PAU L HALSTEA D*

Agropastoral land use and landscape in

later prehistoric Greece

T/¡e lIa/l/re alld sea/e 01 agropastoral lalll! use in Neolilhic Greece are problems 01 cOlISiderable signiJicallce 10 lile I1l1derstal/(Jing 01 early
Jarmillg sociel)' olUlecollomy_ Relcvam archaeological ami pallleoec%gical cvidellce is sparse and afren ambiguous. /¡owever, cmd is ¡mer-
preled. eil/¡er implicitly 01" explicitly, by comparisoll wilh allemmive 111m/e/s based 011 recent agropastora/ praclice. T/¡ is paper explores Ihe
relevallce 10 prehistory. alld compmibiliry lVirll ,he avai/able evidence, ofrhree sI/eh models: floodwater ¡armillg; extensive agriculture COII-
pled will¡ specialised tral/shumanf pastoralism; and small-scale. ¡mellsive, mixed farming. 11 is arglled rha! ¡he las/ of rhese models is Ih e
1110.\'( rele\'allf 10 ,he Neo/ilhic ol/d is also compatible lVitll Ihe Iimited arclllleological amI palaeoecological data. while the /leed is high-
Iig}¡led forfllrt}¡er researcll ¡litO lhe "ature al/d sea/e of Neolithic (/Ilimalllllsba/ldry.

Key word: Neolithic. Greeee. L(JIu/ use. Farming.

INTRODUCTION o rr-site arch aeo logica l ev iden ee (s urface scatters o f arte-

fac ls) largely dates from later pcriods (and Ihi s may re necL
The bioarc haeo log ical record from Neo lith ic si tes in lapho no lll ic processes rather than changing pallern s of land
Grecce is overwhelmingly do minate d by ¡he rema in s of use - cf. Bintl iff el alii, 1999); and the existing otT-sile palaeoe-
domestic plants and animals. On Ihe basis of presenl ev idence cologieal record is eoarse-grained in terms of both temporal
for me size, spaci ng and permanence of Neol ithic scnlemenls. and spat ial reso lulion and in lerm s of our abilily to infc r
ir has becn argued elsewhere (Halstead, 1981; 1989) thar most causal ity (e.g. Bo nema, 1982; Endfield, 1997). Beca use of
of Ihe hu man popuJation muSI have becn largeJy depcndent lhe scarc ity of d irect ev idence. all attcmplS at reconstrucling
for subsistenee, most of the time, on cuhivated cereal and pulse Neo lithi c land use have , in practice, arglled thal ¡he ava il -
grain crops. It is assumed here lhat this model of COllsumplioll able data are consistenl with one or other model 01' land use
is broadly con'cet, as Ihe basis for a diseussion 01' the patterns based, expli citly or irnplicitly, on recent practicc in lhe Mediter-
ofproductioll, 01' Jand use, which undcrpin ned il. ranean o r e lsewhere. Th is paper explores sorne a lte rnative
The nature and sea le of land use are of interest, ¡mer alía, Illodels ofrccent land use in term s of, first, Ih eír likel y re l-
for Iheir relevanee to !he short -term eeonomie viability and eva nce lO prehi storic Greece and, seco ndl y, Iheir compa t-
tong -Ienn economic stability of Neolithie eommu niti es. for ibi lil y wilh the available arehaeological and pa laeoecological
lhe potential socia l implicatio ns of competi tion for land , data. Although Ihe aim of this exereisc is to shed light on lhe
movem ent of li vestoc k, etc .. and for their ro le in shaping nalure of Neolith i c land use and land scape, Ihe te mpora l
Ihe cu llurallandscape. There is li!tle d irecl ev idenee, howev- frame o f di sc uss ion is ex tended te ¡nel ude both Ihe Nc-
er, fo r Neolith ic land use: on-site bioarchaeological evidence o lilhic and Bronze Age because 01' the heurislic benefi ls of a
is large ly a record of consumptio n rather th an prodllcti on; longerteml, comparativc pcrspcctivc .

• Dcpartment of Archaeology llnd Prehistory. University of Sheffield, Nonhgatc House. \Vest SI. Sheffield SI 4ET. UK.
e-mail: [email protected]

