UT – Ultrasonic Testing

[ASME Sec V Article 4 & 5]

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 1

Introduction:

Ultrasonic test instruments have been used in industrial applications for more than
sixty years. Since the 1940s, the laws of physics that govern the propagation of high
frequency sound waves through solid materials have been used to detect hidden cracks,
voids, porosity, and other internal discontinuities in metals, composites, plastics, and
ceramics, as well as to measure thickness and analyze material properties. Ultrasonic testing
is completely nondestructive and safe, and it is a well established test method in many basic
manufacturing, process, and service industries, especially in applications involving welds
and structural metals.

Basic Principle:

“Acoustic Impendence Mismatch”

Procedure:

ASME Sec V Article 4 & 5

Sound Theory:

Acoustic Impendence:

Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because
molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pressure
results in a wave propagating through the solid.

The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of its density (p) and
acoustic velocity (V). Z = pV

Acoustic impedance is important in

1. The determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of two

materials having different acoustic impedances.
2. The design of ultrasonic transducers.
3. Assessing absorption of sound in a medium.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 2

 Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials,
which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of atoms,
which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many
different patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most are
irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that contain
many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not
stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform
elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium
positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces
between particles, combined with inertia of the particles, that leads to the oscillatory
motions of the medium.

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way
the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface
waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two
modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement
responsible for the propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated below.

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction
of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are active in these waves,
they are also called pressure or compressional waves. They are also sometimes called

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 3

 density waves because their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves
can be generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic
structure by a series of compressions and expansion (rarefaction) movements.

In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to
the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective
propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or
gasses. Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear
waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal waves.

Modes of Sound Wave Propagation:

In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in the
direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can
support vibrations in other directions, hence, a number
of different types of sound waves are possible. Waves
can be characterized in space by oscillatory patterns that
are capable of maintaining their shape and propagating
in a stable manner. The propagation of waves is often
described in terms of what are called “wave modes.”

As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most often
used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and interfaces, various types of elliptical
or complex vibrations of the particles make other waves possible. Some of these wave
modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb waves are also useful for ultrasonic inspection.

The table below summarizes many, but not all, of the wave modes possible in solids.

Wave Types in Solids Particle Vibrations

Longitudinal Parallel to wave direction
Transverse (Shear) Perpendicular to wave direction
Surface - Rayleigh Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode
Plate Wave - Lamb Component perpendicular to surface (extensional
wave)

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 4

 Longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed on the previous page, so let's
touch on surface and plate waves here.

Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel the surface

of a relatively thick solid material penetrating to a
depth of one wavelength. Surface waves combine
both a longitudinal and transverse motion to create
an elliptic orbit motion as shown in the image and
animation below. The major axis of the ellipse is
perpendicular to the surface of the solid. As the depth of an individual atom from the surface
increases the width of its elliptical motion decreases. Surface waves are generated when a
longitudinal wave intersects a surface near the second critical angle and they travel at a
velocity between .87 and .95 of a shear wave. Rayleigh waves are useful because they are
very sensitive to surface defects (and other surface features) and they follow the surface
around curves. Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to inspect areas that other
waves might have difficulty reaching.

Plate waves are similar to surface waves except they

can only be generated in materials a few wavelengths thick.
Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate waves in
NDT. Lamb waves are complex vibrational waves that
propagate parallel to the test surface throughout the
thickness of the material. Propagation of Lamb waves
depends on the density and the elastic material properties
of a component. They are also influenced a great deal by the
test frequency and material thickness. Lamb waves are
generated at an incident angle in which the parallel component of the velocity of the wave in
the source is equal to the velocity of the wave in the test material. Lamb waves will travel
several meters in steel and so are useful to scan plate, wire, and tubes.

With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but the two
most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex motion of the particles is
similar to the elliptical orbits for surface waves. Symmetrical Lamb waves move in a

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 5

 symmetrical fashion about the median plane of the plate. This is sometimes called the
extensional mode because the wave is “stretching and compressing” the plate in the wave
motion direction. Wave motion in the symmetrical mode is most efficiently produced when
the exciting force is parallel to the plate. The asymmetrical Lamb wave mode is often called
the “flexural mode” because a large portion of the motion moves in a normal direction to the
plate, and a little motion occurs in the direction parallel to the plate. In this mode, the body
of the plate bends as the two surfaces move in the same direction.

Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity

Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials are

wavelength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional to the velocity
of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. This relationship is
shown by the following equation.

