Starry, Starry Night: Stars and Constellations 4.

Distribution of Electricity
Part 1: Characteristics of Stars
TOPIC OUTLINE ● The sun, being the closest star to us, is the key to identify
I. Starry, Starry Night: Stars and Constellations the characteristics of stars.
A. Characteristics of Stars ● Astronomers use the following characteristics to classify
1. Brightness
a) Luminosity
stars: brightness, color, temperature, size, and composition.
2. Color ● Brightness
3. Surface temperature ○ A star’s brightness is described in terms of its
4. Size
5. Composition magnitude and luminosity.
B. Star Convergence: Constellations ○ Astronomers expressed true brightness of stars
1. Northern hemisphere
a) Circumpolar
using absolute magnitude, with scale of less than
b) Ursa Major 1 to greater than 6.
c) Ursa Minor ○ More values had to be added to include:
d) Cassiopeia
e) Cygnus ■ brightest (less than 1)
2. Southern hemisphere ■ dimmest (greater than 6) celestial
a) Crux
b) Carina objects.
c) Centaurus ○ The brightest star is Sirius with an absolute
3. Two movements of the Earth
magnitude of 1.4
a) Earth’s rotation
b) Earth’s revolution
II. Physics ● Luminosity - describes the rate at which a start radiates
A. Chapter 1: Dealing with Projectile & Momentum
1. Projectile motion energy.
2. Motion in Two Dimensions ● The size of the star and its surface temperature affects
3. Kinematics of Projectile Motion
luminosity. The sun’s luminosity is 400 trillion watts, which
4. Horizontally Thrown Projectiles
a) Sample problem is used as the standard to describe the luminosity of others.
5. Projectile Launched at an Angle ● The luminosity of Alpha Centauri A is 1.3 times that of the
a) Time symmetry
b) Speed symmetry sun.
c) Sample problem ○ A star which is very far; several lightyears away
6. Angle of Release
■ Term to describe the distance from our
7. Impulse and Momentum to Collision
a) Sample problem A planet to other celestial objects.
b) Sample problem B ● Color
8. Impulse and Momentum Theorem
a) Sample problem ○ Ranges from red to yellow to blue depending on
9. Conservation of Linear Momentum the surface temperature.
a) Internal forces
○ The cooler stars appear reddish while the hottest
b) External forces
B. Chapter 2: Up and Down We Go appear bluish.
1. Work and Energy Revisited ○ The sun is a mid-range temperature star and it
2. Mechanical energy
a) Sample problem A appears yellow.
b) Sample problem B ■ Bluish stars are young stars (Age can
3. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
C. Chapter 3: Work and Heat: In a Relationship
determine the color of a star)
1. Heat, Work, and Efficiency ■ Reddish/orange are older stars.
a) Heat and Work ● Surface temperature
b) Efficiency of a Heat Engine
2. Thermodynamics ○ Expressed in Kelvin, which is the standard unit for
a) First law temperature.
b) Second law
(1) Kevin-planck
■ An absolute 0 Kelvin is = 273.15ºC.
(2) Clausius
(3) Entropy
3. Efficiency of Heat Engines
a) Sample problem
D. Chapter 4: Service at Our Fingertips
1. Sources of Electrical Energy
a) History - Michael Faraday
b) RA 9513 (Renewable Energy Act ● Size
of 2008) ○ Astronomers express the size of stars in terms of
2. Generation of Electricity
3. Transmission of Electricity the radius of the sun or solar radius.