105
 PAUL HALST EA D

IMPLl CAT IO NS A ' D WEAKNESSES OF THE al the time o f yea r whe n the SilC s hou ld have bee n aba n-
FLOODWATER FARMING MODEL do ned aeco rd ing 10 Ihe van Ande l and Runne ls mode l. The
ava il ab le ev idence from (hi s and othe r Neolilhie sell le ments
Van Ande l and Runnels ( 1995) have foll owed Shermtt in Thess¡:¡Jy. Ih ough patchy and inconcl usive, is at teast con-
( 1980) in argui ng Ihal Ihe Neo lith ic inhab ita ms of G rcece s istenl with year-round occupatio n (Halstead, I 999a). Nco-
prac lised a form o f floodwater far mi ng, loosely analogo us li thi c farrners may have cu ltivated seasonall y inund ated land
with rece n! farm in g practice in the Ni le va ll ey and opporllllllstically. as in recent times in Thessaly (e.g. Leake,
Mesopotami a. Thi s model wa s he Id lO be consis ten! with 1967: 424), and may have used the mo re predi ctab le wa -
ev idcnc e o f s ite loca tion in ac ti ve f100dpl ai ns and, more le rs of perennia l springs in drought yea rs when ra in -fed
spcc ifi cally, with ev idence for alluvia! depositi on contem - cu lti vation was unreliable. On prese nt evide nce, howevcr,
porary \Vith Neo lit hic occupation al Zarko in Thessaly (va n n oodwater farmin g seem s unl ike ly to have bee n eith er the
Ande l el alii, 1995). The broader signifi cance of Ihis model normal form of land use or Ihe basis of subsisten ce in Neo-
is th at , by lin k ing Neo lithi c c ultivati o n 10 very rest ric ted lil hi c Greece.
pal ches ol' seasonall y inundaled land , il perhaps lend s plau -
si bili ty 10 arguments ¡hal lhe sprcad of farmin g in soulheast
Europe was effec led by lhe demographic expansion o f earl y LEARNING FROM TRADlTIONAL MED IT E RR A -
farmers (e.g., Ammerman and Cavalli-S forza, 1973: 1979). NEAN t AND USE
Of mo re immedia le concern here is the re lated in fere nee
tha t Neolithic sett1ement s s uch as Zarko were occup ied Recent, no n-mechani sed fann ing in the Medite rranean
seasonally, as Ihis might well underrnine me argument advanced is pe rhaps more releva nt ecologically, and has bee n mo re
above that the s ize, spacing and permal1en ce of Neolithi c w ide ly fav o ured, as a model for ea rJ y agro-paslO ra l land
sett lemenl s enforced subs istence dependence on stapl e grai n use in Greece. Th e exte ns ive c ultivati on o f cerea ls, in a l-
c rops. More ove r, Ih e bigges t f100ds of Th essa li an riv ers ternation wi th ba re fa ll ow, and large-sea le manage ment 0 1'
le nd to occur in late w inter-ea rl y s pring , aft er Ih e s now sheep, invo lving tran shumance belween winter pastures in
melts in the hi gh moun! ai ns (S ivignon , 1975), an d so rath er Ih e 10w land s and summer paslUres in th e moun lai ll s, have
lale in Ih e g row in g sea so n fo r relia ble harves ts o f winter been regarded as particularly charac teri sti c of such 'tradi-