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)

Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in acoustic

impedances (Z) of the materials on each side of the boundary. (See preceding page for more
information on acoustic impedance.) This difference in Z is commonly referred to as the
impedance mismatch. The greater the impedance mismatch, the greater the percentage of
energy that will be reflected at the interface or boundary between one medium and another.

The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be derived because
particle velocity and local particle pressures must be continuous across the boundary.
When the acoustic impedances of the materials on both sides of the boundary are known,
the fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be calculated with the
equation below. The value produced is known as the reflection coefficient. Multiplying the

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 6

 reflection coefficient by 100 yields the amount of energy reflected as a percentage of the
original energy.

Since the amount of reflected energy plus the transmitted energy must equal the
total amount of incident energy, the transmission coefficient is calculated by simply
subtracting the reflection coefficient from one.

Formulations for acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients (pressure) are

shown in the interactive applet below. Different materials may be selected or the material
velocity and density may be altered to change the acoustic impedance of one or both
materials. The red arrow represents reflected sound and the blue arrow represents
transmitted sound.

Refraction and Snell's Law

When an ultrasonic wave passes through an interface between two materials at an

oblique angle, and the materials have different indices of refraction, both reflected and
refracted waves are produced. This also occurs with light, which is why objects seen across
an interface appear to be shifted relative to where they really are. For example, if you look
straight down at an object at the bottom of a glass of water, it looks closer than it really is. A
good way to visualize how light and sound refract is to shine a flashlight into a bowl of
slightly cloudy water noting the refraction angle with respect to the incident angle.

Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves
within the two materials. The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the
material properties (elastic modulus and density) for that material. In the animation below,
a series of plane waves are shown traveling in one material and entering a second material
that has a higher acoustic velocity. Therefore, when the wave encounters the interface
between these two materials, the portion of the wave in the second material is moving
faster than the portion of the wave in the first material. It can be seen that this causes the
wave to bend.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 7

 Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities of the waves.
Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the sine's of
incident () and refracted () angles, as shown in the following equation.

Where:

VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.

VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.

Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (VL1' ) shown. This wave is
reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the two waves are traveling in the
same material, and hence have the same velocities. This reflected wave is unimportant in
our explanation of Snell's Law, but it should be remembered that some of the wave energy is
reflected at the interface. In the applet below, only the incident and refracted longitudinal
waves are shown. The angle of either wave can be adjusted by clicking and dragging the
mouse in the region of the arrows. Values for the angles or acoustic velocities can also be
entered in the dialog boxes so the that applet can be used as a Snell's Law calculator.

When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is an incident
angle that makes the angle of refraction for the wave 90o. This is know as the first critical
angle. The first critical angle can be found from Snell's law by putting in an angle of 90° for
the angle of the refracted ray. At the critical angle of incidence, much of the acoustic energy
is in the form of an inhomogeneous compression wave, which travels along the interface
and decays exponentially with depth from the interface. This wave is sometimes referred to
as a "creep wave." Because of their inhomogeneous nature and the fact that they decay
rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively as Rayleigh surface waves in NDT.
However, creep waves are sometimes more useful than Rayleigh waves because they suffer
less from surface irregularities and coarse material microstructure due to their longer
wavelengths.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 8

Mode Conversion

When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be transformed into
another form. For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at an angle, some of
the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse direction to start a shear
(transverse) wave. Mode conversion occurs when a wave encounters an interface between
materials of different acoustic impedances and the incident angle is not normal to the
interface. From the ray tracing movie below, it can be seen that since mode conversion
occurs every time a wave encounters an interface at an angle, ultrasonic signals can become
confusing at times.

In the previous section, it was pointed out that when sound waves pass through an
interface between materials having different acoustic velocities, refraction takes place at the
interface. The larger the difference in acoustic velocities between the two materials, the
more the sound is refracted. Notice that the shear wave is not refracted as much as the
longitudinal wave. This occurs because shear waves travel slower than longitudinal waves.
Therefore, the velocity difference between the incident longitudinal wave and the shear
wave is not as great as it is between the incident and refracted longitudinal waves. Also note
that when a longitudinal wave is reflected inside the material, the reflected shear wave is
reflected at a smaller angle than the reflected longitudinal wave. This is also due to the fact
that the shear velocity is less than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.

Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can be written as
follows.

Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1.
VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 9

 The shear (transverse) wave ray path has been added. The ray paths of the waves
can be adjusted by clicking and dragging in the vicinity of the arrows. Values for the angles
or the wave velocities can also be entered into the dialog boxes. It can be seen from the
applet that when a wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is an incident angle
which makes the angle of refraction for the longitudinal wave 90 degrees. As mentioned on
the previous page, this is known as the first critical angle and all of the energy from the
refracted longitudinal wave is now converted to a surface following longitudinal wave. This
surface following wave is sometime referred to as a creep wave and it is not very useful in
NDT because it dampens out very rapidly.

Beyond the first critical angle, only the shear wave propagates into the material. For
this reason, most angle beam transducers use a shear wave so that the signal is not
complicated by having two waves present. In many cases there is also an incident angle that
makes the angle of refraction for the shear wave 90 degrees. This is known as the second
critical angle and at this point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface
following shear wave or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface
waves will be generated.

Piezoelectric Transducers

The conversion of electrical pulses to

mechanical vibrations and the conversion
of returned mechanical vibrations back into
electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic
testing. The active element is the heart of
the transducer as it converts the electrical
energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece of polarized
material (i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the
molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces.
When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized molecules will align
themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 10

 crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules will cause the material to
change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a
permanently-polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will
produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed
mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect. Additional
information on why certain materials produce this effect can be found in the linked
presentation material, which was produced by the Valpey Fisher Corporation.

Piezoelectric Effect (PPT, 89kb) Piezoelectric Elements (PPT, 178kb)

The active element of most acoustic transducers used today

is a piezoelectric ceramic, which can be cut in various ways
to produce different wave modes. A large piezoelectric
ceramic element can be seen in the image of a sectioned low
frequency transducer. Preceding the advent of piezoelectric
ceramics in the early 1950's, piezoelectric crystals made
from quartz crystals and magnetostrictive materials were
primarily used. The active element is still sometimes
referred to as the crystal by old timers in the NDT field.
When piezoelectric ceramics were introduced, they soon became the dominant material for
transducers due to their good piezoelectric properties and their ease of manufacture into a
variety of shapes and sizes. They also operate at low voltage and are usable up to about
300oC. The first piezoceramic in general use was barium titanate, and that was followed
during the 1960's by lead zirconate titanate compositions, which are now the most
commonly employed ceramic for making transducers. New materials such as piezo-
polymers and composites are also being used in some applications.

The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the
transducer. A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its thickness.
Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the desired radiated
wavelength. The higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the active element. The
primary reason that high frequency contact transducers are not produced is because the
element is very thin and too fragile.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 11

Transducer Types

Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a

variety of applications and can be custom
fabricated when necessary. Careful attention
must be paid to selecting the proper transducer
for the application. A previous section on
Acoustic Wavelength and Defect Detection gave a brief overview of factors that affect defect
detectability. From this material, we know that it is important to choose transducers that
have the desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection capability. Most
often the transducer is chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or resolution of the system.

Transducers are classified into groups according to the application.

 Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are
generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a
rugged casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of
materials. These transducers have an ergonomic design so that they
are easy to grip and move along a surface. They often have
replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life. Coupling materials of water,
grease, oils, or commercial materials are used to remove the air gap between the
transducer and the component being
inspected.
 Immersion transducers do not contact the
component. These transducers are designed
to operate in a liquid environment and all
connections are watertight. Immersion
transducers usually have an impedance
matching layer that helps to get more sound
energy into the water and, in turn, into the
component being inspected. Immersion
transducers can be purchased with a planer, cylindrically focused or spherically
focused lens. A focused transducer can improve the sensitivity and axial resolution

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 12

 by concentrating the sound energy to a smaller area. Immersion transducers are
typically used inside a water tank or as part of a squirter or bubbler system in
scanning applications.

More on Contact Transducers

Contact transducers are available in a variety of configurations to improve their

usefulness for a variety of applications. The flat contact transducer shown above is used in
normal beam inspections of relatively flat surfaces, and where near surface resolution is not
critical. If the surface is curved, a shoe that matches the curvature of the part may need to be
added to the face of the transducer. If near surface resolution is important or if an angle
beam inspection is needed, one of the special contact transducers described below might be
used.