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 ○ Stars can be larger or smaller than the sun. As the ● Crux is the Latin for “the cross”, taking the name of the
mass of the star increases, its size will also southern cross.
increase affecting star’s luminosity, color, and rate ● Carina is the Latin for “keel”, which means the boat’s
of hydrogen to form helium. bottom. It is used to be a part of larger boat-shaped
■ Stars grow → their mass and size constellation called Argo Navis.
increases ● Centaurus refers to the half-man, half-horse creature in
○ In terms of size, stars are classified as dwarf, Greek mythology.
giant, or super giant. ○ 9th largest constellation
■ Dwarfs are very small, about 75 to 80
percent the size of the sun. ● The Philippines lies near the equator. Thus, those living in
■ Giant stars are twice to 10 times bigger the country can see the constellations of the Northern and
than the sun. Southern hemispheres.
■ Super giants are more than 10 times ● Two movements of the Earth allow you to see specific
bigger than the sun. constellations at certain times of the year.
● Composition ○ The first movement is the Earth’s rotation around
○ Astronomers study the spectral lines detected by its axis.
spectroscopes to determine the composition of ■ As the Earth rotates through the night, it
stars. may appear that the stars are also
○ It is learned that all stars are composed of moving.
hydrogen (60-80%), helium (16-36%), and ■ What you are actually seeing is an
traces (4%) of oxygen, neon, carbon, and apparent motion of the stars.
nitrogen. ○ The second movement is the Earth’s revolution
Part 2: Star Convergence around the Sun.
● Stars form recognizable patterns in the sky. ■ Throughout the year, you will see
● Constellations - the sections of the sky that contains these different views of the sky and the
patterns. various constellations.
● During the Astronomical Congress of 1928, the
International Astronomical Union recognized 88 Week 2: Physics
constellations, which are astronomically regarded as 88
boundaries rather than real figures. Chapter 1: Dealing with Projectile and Momentum
○ They do not move 1.1 Projectile Motion/ Learning goals:
Constellations in the Northern Hemisphere 1. Describe the horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile
● Circumpolar - constellations that can be seen all year 2. Investigate the relationship between the angle of release and the
round. height and range of the projectile.
● In the Northern Hemisphere, circumpolar constellations are
seen near the North star. These constellations are:
Motion in Two Dimensions
○ Ursa Major & Ursa Minor
● Projectile motion - the motion of a body projected
○ Cassiopeia & Cygnus
horizontally or at an angle other than 90º with the
● Ursa Major - (aka Big Bear); the 3rd largest known
horizontal.
constellation.
○ Ex: soccer ball being kicked, a basketball that was
○ Contains the Big Dipper
thrown, a bullet fired, and water out of a fountain.
● Cassiopeia - a constellation named after a queen in Greek
● Galileo described projectile motion as having 2
Mythology, is the 25th largest constellation.
components: horizontal & vertical.
● Cygnus - latin name for Swan.
○ Horizontal component: uniform motion
○ 16th largest constellation
○ Vertical: free fall.
○ Recognized because of the cross pattern referred
■ Because gravity is affecting the vertical
as the Northern Cross.
component.
● Throughout the motion of the projectile, changes occurs
Constellations in the Southern Hemisphere
only in the vertical velocity because of the influence of
● Southern circumpolar constellation include the Crux,
gravity, while the horizontal velocity does not alter.
Carina, and Centaurus.
● Trajectory - the path of a projectile; follows a parabola.
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Kinematics of Projectile Motion ○ The initial velocity of the object is its initial
● Projectile motion problems can be analyzed using the horizontal velocity.
equations below that are applicable for each component of ● Because the horizontal acceleration is 0, the horizontal
the projectile motion: velocity remains constant.
○ This velocity is also the object’s final horizontal
velocity, as well as its average horizontal
velocity.
○ Furthermore, the initial vertical velocity of the
object is 0.