cereals and pul ses. These lale flood s al so lend [O be unpre- tiona l' mediterranean farming (e.g. Grigg, 1974). Th at these
dictable in tenns a l' bOlh liming and eXlenl: for exam ple, in stralegies are nOI fl ecessary responses 10 meditc rmnean cli -
ne ighbou ring ce ntra l Macedonia, prior [O modern drainage ma te and topog ra phy, however, is made clea r by lh e pa r-
and canalisalio n work, vill agers report that late fl oods ofthe alle l existence in the recent past of small-sca le m ixed fa r-
Aliakmon periodi ca lly destroyed even summcr crops such as m ingo typ ically invo lving e rop rotati o n (c.g. of ee rea1s and
New Wo rld bea ns (Halslead fie ldnotes, Aiginio). Under a pu lses), rat her than fall ow ing, and s mall -sca le, sede nlary
floo d wate r fanning reg im e, lherefore, g ra in c rops wou ld herd ing , us ua ll y of a mixture of liveslOc k s pec ies (e.g.,
probab ly have been a n in secure basis for Neo lithi c subs is- Forbes, 1982 ;. Halslead and Jon es, 1989). Whilc ex ten sive
tence, thu s fu rth er undermining the model of consumption arabl e farm ers have relied on plough-oxen 10 lill large arcas,
adopted here. both for sowing and fallowi ng , wilh mi nimal human labour,
Fo r this rcason, it is esse ntial to note sorne basie tlaws in smal l-scale mixed farmers have often lilled by hand and have
Ih e van Ande l and Runnels model before proceed ing further Iypiea ll y investcd human labour more intensively in praclices
wil h di sc uss io n 01' Neo lit hi c land use. Firsl, as Wilki e and suc h as weed in g, manurin g and waterin g . Simi larl y, whil e
Savi na ( 199 7) have e mph as ised, the tloodwater fa rm ing seasonal move men! be(ween pasturcs has enab led tran shu -
mode l is irre levan! to large numbers of Greek Neolithic sites man l herders to fU ll large flo cks with limited human labour.
(and, indeed, 10 large areas ofthe settlcd Neolith ie landscapc) small -sca le mixed farmer s have te nded to expe nd human
located well above, an d we ll away from , acti ve Ilood plain s. labour more intensively on the growi ng or collect ion o f fod-
Second ly, geoarc haeo log ica l evidence from Za rko does de r and on Ihe s upervis ion of s ma ll groups of grazi ng a n-
nOl de mon strate Ihat fl oodin g took p lace ann ua ll y ra lher ima ls.
Ih an, say, o nce per gene ral ion o r even less frequenlly (van Large-sca le, eXlen sive, spee iali sed farmin g and s malJ -
A nde l e l alii, 1995). The noodp la in location of s iles thus scale , in le nsive, divers ified farmin g sho uld perhaps be re-
does nOl neeessarily ind icate seasonal oecu pation. Th ird ly, garded as opposile ends of a spectrum of land use reg imes,
faunal evidence from Platia Magoula Zarko implies occupation ramer than as stlict altematives, but this opposition has heuris-
al teast in late winler-early spring (Becker, 1999), precisc ly tic va lue as a source of possi ble models of prehis tori c lan d

