Chapter 2 – Electrical Theory

Engr. Sean Kyle R. Mabiog, RMP, SO2

 Content

Phenomenon of Electricity
Electric Current
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
Producing Current Flow
 Electrical Theory
The Phenomenon of Electricity
Electricity is a physical phenomenon tied to the behavior of
positively and negatively charged elementary particles of an
atom. An introduction on the elementary particles of an atom
is necessary to develop a sense of what electricity is and how
it behaves.

Two theories exist: The Classical Theory and the Modern

Theory.
Recap…
Chemical elements are the fundamental materials that make up matter;
they are the building blocks of the universe. Hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon, silicon, copper, iron, silver, and gold are among the
more than 100 known elements.
Atoms are the smallest unit of an element and are composed of several
kinds of elementary particles, including protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
Recap…
Electricity is a property of the basic particles of matter which like an
atom, consists of:
a. Electron – is the negatively charged particle of an atom and
sometimes referred to as the negative charge of electricity.
b. Proton – is the positively charged particle of an atom and sometimes
referred to as the positive charge of electricity. It weighs about 1850
times as much as the electron.
c. Neutron – is that particle of an atom which is not electrically charged
and weighs slightly more than the proton.
Recap…

The Law of Charges states that opposite charges attract each

other and like charges repel each other. Thus, negatively
charged electrons are attracted to positively charged protons.
Conversely, negatively charged electrons tend to repel one
another.
Recap…
Each atom of a single element has an equal number of protons and
electrons: hydrogen has 1 proton, oxygen has 8, iron has 26, and so on.
The number of electrons contained in an atom determines its chemical
and electrical properties. When an atom has an equal number of
electrons and protons, charges cancel and the atom is electrically
neutral. It has no charge. An atom containing fewer electrons than
protons is positively charged. On the other hand, an atom containing
more electrons than protons is negatively charged.
Charged atoms are called ions. A positive ion is a positively charged
atom and a negatively charged atom is called a negative ion.
Recap…
Protons and neutrons occupy the nucleus of an atom. Most of the mass
of the atom resides in its nucleus. Although the like charges of protons
tend to cause protons to repel each other, the gravitational attraction
from their relatively large masses overcomes this effect. Electrons whirl
in a high-velocity orbit around an atom’s nucleus much like a satellite
orbits the earth. An electron’s high rate of speed causes it to attempt to
escape the attraction of the proton. However, the strong attraction
between the positively charged proton and negatively charged electron
causes the electron to reside in a balanced orbit around the nucleus.
Recap…
When in a balanced orbit, electrons move in spherical paths called
orbital shells that surround the nucleus of an atom. Each orbital shell
has a maximum capacity of electrons; that is, a maximum number of
electrons can reside in a shell. The first orbital shell can contain up to 2
electrons; the second shell can contain up to 8; the third shell, up to
18; the forth shell, up to 32.
The outermost orbital shell of an atom is called the valence shell.
Electrons contained in the valence shell are called valence electrons.
The outermost shell can contain no more than half of its capacity or a
maximum of 8 electrons before the next shell begins to fill. The number
of valence electrons determines the electrical properties of a material.
 Classical Theory: Flow of Electrons
In classical theory, electrical current is electron flow. Electrons in an
orbital shell near the nucleus have a strong attraction to the protons in
the nucleus and thus are difficult to free. Electrons in outer orbital
shells experience a weaker attraction and are more easily freed. Energy
can be added to an electron to move it to the next higher orbital shell.
If sufficient additional energy is added, a valence electron can be forced
out of the atom. Such an electron is said to be free. These free electrons
make up electrical current flow.
 Modern Theory: Flow of Charged Particles
In modern theory, electricity is tied to even smaller subatomic particles
that possess either a positive or negative electromagnetic charge. Not
all subatomic particles have a charge. It is only the subatomic charged
particles, those with an electromagnetic charge, that are associated
with electricity. As in the classical theory, charged particles with like
charges repel one another and charged particles with unlike charges
attract one another. The electromagnetic force between two charged
particles is greater than the gravitational force between the two, so
flow of electricity is the flow of charged subatomic particles caused by
these repelling and attracting forces.
 Electric Current
A flow of electric charge through a conductor is an electrical current or,
simply current. When opposite charges are placed across a conductor,
negatively charged subatomic particles move from the negative charge
to the positive charge. Actual movement of a single subatomic particle
is fairly slow, averaging about one-half inch per second. However, the
chain-reaction effect of current flow occurs very rapidly, at about the
speed of light (about 186 000 miles/s or 300 000 m/s).
 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
a. Conductors - carries electrical current without providing too much
resistance to current flow. Some materials convey electricity better
than others and are good conductors of electricity.
In classical theory, the electrons of metal atoms migrate freely from
atom to atom across the entire metal body while in modern theory it is
charged particles that move freely through the conductor. Metallic
elements are good conductors of electricity. Silver is the best natural
conductor of electricity, followed by copper, gold, and aluminum.
b. Insulators - are materials that resist the flow of electricity. They have
electrons that tend to retain electrons on their original atoms, making
it difficult for electrons to move and conduct electricity. Insulators are
nonmetallic elements and compounds such as glass and other ceramic
materials. Most ceramics such as glass, rubber, and plastics are good
insulators. Even air is a good insulator at low to medium voltages.
c. Semiconductors - are materials that are neither good conductors nor
good insulators. They behave like good conductors at high temperature
and insulators at low temperature. (Heat has the opposite effect on
conductors). At room temperature, the conductivity of some
semiconductors falls somewhere between that of a good conductor
and an insulator.
Semiconductors are solid-state devices such as diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits, which are used in most electronic devices such as
computers and sound systems. The two most common materials used
in the production of electronic components are silicon and
germanium. Of the two, silicon is used more often because of its ability
to withstand heat.
 Producing Current Flow
Electricity is the flow of current through a conductor. Current must be
forced to flow in a conductor by the presence of a charge. There are six
primary ways that current can be forced to move through a conductor:
a. Static Electricity
b. Thermoelectricity
c. Piezoelectricity
d. Electrochemistry
e. Photoelectricity
f. Magnetoelectricity
a. Static Electricity
Static electricity from friction: Simply rubbing two materials together
produces a charge of static electricity. Heat energy caused by friction
frees electrons near the surface of one material and they move to the
other material. A comb becomes electrostatically charged when you
run it through your hair. The soles of shoes become statically charged
when they are rubbed across carpet. This charge is discharged when an
electrical fixture or door handle is touched.
b. Thermoelectricity