A. Sample problem:
A marble rolls of the edge of a table top with an initial speed of 15.0
The following sign conventions shall be used: m/s. In 0.50 seconds, how far does it travel (a) vertically & (b)
● Distances above the origin are positive, while distances horizontally.
below the origin is negative. Given: v0= 15.0 m/s, ፀ=0, t=0.50 s
○ Upward velocities are positive. Solution: First, solve for v0x & v0y
○ Downward velocities are negative.
● Acceleration due to gravity g is always negative.
● Origin - point of release

Projectile Launched at an Angle

● If a projectile is launched at an angle either below or above
the horizontal, you need to resolve the initial velocity into
its horizontal and vertical components.
● A projectile fired at an angle ፀ above the horizontal rises to
a maximum height before it descends. It finally lands at a
horizontal distance from its launching point.
The trajectory of a projectile launched at ፀ with the horizontal at
○ Range - horizontal distance, which is measured
initial velocity v0. Note how the components of the velocity change
on the assumption that the projectile returns to
with time.
the same level from which it is fired.
● A projectile thrown up an angle with the horizontal exhibits
It is important to take note of the following:
time and speed symmetries.
a. At any instance, the velocity of a projectile is [ins] with the
○ Time symmetry - the time for the projectile to
horizontal:
reach the maximum height equals the time for it
to land on the same level as its starting point.
○
○ Speed symmetry - the speed of the projectile at
𝑣𝑦 |
○ The expression || means that you should take any height above the starting point on its way up
𝑣𝑥 |
is equal to its speed at the same height on the
𝑣𝑦
the absolute value of
𝑣𝑥
. way down.

b. At the highest point of its trajectory, only the vertical

velocity is 0. The horizontal velocity is still V0x. Thus,
velocity at the highest point is equal to V0x.
○ Horizontal velocity is constant.
c. The acceleration at the highest point of its trajectory is g
(gravity), not 0.

Horizontally Thrown Projectiles ● The absolute values of the angles that these speeds make
● When an object is launched horizontally, such as a ball with the horizontal are also equal.
thrown horizontally off a building, the angle of projection is ● However, the velocities are not equal because they point
0. in opposite directions.

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 A. Sample problem: g. Invoking speed symmetry
An object is projected from the ground with an initial velocity of 24.5 You can then say that the velocity of the object when it reaches the
m/s at 30º above the horizontal. Find: ground is -24.5 m/s at 30º with the horizontal.
a. Horizontal and vertical component of its initial velocity
b. Time to reach the maximum height
c. Time of flight
d. Maximum height attained by the object
e. Speed at the maximum height
f. Range
g. Velocity upon striking the ground. Angle of Release
● The maximum height attained by a projectile depends on
the angle of projection ፀ for a given initial speed.
● A projectile fired at an angle closer to 90º stays longer in
the air and attains a greater height.

a. Horizontal and vertical components of its initial velocity:

Resolve the initial velocity into its horizontal & vertical components.

b. Time to reach the maximum height (from point a to b)

For the vertical component of motion, know that at the highest point ● The range also depends on the angle of projection.
vy=0. Using the equation vy=v0y+ gt and substituting the values, ○ For a given initial speed, raising the angle of
● Why vy=v0y+ gt? → because we already have the initial projection up to 45º increases the range.