Dual element transducers contain two

independently operated elements in a single housing.
One of the elements transmits and the other receives the
ultrasonic signal. Active elements can be chosen for their
sending and receiving capabilities to provide a
transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for
special applications, such as the inspection of course
grained material. Dual element transducers are especially
well suited for making measurements in applications
where reflectors are very near the transducer since this design eliminates the ring down
effect that single-element transducers experience (when single-element transducers are
operating in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start receiving reflected signals until the
element has stopped ringing from its transmit function). Dual element transducers are very
useful when making thickness measurements of thin
materials and when inspecting for near surface
defects. The two elements are angled towards each
other to create a crossed-beam sound path in the test
material.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 13

 Delay line transducers provide versatility with a variety of replaceable options.
Removable delay line, surface conforming membrane, and protective wear cap options can
make a single transducer effective for a wide range of applications. As the name implies, the
primary function of a delay line transducer is to introduce a time delay between the
generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any reflected waves. This allows the
transducer to complete its "sending" function before it starts its "listening" function so that
near surface resolution is improved. They are designed for use in applications such as high
precision thickness gauging of thin materials and delamination checks in composite
materials. They are also useful in high-temperature measurement applications since the
delay line provides some insulation to the piezoelectric element from the heat.

Angle beam transducers and wedges are

typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into
the test material. Transducers can be purchased in a
variety of fixed angles or in adjustable versions where the
user determines the angles of incidence and refraction. In
the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is
marked on the transducer is only accurate for a particular
material, which is usually steel. The angled sound path
allows the sound beam to be reflected from the backwall to improve detectability of flaws in
and around welded areas. They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting
defects on the surface of a component.

Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow the
introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle beam
wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with minimal longitudinal
wave contamination. The ratio of the longitudinal to shear wave components is generally
below -30dB.

Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow
transducers are made up of an array of small crystals that are carefully matched to minimize
variations in performance and maintain uniform sensitivity over the entire area of the
transducer. Paint brush transducers make it possible to scan a larger area more rapidly for

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 14

 discontinuities. Smaller and more sensitive transducers are often then required to further
define the details of a discontinuity

Couplant:

A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates

the transmission of ultrasonic energy from the
transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally
necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch
between air and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is
large. Therefore, nearly all of the energy is reflected and
very little is transmitted into the test material. The
couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the test
specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact ultrasonic testing a
thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used between the transducer and the test
surface.

When scanning over the part or making precise

measurements, an immersion technique is often used.
In immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer
and the part are immersed in the couplant, which is
typically water. This method of coupling makes it
easier to maintain consistent coupling while moving
and manipulating the transducer and/or the part.

Data Presentation

Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The
three most common formats are know in the NDT world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan
presentations. Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and evaluating
the region of material being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning systems
can display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 15

 A-Scan Presentation

The A-scan presentation displays the amount of

received ultrasonic energy as a function of time. The relative
amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical axis
and the elapsed time (which may be related to the sound
energy travel time within the material) is displayed along
the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an A-scan display
allow the signal to be displayed in its natural radio
frequency form (RF), as a fully rectified RF signal, or as
either the positive or negative half of the RF signal. In the A-
scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal
amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to
that from a known reflector. Reflector depth can
be determined by the position of the signal on the
horizontal sweep.

In the illustration of the A-scan

presentation to the right, the initial pulse
generated by the transducer is represented by
the signal IP, which is near time zero. As the
transducer is scanned along the surface of the
part, four other signals are likely to appear at
different times on the screen. When the
transducer is in its far left position, only the IP
signal and signal A, the sound energy reflecting
from surface A, will be seen on the trace. As the
transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from
the backwall BW will appear later in time,
showing that the sound has traveled farther to
reach this surface. When the transducer is over
flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the time
scale that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW signal. Since the IP
Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 16
 signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates that flaw B is about
halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample. When the transducer is moved
over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since the sound travel path is shorter and
signal B will disappear since sound will no longer be reflecting from it.

B-Scan Presentation

The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test specimen. In

the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is displayed along the vertical
axis and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis. From
the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan
direction can be determined. The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate
on the A-scan. Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is
produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the sound reflecting from the backwall of
the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the material. In the B-scan image above, line A
is produced as the transducer is scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the
specimen. When the transducer moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW is
produced. When the transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to the length of
the flaws and at similar depths within the material
are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a
limitation to this display technique is that
reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near
the surface.