106
 AGROPASTORAL LAN D USE AND LANDSCAPE IN LATER PREHISTORIC GREECE

use (c.g. Halstead, 1987a: 2()(X): Chcrry, 1988). The approach EA RLY e ROP HUSBANDRY
adopted here is twofold: firsl, 10 explore lhe contcxts in which
¡hese { WO slrategies of land use have existcd in lhe recen! pas! Evidence for the nature of earl y arable farming is sparse
as a rncans al' assessing their potential relcvance to prchistory: and somewhat indirect, but reasonably consis len!. The im-
and , secondly, to assess lhe com patibility \Vith ei lher slralegy pacl of ea rl y farming is only lInambiguou s in the palyno-
01' lhe limilcd ev idence ror later prehisloric land use. logica l reco rd from Ih e second millennillm BC onwa rd s
Recen! ex tcnsive cultivatian and transhumant hcrd in g (Bollc ma, 1982; Willis and Bennett, 1994). Th e absence of
have [arge ly bee n geared lo surplus produ ction for lhe mar· clear Nco lithi c traces may partly reflee l the inse nsiti vity of
ket (Karav id as, 193 L Vergopo ulos, 1975). Conversely, in- cores from large-catchment basins to small-sca le c1earance,
ten sive cult ivation and sedentary herding, aften supplement- while analysis of the on-site charcoa l record from IwO Neo-
cd by pan -time wage labour ar small-sca le produclion for lithie se ttlements is 31so cons is te nl wilh clearance on a
limited sca le (Nti nou and Badal, 2000). Conversely, lh e
markct, have tended 10 characterise production primari ly for
visi bility of later Bronze Age cult ivali on parlly reOecIs Ihe
do meslic cons umpt ion. Moreover, extens ive cu hi vat ion has
adopt ion of palynologicall y di s tinc ti ve tree-crops, s uch
been practi sed by large landowners and inten sive cu hi vat ion
as the olíve, wal nut and chestnul, and may also partly reOeet
by s mallholders, while trans hmn anl herders were al so tra -
an inc rease in hum an population numbers and so in Ihe ag-
ditionally dependen! 0 11 the fall ow ficlds of large landowners
gregme exlenl 01" land use, wi thout any auendant change in lhe
for wimer pasture. Large landowners have not only relied on
type of land use. On the other hand, there are numerous rea-
oxe n for lillage, bul a lso on gangs of landless reapers al har-
so ns w hy eXlensive, specialised agrieu hure should have
ves! lime (Halstead, 1995). Thus both land use regimes have
more impact o n Ihe landscape. and s hould be more appar-
existed wilhin the con tex l of markcd inequality in access 10 en l in Ihe palaeoecologieal record. Ihan a,n inlcnsive, di-
land an d of lhe ex istence of a market ccono my, condili ons vers ilied regime (Hal stead, 2000). The palynological record
which have obta ined from lhe Late Bron ze Age and histori - is thu s co mpatible with, but by no means indicalive oL in -
cal e ra. respectively. bul not demonstrabl y from an ea rli er tensive cu lti vat ion during lhe Neolilhic and ea rli e r Bron ze
date. In addit ion. recent smallholders have widely been de- Age, giving way to more extens ive cultivat ion from lhe later
pendent in the southem Greek Jow lands on vil icullure (Psikho- Bron ze Age.
gios, 1987), for which ¡here is scant Neolilhic evidence. and The most strik ing feature of lhe sparse archaeobotani -
in (he mountains (McNeill, 1992) on the growing. in rotation ca l record for Neolithic and Bronze Age Greece is perhaps
wilh Old World winter cercals, of New World SlImmer crops Ih e diversi ty of g rain crops g rown ando more parti cularly,
(mai zc. potalOc s, Plwseolus spp. beans), which were nol Ihe relat ively even representation of cereals and pu lses (Hal-
avai lab le in Eu rope in prehi s lory. stead , 1994: 204-5, tab le 1). In both res pecI s , lh e ar-
Bolh the extensive and intensive poles of recent mediler- chaeobolan ical record of craps grown is more typical of in -
ranea n land use were hi sto ri cally contin ge nt and, as such . tensive. divcrs ified ' horti cullu re' Ihan of eXlensive,
ca nn OI be ex!rapo lated w hol esale to preh istory. Arguably. s peciali sed agricu lture, bUI such circumstant ial evidence is
however, lhe dependen ce of rece nt small- holde rs on wage not conclusive. More direct evidence for hu sbandry prac -
laboLlr and on v ines or New World craps was a response 10 tice s Illay be derived from ecological analysis of Ihe weed
scarcity 01" land (e.g., Psikhogios, 1987), and so Ihe in len- seeds contami nating grain samples (e.g. Jones el alii, 1999:
s ive, diversilied regime might plausibly be a mode l for ear- Bogaard el alii, 2000). The only such sludy ava ilabl e sug-
[y farmin g in a relat ively ega litarian social env ironmen l ges ls an elemelll of inle nsive cultivation at Lat e Bronze Age
with less constrained access 10 land . Conversely. it is doubl- Assiros Toumba, a possible g rain storage cen tre in northern
fui Ihal specia li sed ex te nsive cultivation or transhllm31lt Greece (lones , 1987; 1992; a lso Andreou Hnd Kotsakis,
pastorali slll wOllld be viable wilhout salient inequality in 1986). Anolher form of indircct ev id ence is Ih al pertaining
cont rol over lalld a nd labour. On this basis , ev ide nce for to plough animals. Artis ti c representations of yo ked cat-
extensive patterns of land use might nm be ex pected before Il e are lirsl known from the third millellnium BC (Pu ll en,
lhe laler Bronze Age , when marked social stratificati on, en- 1992), bul may have lilll e rc lal ionship to actual farmin g
tailing uncqu al access 10 basic resources of tand and labollr, practice s. A rchaeozoolog ica l ev id ence from p reh istoric
is firsl unambiguou sly apparent. Ne ither lhe linkage be- si les in Thessaly indicates a marked improvement in s ur-
Iween social (i n)equali ly and land use nor Ihe evidence fo r v ivo rs h ip of male cattle in Ih e Bron ze Age ( Ha ls tead ,
prehi storic soc ial changc is sufficiently robus l, however, 10 I987b), bUI male carde are nol necessarily lIsed for ploughing.
obviale Ihe need for empí rical invest igation of patterns of nor is ploughing necessarily enlru sred 10 oxen, and anyway
land use. the modest sa mple from the se few sites is an inadequate