Thermoelectricity is electricity from heat. When two dissimilar metals

are joined, a thermoelectric charge is created when the joined metals
are heated. This device is called a thermocouple. Heat frees electrons
in one metal and they transfer to the other metal creating the charge.
When the materials cool, the charge dissipates.
c. Piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity is electricity from pressure. Certain crystalline materials

produce a piezoelectric charge when a force deforms or strains the
material. The pressure forces the electrons to one side of the material,
causing it to be negatively charged while the side losing the electrons
becomes positively charged. Strain gauges and phonograph needles
apply this principle.
d. Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is electricity from a chemical reaction. A galvanic

reaction produces opposite electrical charges in two dissimilar metals
when they are placed in certain chemical solutions. The ordinary
flashlight and car battery produce electricity using this principle.
e. Photoelectricity

Photoelectricity is electricity from light. When small particles of light

called photons strike a material, they release energy that can cause
atoms to release electrons. When light strikes the surface of one of two
plates that are joined together, energy from the light forces electrons
to be released to the second plate. The plates build up opposite
electrical charges.
f. Magnetoelectricity

Magnetoelectricity is electricity from magnetism. The force of a

magnetic field can drive electron flow. When any good conductor such
as a copper or aluminum wire moves through a magnetic field, the
force of the field causes free electrons to move in one direction across
the conductor. Reversing the direction of conductor movement
reverses direction of electron flow.
End of discussion.