vertical velocity & the vertical velocity. ○ Maximum range is obtained at 45º. Anything
higher decreases the range.
● In addition, 2 complementary angles give the same range
for a given initial velocity. Thus angles of projection 20º
c. Time of flight and 70º for a given initial velocity cover the same range.
Because of time symmetry, the time to reach the highest point is
equal to the required to fall to the same distance. Therefore, the time 1.2 Impulse and Momentum to Collision / Learning goals:
of flight is 2(1.3s) = 2.6 s ● Relate impulse and momentum to collision (e.g. vehicular
collision);
d. Maximum height attained by the object ● Infer that the total momentum before and after collision is
For the maximum height, consider again the vertical component of equal;
motion. Let dymax represent the maximum height.
● dymax → maximum vertical distance/displacement Impulse and Momentum
● Linear momentum - or simply momentum, is the product
of the mass of the object and its velocity. Momentum is
symbolized with p.
e. Speed at the maximum height
○ P = mv
At the maximum height, only the vertical velocity is 0. The
● Momentum is a vector quantity with direction the same as
horizontal component of the velocity is equal to the horizontal
the velocity. The SI unit for momentum is kg•m/s.
component of the initial velocity, which is 21.2 m/s. Thus, the speed
● Every moving object has momentum, which may be large
at the highest point of the trajectory is equal to 21.2 m/s.
or small depending on its mass and velocity.
f. Range
For the range, consider the horizontal aspect of motion. Let R
A. Sample problem
represent the range. And since the time of flight is 2.6 s,
How fast must Superman run to have the same momentum as
2500-kg train moving at 4.5 m/s in the same direction? Assume that
the mass of Superman is 120 kg.
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Given: mass of train: 2500 kg, mass of Superman: 120 kg, v= 4.5 m/s ■ F∆t = mv - mv0
Solution: ■ Note that ∆t = t - t0.
■ Setting t0 = 0, you have
● Ft = mv - mv0
A. Sample problem
B. Sample problem A force of 56.0 N acts on a 25.0- kg body for 12.0 s. Find the (a)
In a system composed of several bodies: impulse produced by the force, (b) the resulting change in
- The momentum is the vector sum of all the momentum of momentum of the body, and © the speed of the body at the end of
the bodies. Refer to the problem below. 12.0 s. Assume that the body starts at rest.
Given: m=25.0kg, t= 12.0 s, F= 56.0 N, v0=0
A delivery truck carrying 75 cavans of rice is traveling 10.0 m/s. The
mass of the truck and one cavan of rice are 3,000 kg and 50 kg, a. I = Ft = (56.0 N)(12.0 s) = 672 N • s
respectively. The driver of the truck has a mass of 85 kg. (a) What is b. The impulse produced by the force is equal to the change
the magnitude of the momentum of the truck with the driver and in momentum of the body. Therefore, the change in
the cavans of rice? (b) At a certain grocery, the driver unloaded 8 momentum is 672 kg • m/s
cavans. What is the new momentum of the truck with the driver and c. Using the impulse-momentum theorem, you can get:
the cavans of rice if the driver maintains the same speed?

Given:
- mass of driver = 85.0 kg - mass of truck = 3000.0 kg
- Mass of 75 cavans of rice = (50.0 kg/cavan) (75 cavans) =
3,750 kg
Impulse and Momentum to Collision:
A change in momentum may be affected by changes in time and
a. What is the magnitude of the momentum of the truck with
the amount of force.
the driver and the cavans of rice?
● A large force acting for a short time, or a small force acting
Since the truck, driver, and cavans of rice are all moving in the same
over a long period of time may produce the same changes
direction, the total momentum is simply the sum of their respective
in momentum.
momenta.
○ Force and time is equal or related

b. At a certain grocery, the driver unloaded 8 cavans. What is

the new momentum of the truck with the driver and the
cavans of rice if the driver maintains the same speed?
Mass of 67 cavans of rice = 3350 kg ● Modern cars can have safety features that lengthen the
amount of time momentum changes during collisions. As a
result, the force on the vehicle and possible injuries to
passengers are reduced.
Impulse and Momentum Theorem ○ A car’s crumple zone is the area that deforms in
● Recall in the previous lesson that Newton’s second law of the event of a crash to absorb some energy of
motion may be stated in terms of impulse and the impact, preventing it from being transmitted
momentum. to the occupants.
○ Impulse - the product of force and the time it
acts on an object. Impulse is represented by I.
■ I = Ft
● The SI unit for impulse is newton second (N•s)
● Impulse-momentum theorem - A force acting on an
object for a time interval ∆t changes the momentum of the
object. Specifically, the changes of momentum of a system
is equal to the impulse of the force it experiences.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
○ Considered an alternative version of Newton’s
second law of motion.

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 ● To understand the conservation of momentum, let us
understand first the different between internal and
external forces.
○ Internal forces - forces that particles of a system
exert on one another.
○ External forces - forces applied on any part of a
system by other objects outside the system.
● Thus, for an isolated system, the total momentum before
interaction equals the total momentum after interaction.