107
 PAUL HA LSTEAD

basis for extrapolating to the whole of Greece. On the olher sedentary commu nities and may be reflected archaeo logi-
hand, the Linear B records from the Late Bronzc Age palaces cally in the long-di slance movemenl of, for exam ple, lithic
of southe rn Grecce cJearly indicate cent ral involvement in raw materials (e .g. Perles, 1990). Nonetheless, gatheri ng and
large-sca le cereal g rowing, with the palaees providing hunting activiries, whether by largely sedent ary I"armers or
plough-oxen (Killen, 1993a) and local communities probabl y by more mobile foragers, are un li ke ly ei ther to have made
providing human labour, particularly for harvesting (Halstead, a sig nificant overall contribu ti on to subs istence or to have
1999b). More o ve r, compari son of the tex tual and ar- had muc h impact on the landscape.
chaeobotanica l rec ord s suggesls ¡hat such plough-based A possible role in long-d istance interaction al so arises
agriculture was paralle led by more diversified (and so per- in Ihe case of stock husbandry (e.g. Jacobsen, J 984), fo r
haps smaller-sca le and more intens ive) cu lti vation outside which concrete evi denc e is mu ch more abundan t and the
of central control (Hal stead , J 992). O vera ll , therefore, the pOleoli al for a signifi cant contribUlion 10 both subsistence
sparse and often circumstantial evidence for the nature of and la od sc ape change is sig nificantl y greater. The sca le
early crap hu sba ndry is at least consistent with th e pre- and importance of stock rearing cannot be inl"erred directl y .
dominan ce of an inl ens ive horti c ultural regi me, supp le - from a rchaeozoolo g ica l evidenee, because of the com-
mented durin g the later Bron ze Age by e li te-s pon sored, plexities of bone discard , survival and recovery, bul il has
cx ten sive ag riculture . been arg u ~d elsewhere that these queslions ca n be addressed
Thi s suggested predo m inance oC in te nsive horti cul- indirec tly (Halstead, 1996). Rece nt Greek pa storalis ts
ture has a number of wi der impl ica tion s. First, intensive have typically been dependen! on keep in g large numbers
cultivarion ¡s, by vi rtue of ilS diversity, a more res ili e nt of an imal s and 00 spee iali scd produclion , especially of
and reliable basis for subsistence than exten sive agricul - cheese, for the market; cerea ls were acquired in exchange
ture, wirh it s te ndency towards speciali sati on (cf. Forbes, as dietary staples. Specialisation in milk products yields more
1976). Seco ndly, Ihe reliabi li ty of diversified , intensive calories per an imal rhan carnivorous pastoralism (e .g. Legge,
farmin g arguably promoles soc ial equality, whereas ex- 1981 ) an d so would arguab ly be essenlia l ir herders were
te nsive practices are in large part dependent on ¡he exis - directly de penden ! 00 th eir Iivestock , rather lhan on pur-
tence of marked socia l inequal ily. Thirdly, an d of most chased erap stapl es, for subsis tence. Mo reove r, th e low
importance in thi s present co ntext , intens ive c ult ivatíon market value of cereals relative to animal products effectively
is likel y to have exerci sed a re latively modest transforming subsidi ses pastorali sts, allowing the m lo subsis t on small er
effeet on the landscape. herds than would be possible in the absence of such exchange.
In archaeozoological term s, th e slaugh ter of infant males
would have maximised demogra phic potenlial fo r intens ive
EARLY STOCK HUSBANDRY AND FORAGING dairying (Payne, 1973; Halstead , 1998), while speciali sation
in one particular speci es would have facilitated the herding
Even if early farmers were primari ly dependenl on crop of ¡arge numbers of an imal s. By contrast, archaeozoolog ical
growing, and eve n if the latt er largely LOok the fonn of assemblages fro m Neolithic and Bronze Age open seulemenls
small- sca le , inten sive horl iculture, stock rearing and for- exhibit a more or less balanced mixlUre 01' species, wilh mor-
aging may have involved spatiall y more ex len sive use of tality panem s suggesting management according to a mixed-
the landscape. Direct evi dence for foraging of wild animals purpose 'meat' strategy (Halstead, 1996).
and plants, although relatively abundant on so rne Bronze The archaeozoological record from open sen le men ts is
Age si tes, is remarkably rare on Ea rl y-M iddle Neo lithic rhus more remini scenl of recenl small -scal e mixed farming
and , to a lesser ex tent, Late-Fi nal Neolithie si res (e .g. vo n th an of large-scale pastoralism. Durin g the laler Neoli thi c
den Driesch, 1987; Halstead, 1999a). It is possible, however, and Early Bronze Age, there is also widespread occuparion
that the rarily of wild animal and plant remains on early si tes of caves and of tiny open sites, oflen located in rough ter-
re fl ects not the avoidanee offoraging but a prefcre nce for rain wiLh more obvious potenlial for grazing Ihan culti vation
consu mption 0 1" wild foods off-site, perhaps because 01" (e.g . Sampson, 1992; Johnson , 1996; Dou sougli, 1996; Ca-
cul tural rules on sharin g (Halstead, 1999a). Equally, th e vanagh, 1999). Available archaeozoolog ical evidence from
possibility cannol be ex cluded that small, mobi le group s (hese sites too (i.e., Kalythies, Skoteini and Zas caves), how-
of foragers ex isted a long side th e archaeo logi ca lly more ever, is co mpatible wilh mixed- purpose ' mear' management
obtrusive early fanning eommuniti es. Foragers, or I"oraging of Ihe predomi nant sheep and goats, suggesting that live-
expedilions by fa rme rs, may have been of great cultural stock indeed played a secondary role in prehistoric su bsis-
sig nific ance in forging connec ti o ns between sca ttere d tence (Hal stead, 1996).

