2

Qp Ultimate point bearing along the shaft of a caisson kN

ΣQL Bearing resistance due to any changes in shaft diameter N/mm2

D Diameter of the pile shaft-caisson m

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261 RC D 4 8 01/1