Mechanical energy
● Objects possess energy by the virtue of position and
motion.
○ Energy due to position is termed a POTENTIAL
ENERGY (PE).
○ Energy due to motion is called KINETIC ENERGY
(KE).
Chapter 2: Up and Down We Go
○ The sum of the potential and kinetic energies is
called MECHANICAL ENERGY (ME).
2.1 Work and Energy Revisited/ Learning goals
■ ME = PE + KE
1. Explain energy transformations in various activities/events
● An object possesses stored energy when it is lifted to a
(e.g. waterfalls, archery, amusement rides);
certain height or when it is stretched, compressed, or bent.
2. Infer that the total mechanical energy remains the same
This stored energy is potential energy, of which are two
during the process;
types:
○ Gravitational
The meaning of work in physics differs from that of its everyday use.
○ Elastic
● Work is the product of a force acting on an object and its
● The potential energy of a body due to its position is
resulting displacement.
referred to as gravitational potential energy. Position refers
○ For work to be done, the force must have a
to the height of the body with respect to the
component along the path of an object’s
ground/reference point.
displacement.
○ PE = mgh
○ If force F and displacement are parallel to each
■ Where m is the mass of the body, g is
other, work W is given by the equation below.
acceleration due to gravity, and h for
■ W = Fd
height.
● Force • displacement
● Energy is the ability or capacity to do work.
○ When you say that an object has energy, it means
it can exert force on another object to do work on
it.
○ Similarly, doing work on an object changes its
energy by an amount equal to the work done.
Energy comes in different forms: chemical, electrical, nuclear, sound,
light, and mechanical. This chapter will focus on mechanical energy.
● Everything you do makes use of energy- heat energy to
cook food, electrical energy to power appliances, electronic
gadgets, and factory machinery; chemical energy from
● Compressed or stretched strings and rubber bands exhibits
food to do daily activities; and solar energy to facilitate
elastic potential energy, and is due to the configuration of
photosynthesis. Indeed, energy is related to work.
springs and rubber bands.
○ PE = ½kx2

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 ■ Where k is force constant, and x is the c. Explain how heat transfer and energy transformation make
elongation or compression of heat engines like geothermal plants work.
spring/rubber band.
● Force constant is the force needed to produce a unit Heat and Work
elongation or compression of a string or rubber. The cover of your cooking pot is lifted by the expanding steam as the
○ A high force constant means that the material is food you are cooking comes to a boil. The steam that escapes
not easily stretched or compressed. through the sprout of a kettle turns a pinwheel in front of it. Thus,
■ k = F/x heat can do work.
A. Sample problem:
A force of 450 N stretches a spring by 0.09 m. (a) what is the force Efficiency of a Heat Engine
constant of the spring? (b) What force will elongate the spring by ● All heat engines basically follow the pattern of operation
0.18 m? © What is its elastic potential energy when stretched by shown below. Heat (HH ) is supplied to the engine by an
0.18 m? external source called hot reservoir or heat source.
Given: F = 450 N, x = 0.09 m ○ The heat source is at temperature TH.
● Part of this heat is used to work on an object. The rest of
the heat (Hc ) is released to an external place called the cold
reservoir or heat sink.
○ Let Tc the temperature of the cold reservoir.
Mechanical Energy ○ All engines follow a series of processes called a
● Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body because cycle.
of its motion; given by the equation:
○ KE = ½mv2
○ Where m is the mass, v is the velocity.
A. Sample problem
A 5.5 x 104 kg airplane is flying at 85 m/s at an altitude of 1.2 x 104 m.
Find the airplane’s (a) potential energy, (b) kinetic energy, and (c)
Thermodynamics
mechanical energy.
● Is the study of heat and its transformation to mechanical
energy and vice versa.
1.) First law of thermodynamics - another version of the
conversation of energy. It simply states that part of heat transferred
to an object is used by the object to do work. The remaining heat
Conservation of Mechanical Energy changes the internal energy of the object.
● The principle of conservation of mechanical energy shows 2.) Second law of thermodynamics
the transformation of potential energy to kinetic energy (or a. Kevin-planck statement - No heat engine can completely
vice versa) may take place, but the total mechanical energy convert energy to work. In other words, no 100% efficient
remains the same. heat engine.
○ ME = PE + KE b. Clausius statement - Heat flows naturally from hot to cold
objects
c. Entropy statement - The total entropy of the universe is
constant.