108
 AGROPASTORA L LAND USE ANO LANDSCA PE IN LATER PREHISTORIC GREECE

Even among recen! mi xed farmers dependent on c ro p mestic pigs at Makrigialos was inter mediate belween th al
sta pl es for subs isten ce, however, th ere was considerable oC wild boar and hum an s, impl ying Ihal thi s s pe c ies of
variati o n in Ihe numbers of anima ls kept. Although of sub- li vestoc k was atleast partl y telhe red 10 human settlement ,
sidiary di ela ry importance, liveslOck \Vere highl y val ued: rather th an ranging f rcely in lhe land scape, a nd so was
as sou rces of miJk , meat , lealher, wool, manure and Jabo ur: pe rh aps kept in limited numbers .
as vehicle s for lh e recyc Jing of agricultural and kit c he n A sim ilar inference can be drawl1 , 0 11 c1ifferc nl grou nd s
wa SIC and for lhe 'indirect storage' of surplu s grain (Hal- and with wider relevance, for both pigs and catt le. During
stead, 1990); and as a mean s of creating social aJliances ancl the cou rse of lhe Neolithic and Bronze Age in Greece, bones
obligat ion s throug h fea st in g (e.g., Vardaki in press), As 11 o f domes!ic can je and pig s become increas ingly di slin ct
result , Ihe possess ion of large herds was also a very visible metrical1y from their larger wild cOllnt erparts (e.g. von den
ind e x of wealth and pre st ige (e.g., Karakas id ou , 1997). Driesch, 1987). An importan l se lecli ve pre ssllre in favour
For simil ar rcasons, Ihe same may well have been the case in of large body size in the wi ld popula li ons will have been
prehi slory and animal figurines, interpreted as representing do- competition belween males, as a result of which large ma les
mesticates, perhaps confirm that liveslock was cuhurally sig- domin ate mating. In Ihe case of the domestica les , archaeo-
nifican! in Neol ithic soc iety (Toufexis, 1994). zoo logical ev idenee for se lective culling of yo ung mal es
For Late Bron ze Age southcrn Greece, Linear B wri nen (e.g .. Halstead, 1987b) indi catcs Ih atlhi s se leclive press ure
documen Ls record that lhe palace al Knossos harvested \Vool wi l1 have bee n re laxed - provided wild mal es did nOI have
from te ns of thou sand s of sheep (Killen, 1993b), whi le ready access 10 domes ti c femal es. The stce pl y deciining
demographi c cons ide ration s suggest thal eve n larger body size of do mc slic cattle and pig s Ihu s suggc sts Iha!
numbcrs of sheep may have been in ' pri vate' ownersh ip, with Ihese li ves tock species were herded close ly cnough 10 in -
severa l hundred individllal s in rural commllnities conlrolling hib il mating with wild males and so, arguably, Iha! stock
subslanli al fl ocks (Hal stead, 1999c). The Lin ear B tex ls were kept in moJest nllmbers.
also rcvea l palarial mobili salion of large numbers of live - While thcse ["ather indirect arguments tentalively suggcst
stock fo r sacrifiees and fea sls and again it can be argued limited numbe rs of early li veslOck , Ihe Late Neo lil hi c-
thal ce re moni al co nsumption was a lso taking place on a Early Bron ze Age colonisation of agricultural1y margin al
ve ry large sc ale in loc al communities ( Kill en. 1994; part s of the Greek landscapc woutd arguab ly have favoured
Ha lslead in press). increa sing reliance o n liveslOck, al least as an ahern ative
Thc lask of esti mating the scale of animal keeping during source of subsistence follow ing erop faitures, and there are
rhe Neolithic. wilhout lhe assistance of wriuen records, is much possible indications that Ihe scale of stock rearing increased
harde r. At the Lale Neolith ic 'extended ' site of Makrig ialos, Ihro ugh Ihe Neo lit hic. While Ihe de nsity and structure of
in no rthern Greece, re mains of several hundred shcep, goals, low land vege tation in seve nlh mill e nnium Be G rcece
callle and pig s were deposi tcd in a si ngl e pit co mpl ex, canno!, on prese nt evidence, be recon slru clcd in detail,
apparentl y ove r a relatively short period of time, impl ying Ihe fe is no reason 10 doubt that the land scape a rou nd Ihe
cOlIs/lmption of mea t on a very substantial scale indecd ea rli esl farming sc ttlement s offe red suitabl e niche s, in
(Collins and Hal stead, 1999). On !he other hand, Ihe animal s varyi ng proportions, for each of !he prin c ipal livestock
consumed at thi s feasl or series of feasts (and likew ise ¡hose species: can le, sheep , goat s and pi gs. In Ihi s li ght, it has
partie ipalin g in ¡heir consumption) may have been drawn been argued that Ihe prcdominan ce on earlier Neo lith ic siles
from nurnerous cOlllmunities scattered over a la rge reg ion of shee p (ideally suited 10 grazi ng stubble and fa llow fi e ld s,
and so do not necessari ly indicate local stock rearillg on a as we ll as sprouling cereal s) re flect s an ini li all y e/ose in -
large sca le. A pil ot anal ysis 01' dental microwear on shecp tegration of li vestock with Ih e cu 1ti vated land sca pe (Hal -
and goal rnandible s from Late Neo li thic Ma krigial os stead , 1981). In later Ncolith ic-Ea rl y Bron zc Age fau nal
(Mainl and pers. comm.) re vea led a pall e rn 01' a tt rit ion assc mblages, a co ntrasl is apparen! belwee n ope n sit es in
suggesli ve of heavy grazi ng, but microwear is conlinuously fert ile lowland basins , on the one hand , and cave siles al1d
overwritten (Mainland, 1998) and so this evidenee might silll- a few o pe n siles in more marginal location s, o n Ihe ot her
ply reOee l a period, shortl y before slau ghter, whe n the sc hand . Al lhe forme!", sheep are still far more abund ant than
an ima ls were confil1ed within lhe ditch and bank wh ich e n- goa ts, a lth oug h pigs and catt le may a lso be more or less
close lhe site. Bone che mi slry provides a more cllmulal ive we ll rcpresented. Conversely, al the laller, sheep a nd goats
record of diet. A pilot anaJys is of bon e isoropic cornpo - predominate in fairly even proportion s (Halstead , 1996).
sil ion (Tri an laphyllou , 1999) suggests that the di e t of do- Thi s apparently increased se nsiti vity lO Ihe local natural en-