C-Scan Presentation

The C-scan presentation provides a plan-

type view of the location and size of test specimen
features. The plane of the image is parallel to the
scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan
presentations are produced with an automated
data acquisition system, such as a computer
controlled immersion scanning system. Typically, a

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 17

 data collection gate is established on the A-scan and the amplitude or the time-of-flight of
the signal is recorded at regular intervals as the transducer is scanned over the test piece.
The relative signal amplitude or the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade of gray or a color
for each of the positions where data was recorded. The C-scan presentation provides an
image of the features that reflect and scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of the test
piece.

High resolution scans can produce very detailed images. Below are two ultrasonic C-scan
images of a US quarter. Both images were produced using a pulse-echo technique with the
transducer scanned over the head side in an immersion scanning system. For the C-scan
image on the left, the gate was setup to capture the amplitude of the sound reflecting from
the front surface of the quarter. Light areas in the image indicate areas that reflected a
greater amount of energy back to the transducer. In the C-scan image on the right, the gate
was moved to record the intensity of the sound reflecting from the back surface of the coin.
The details on the back surface are clearly visible but front surface features are also still
visible since the sound energy is affected by these features as it travels through the front
surface of the coin.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 18

Normal Beam Inspection

Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in

a part or structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse
generated by a transducer to travel through a thickness of material, reflect from the back or
the surface of a discontinuity, and be returned to the transducer. In most applications, this
time interval is a few microseconds or less. The two-way transit time measured is divided
by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound
in the test material. The result is expressed in the well-known relationship

d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t

where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is the
velocity of sound waves in the material, and t is the measured round-trip transit time.

The diagram below allows you to move a transducer over the surface of a stainless
steel test block and see return echoes as they would appear on an oscilloscope. The
transducer employed is a 5 MHz broadband transducer 0.25 inches in diameter. The signals
were generated with computer software similar to that found in the Thompson-Gray
Measurement Model and UTSIM developed at the Center for Nondestructive Evaluation at
Iowa State University.

Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually

operate at frequencies between 500 kHz and 100 MHz,
by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate
bursts of sound waves when excited by electrical pulses.
A wide variety of transducers with various acoustic
characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications. Typically,
lower frequencies are used to optimize penetration when measuring thick, highly
attenuating or highly scattering materials, while higher frequencies will be recommended to
optimize resolution in thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 19

 In thickness gauging, ultrasonic techniques permit quick and reliable measurement
of thickness without requiring access to both sides of a part. Accuracy's as high as ±1 micron
or ±0.0001 inch can be achieved in some applications. It is possible to measure most
engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics, composites,
epoxies, and glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain biological specimens.
On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal often is possible, as
is measurements of single layers or coatings in multilayer materials. Modern handheld
gages are simple to use and very reliable.

Angle Beams I

Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted
shear wave into the test material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in
from the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 20

Angle Beams II

Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted
shear wave into the test material. The geometry of the sample below allows the sound beam
to be reflected from the back wall to improve detectability of flaws in and around welded
areas.

Calibration Methods

Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
measurement equipment. In
ultrasonic testing, several forms
of calibration must occur. First,
the electronics of the equipment
must be calibrated to ensure that
they are performing as designed.
This operation is usually
performed by the equipment
manufacturer and will not be
discussed further in this material. It is also usually necessary for the operator to perform a
"user calibration" of the equipment. This user calibration is necessary because most

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 21

 ultrasonic equipment can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications. The user
must "calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and the
test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved. The term
calibration standard is usually only used when an absolute value is measured and in many
cases, the standards are traceable back to standards at the National Institute for Standards
and Technology.

In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference standards. Reference

standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in measurements and to help
interpret and quantify the information contained in the received signal. Reference standards
are used to validate that the equipment and the setup provide similar results from one day
to the next and that similar results are produced by different systems. Reference standards
also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type setup, signal
strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the distance between the flaw and the
transducer. The inspector can use a reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of
known size and at approximately the same distance away for the transducer to produce a
signal. By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the actual
flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.

This section will discuss some of the more common calibration and reference
specimen that are used in ultrasonic inspection. Some of these specimens are shown in the
figure above. Be aware that there are other standards available and that specially designed
standards may be required for many applications. The information provided here is
intended to serve a general introduction to the standards and not to be instruction on the
proper use of the standards.

Introduction to the Common Standards

Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing come in many shapes and
sizes. The type of standard used is dependent on the NDE application and the form and
shape of the object being evaluated. The material of the reference standard should be the
same as the material being inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely
resemble that of the actual flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 22

 standard reference samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely
represent real flaws. In most cases the artificially induced defects in reference standards are
better reflectors of sound energy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces) and produce
indications that are larger than those that a similar sized flaw would produce. Producing
more "realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspector can
only make an estimate of the flaw size. Computer programs that allow the inspector to
create computer simulated models of the part and flaw may one day lessen this limitation.