Efficiency of Heat Engines

● In every transformation, some energy is wasted. A heat
engine can only convert into work a part of the energy it
Chapter 3: Work and Heat: In a Relationship
has received from the source.
○ Since heat flows from hot to cold, a certain
3.1 Heat, Work, and Efficiency/ Learning goals
amount of heat dissipates to the sink as waste
a. Infer that heat transfer can be used to do work, and that
heat.
involves the release of heat;
○ Furthermore, energy dissipates because of
b. Explain why machines are never 100% efficient;
friction between engine parts.

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 ● The thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of output ○ Renewable - hydropower, geothermal energy,
work to the input energy. wind power, biomass, solar energy, and biofuel
cells.
● To reduce the country’s dependence on fossil fuels, the
Philippine Congress passed Republic Act 9513 (Renewable
Where HH is input energy and Hc is output energy. Note that Work Energy Act of 2008).
(W) = HH-HC ○ This act aims to promote the development,
utilization, and commercialization of renewable
A. Sample problem energy resources in the country.
An internal combustion engine having a thermal efficiency of 25 Generation of Electricity
percent produces 2500 J of work. (a) How much is the input heat? ● A power plant or power station is a facility where
(b) How much heat does the engine reject? electricity is generated from energy sources.
Given: thermal efficiency= 25% W= 2,500J ● There are two types: thermal and kinetic.
○ They both produce electricity in similar ways,
using energy source to turn turbines, which
rotates the coils or magnets of a generator.
○ The rotation of these coils or magnets produces
electricity.
Chapter 4: Service at Our Fingertips

Service at Our Fingertips/ Learning goal:

a. Explain how electrical energy is generated, transmitted,
and distributed

Transmission of Electricity:
4.1 Sources of Electrical Energy
● Long transmission lines move electricity generated at the
● Electricity - a part of our daily life that it is hard to imagine
power plants to substations. But wires offer resistance, an
life without it.
opposition to the flow of electric current.
A bit of history:
○ The longer the wire, the greater is the resistance.
- Michael Faraday - discovered in 1831 that if an electric
● Whenever electricity is transmitted, power loss also occurs
current can produce a magnetic field, then a magnetic field
because of resistance.
can generate an electric current.
○ To compensate, power companies use
- Indeed, a changing magnetic field, produced by a moving
transformers to raise the voltage and reduce the
conductor through a magnetic field or a moving magnet
current at the same time.
through a conducting coil, can generate an electric current.
● The high-voltage electricity is fed into the national grid
This process is called electromagnetic induction.
system through which is transmitted efficiently over long
- Before Faraday, electricity was produced using batteries.
distances to transmissions.
However, this was too expensive for widespread use.
● National grid is a network of power transmission lines that
Faraday’s discovery helped lead to the development of the
connect all power stations across the country. It helps
generator, transformer, and other devices that reduce the
ensure the continuous supply of electricity to end users
cost of producing electricity
even if one power station breaks down.
Distribution of Electricity:
● This is the final stage, which involves the delivery of
electricity to consumers.
○ At the substation, a step down transformer
reduces the voltage to its original value.
Sources of Electrical Energy: ● The electricity is then transferred onto the local electric
● Electricity is generated using either renewable or distribution lines. The voltage is further reduced by a step
nonrenewable sources. down transformer mounted on electric post. The electricity
○ Nonrenewable - fossil fuels; more rapidly used passes through your meter into your home’s wires.