109
 PAUL HALSTEAD

vi ronment perhaps indi cates thallivcslOCk made grcater use Ihe culturall an dscape, but also the possi ble role ol' herdin g
of un culti vuled parts of lhe landscape , and so wcre kept in rnovements in reg ional social intercollfse.
larger numbers . than in Ihe earlier Neoli th ic.
Such an expansion 01' herding would be com patib le with
widcspread geoarchaeolog ical evidence for eros ion and al- CONCLUSJONS
luviation. roughly dalcd 10 the later Neolithic and Early Bronze
Agc (van Andel el alii, 1990; Zangger, 1991 ; Krahtopoulou, Many qucslion s remain conce rn ing Ihe na lure of pre-
2000; Whilelaw, 2000). Modern herders are sens ili ve to historie land use in Greece and rnuch of thi s survey has been
overgrazing, because Ih is ha s an immedialc, negative im- devoted to exposing lhe oflen fl imsy bas is on which ex isting
pae! 011 Ihe prodlll:t ivity af liveslOck in terms of milk yields, inlerpretati ons are founded. It has been argucd Ihal Neolithic
fe rlilil y aod meat weights, and so have widely adopted land use wa s essen!ially s mall -sca le and inlcn sivc, with
measures 10 ¡imil livestock numbers and Ihe potcnt ial for a,rable fruming in many respects resembling honiclIlture rather
degradali o n of Ihe land scape ( Forbes, 1997; 2000; Kos le r, Ihan agri cultllre. The scale of animal hu sbandry is probably
1997). The poss ibi lity must be e me rt aíned, however. thal lhe Illost contentious and also complex issue. Domcstic ani-
prehistoric herders had different priorilies, for examp1e being ma ls were probabl y s ubsidiary 10 crops in Iheir cOlllri but ion
more concerned 10 maintain large herds as a symbol of weahh 10 normal s ubsistence, bUI were on occasio ns cons umed in
and status than 10 maximise lhe productiv ily of their livestoc k. large numbers and may \Ve ll have becn herded al sorne d is-
Herd ing also lends 10 be more spatially exlensive than cullí - tance frol11 lhe ' home' sett lemcnt , wheLhcr in scarch or pre-
vatio n and so might be favoured as a cause of early anthro- ferred pHlchcs of pastllre or because such rnovernent s served
pogen ic impacl 0 11 Ihe land scape , bUI there is as ye l no se - as a vehicl e for socia l intercollfse. There are al so reaso ns to
cure ev idence thatthe alluviation episodes in question resulted expecllhat lhe scale and economic sign ifi cance 01' stock hu s-
from human act ivity (Endfield, 1997; Krahtopou lou, 2000). bandry will llave increased during Ihc course of Ihe Neolilhic
Studies 01' recenl herders underlinc lhe importance of Ihe and there is possible empirical suppon for this expcctation , but
qllality, as well as qua nt ity, of grazing. Seasonal flus hes Ihe evidence is far from conclusive.
of nutritional ly rich pasture , suc h as Ihe ruderal p lant s Pe rh aps Ihe most signifi ca n! conclu si ons ¡'rom thi s s ur-
wh ic h spr in g up in slu bble fields afler lh e harvesl , are vey are methodologica l. First, there is an eviden t need both
soughl after for Ihe ir abi lily 10 fanen anima ls, improve milk fo r mo re and better palaeoecolog ical and pa laeoeco nomic
yie lds, or enha nce reproductive success a nd so may p laya data and fo r further actualisl ic sludies 01' contcmpora ry land
major role in s hap ing both local and long-di slance move- use as a basis for intcrpreting s uc h data. For example. in
ments of liveslock in Ihe landscape. Such nulriliou s flu shes Ihe lighl of eco logical slu d ies of mode rn weed n oras, ar-
are often nOI the lushesLpatches of vegelalion, being found chaeobo la nical evidence could darify Lhe intensity of cul -
in slead o n di sturbed or even barren ground which s upports ti vation prac li ces or lhe likelihood of floodwa le r fannin g .
young g rowlh . The small and perhaps s hort-lived s ites of Ana lyses of bone isotopic cornposition, of dental mi crowear
!ater Neolilhic-Early Bronze Age date, found in ba rre n 10- and, where available, of an im al dllng could s hed comple-
cat io ns in several southe rn Greek survey s (e.g. John so n, rnenlary li ghl on Ihe movement of livcstock in the land scape.
1996; Cavanagh, 1999) may Ihu s be in d icative of s uch Fin e r daling of palaeoecological sequ enccs and furt her
seasona J g raz in g 10 falten moJes! numbers of li vestock , stud ie s of modern vegelatioll anJ landfonn s wou ld fac ili -
rather than o r herding o n a large sca le. Recent herders have tal e Ihe recognilion and intcrpretation of human impac I on
also often sought 10 exten d Ihe availabil ity in time or space Ih e landscape . Secondly, the pervasive and inevitable ro le
o f valued palc hes of pasture by measures such as burning 01' model s, derivcd from recenl p rac tice, in shaping re-
or cutting. Prchistoric herders may have done Ihe same and, conslrllction of prehi stori c land use must be acknowledged
in steep or barren arca s, such aC l iv~ties even on a s mall ex pli citly, so that Ihe relevance of these model s can be criti -
sea le may well have caused changes to vegelalion or ero- ca ll y evaluated and the heurislic potential of their appli calion
s ion severe e nough 10 be reg is tered in Ih e pa laeoeco log i- can be enhanced .
cal record. The relal ion ship bctween numbers of li veslock,
on lhe one hand , and Ihe s pa li al scale o f herding and lhe
impact o f graz in g o n Ihe landscape , on lhe other hand, is ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ih us comp lex. An underSlanding of lhe movcment of li ve-
stock in space , however, would illurninate nOl on ly patterns ram graleful to Tina Badal and colleagues. ror Ihe ¡nvi-
of la nd use in prehi slory an d their possible role in s hap in g lati o n to take part in a stimuJating and most enj oyab le meet-