The IIW Type Calibration Block

The standard shown in the above figure is commonly known in the US as an IIW type
reference block. IIW is an acronym for the International Institute of Welding. It is referred to
as an IIW "type" reference block because it was
patterned after the "true" IIW block but does not
conform to IIW requirements in IIS/IIW-23-59.
"True" IIW blocks are only made out of steel (to
be precise, killed, open hearth or electric furnace,
low-carbon steel in the normalized condition
with a grain size of McQuaid-Ehn #8) where IIW "type" blocks can be commercially
obtained in a selection of materials. The dimensions of "true" IIW blocks are in metric units
while IIW "type" blocks usually have English units. IIW "type" blocks may also include
additional calibration and references features such as notches, circular groves, and scales
that are not specified by IIW. There are two full-sized and a mini versions of the IIW type
blocks. The Mini version is about one-half the size of the full-sized block and weighs only
about one-fourth as much. The IIW type US-1 block was derived the basic "true" IIW block
and is shown below in the figure on the left. The IIW type US-2 block was developed for US
Air Force application and is shown below in the center. The Mini version is shown on the
right.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 23

 IIW Type US-1 IIW Type US-2

IIW Type Mini

IIW type blocks are used to calibrate instruments for both angle beam and normal
incident inspections. Some of their uses include setting metal-distance and sensitivity
settings, determining the sound exit point and refracted angle of angle beam transducers,
and evaluating depth resolution of normal beam inspection setups. Instructions on using the
IIW type blocks can be found in the annex of American Society for Testing and Materials
Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldments.

The Miniature Angle-Beam or ROMPAS Calibration Block

The miniature angle-beam is a calibration block

that was designed for the US Air Force for use in the
field for instrument calibration. The block is much
smaller and lighter than the IIW block but performs
many of the same functions. The miniature angle-

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 24

 beam block can be used to check the beam angle and exit point of the transducer. The block
can also be used to make metal-distance and sensitivity calibrations for both angle and
normal-beam inspection setups.

AWS Shear Wave Distance/Sensitivity Calibration (DSC) Block

A block that closely resembles the miniature angle-beam

block and is used in a similar way is the DSC AWS Block.
This block is used to determine the beam exit point and
refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to calibrate
distance and set the sensitivity for both normal and angle
beam inspection setups. Instructions on using the DSC block
can be found in the annex of American Society for Testing
and Materials Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of
Weldments.

AWS Shear Wave Distance Calibration (DC) Block

The DC AWS Block is a metal path distance and

beam exit point calibration standard that conforms to
the requirements of the American Welding Society
(AWS) and the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Instructions
on using the DC block can be found in the annex of
American Society for Testing and Materials Standard
E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldments.

AWS Resolution Calibration (RC) Block

The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle beam

transducers per the requirements of AWS and AASHTO. Engraved Index
markers are provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle beams.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 25

30 FBH Resolution Reference Block

The 30 FBH resolution reference block is used to

evaluate the near-surface resolution and flaw size/depth
sensitivity of a normal-beam setup. The block contains
number 3 (3/64"), 5 (5/64"), and 8 (8/64") ASTM flat
bottom holes at ten metal-distances ranging from 0.050
inch (1.27 mm) to 1.250 inch (31.75 mm).

Miniature Resolution Block

The miniature resolution block is used to

evaluate the near-surface resolution and sensitivity of a
normal-beam setup It can be used to calibrate high-
resolution thickness gages over the range of 0.015
inches (0.381 mm) to 0.125 inches (3.175 mm).

Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges

Step and tapered calibration wedges come in a

large variety of sizes and configurations. Step wedges
are typically manufactured with four or five steps but
custom wedge can be obtained with any number of
steps. Tapered wedges have a constant taper over the
desired thickness range.

Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block

The DS test block is a calibration standard used to

check the horizontal linearity and the dB accuracy per
requirements of AWS and AASHTO.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 26

Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks

-------

Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are purchased as a ten-block set, as

shown above. Aluminum sets are manufactured per the requirements of ASTM E127 and
steel sets per ASTM E428. Sets can also be purchased in titanium. Each block contains a
single flat-bottomed, plugged hole. The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:

 3/64" at 3"
 5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6"
 8/64" at 3" and 6"

Sets are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and Type 304
Corrosion Resistant Steel. Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM
E127, Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard
Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard
Practice for Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection.

Area-Amplitude Blocks

Area-amplitude blocks are also usually purchased in an eight-block set and look very similar
to Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks. However, area-amplitude blocks have a constant 3-inch
metal path distance and the hole sizes are varied from 1/64" to 8/64" in 1/64" steps. The
blocks are used to determine the relationship between flaw size and signal amplitude by
comparing signal responses for the different sized holes. Sets are commonly sold in 4340
Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and Type 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel. Aluminum

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 27

 blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E127, Standard Practice for Fabricating
and Checking Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are
fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard Practice for Fabrication and
Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection.

Distance-Amplitude #3, #5, #8 FBH Blocks

Distance-amplitude blocks also very similar to the distance/area-amplitude blocks

pictured above. Nineteen block sets with flat-bottom holes of a single size and varying metal
path distances are also commercially available. Sets have either a #3 (3/64") FBH, a #5
(5/64") FBH, or a #8 (8/64") FBH. The metal path distances are 1/16", 1/8", 1/4", 3/8",
1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 7/8", 1", 1-1/4", 1-3/4", 2-1/4", 2-3/4", 3-14", 3-3/4", 4-1/4", 4-3/4", 5-
1/4", and 5-3/4". The relationship between the metal path distance and the signal
amplitude is determined by comparing signals from same size flaws at different depth. Sets
are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and Type 304 Corrosion
Resistant Steel. Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E127,
Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard
Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard
Practice for Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection.

References & Standards

What are standards?

Standards are documented agreements containing technical specifications or other

precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics,
in order to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services are fit for their purpose.

For example, the format of the credit cards, phone cards, and "smart" cards that have
become commonplace is derived from an ISO International Standard. Adhering to the
standard, which defines such features as an optimal thickness (0.76 mm), means that the
cards can be used worldwide.

An important source of practice codes, standards, and recommendations for NDT is

given in the Annual Book of the American Society of Testing and Materials, ASTM.
Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 28
 Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing is revised annually, covering acoustic emission,
eddy current, leak testing, liquid penetrants, magnetic particle, radiography, thermography,
and ultrasonics.

There are many efforts on the part of the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) and other standards organizations, both national and international, to
work through technical issues and harmonize national and international standards.

Weldments (Welded Joints)

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusions,
lack of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration, undercutting, and
longitudinal or transverse cracks.

With the exception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually well
detectable by ultrasonics. Most applications are on low-alloy construction quality steels,
however, welds in aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic flaw detection has long been the
preferred method for nondestructive testing in welding applications. This safe, accurate, and
simple technique has pushed ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection technology.

Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam transducer
in conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A straight beam transducer,
producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate
any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. This is important because an angle beam
transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.

The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to inspect
the actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of refraction and mode
conversion to produce refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the test material. [Note:
Many AWS inspections are performed using refracted shear waves. However, material
having a large grain structure, such as stainless steel may require refracted longitudinal
waves for successful inspections.] This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and
heat-affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the material
around the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will bounce off a

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 29

 reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam. With proper angle beam techniques,
echoes returned from the weld zone may allow the operator to determine the location and
type of discontinuity.

To determine the proper scanning area for the weld, the inspector must first calculate the location
of the sound beam in the test
material. Using the refracted
angle, beam index point and
material thickness, the V-
path and skip distance of the
sound beam is found. Once
they have been calculated,
the inspector can identify
the transducer locations on
the surface of the material
corresponding to the crown, sidewall, and root of the weld.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 30

 Advantages and Disadvantages

Like all nondestructive inspection methods, Ultrasonic Testing has both advantages
and disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other
NDE methods are summarized below.

Advantages:

 Internal defects can be detected and sized

 Thick specimens take no more time to examine than thin ones
 Access to only one side of the component is needed
 There is no radiation hazard in ultrasonic examination, and hence no disruption of
work as there is with radiography

 Planar defects can be detected, irrespective of their orientation

Disadvantages:

 A high degree of operator skill and integrity is needed. Hence, the need for trained
and certified NDT personnel

 In most examinations, there is no permanent record of the inspection as there is in

radiography

 In certain materials, like austenitic steel, the large grain size found in welds can cause
attenuation and this may mask defects

 Spurious indications, and the misreading of signals, can result in unnecessary

repairs.

Nest Education & Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Page | 31