110
 AGROPASTORAL LAND USE AND LANDSCA PE IN LATER PREH ISTORIC GREECE

ing in Va lencia; to Tina Badal, Va lasia Isaakidou and Maria C HERRY. J. F. ( 1988): Pastoral is m and lhe ro le of a nimals in Ihe
Nt inou, ror commenl s on an earlier draft of Ihi s pape r; and pre- a nd proto-hisloric economies of Ihe Aegean. In e R.
to Geerd-Jaap va n Klinke n, Ingrid Mainland :.tnd Sev i Tri - Wh itlake r (ed .). Paswral econom ies in c lassical antiquity.
antaphyllou , ror pcrmission lO refer to unpubli shed work. Cambridge Phil%gical Sociel)' SlIpplementary Volllme,
14: 6-34.
COLLLNS, P. and HALSTEAD, P. (1 999): Faunal re mains a nd ani -
BIIlLlOGRAPHY mal exploitation al LN Makri gia!os: prelirninary result s. In
P. Halstead (ed.), Neolithic Societ)' ill Greea. Shcffield Acu-
AMMERMAN ,A. J. and CAVALLl -SFORZA , L. ( 1973): A popu- demic Press. Sheffield: 139- 141.
Imi on model for (he diffusion of early farming in Europe. DOUSOUGU, A. (1996): Epirus - the Jonian Islancl s. In G.A. Pap·
In C. Rcnfrew (ed.). Tite Explanatioll o/Culture CllllIIge. alhanassopou los (ed.). Neolilhic Culture il/ Greece. Goulan-
Duckwonh. London: 343-357. dris Fo undation . Atbe ns: 46-48.
AMMERMAN, A . J. and CAVA LLI-SFORZA, L. (1979): The wave VON DEN DR IESCH , A. ( 1987): Hau s- und Jagdticrc im vorges-
of advance model fOf Ihe spread of agricuhure in Eu rope. c hich tlic hen Thessa lien. Priil/islOrische Zeitschrift. 62: 1-
In C. Renfrcw and K . L. Cooke (eds.), Trallsformatiolls: 21.
Mat/¡ematica/ Approac/¡es 10 Cullllre CJu/l/ge. A cadcmic ENDFIELD. G. H. ( 1997): MYlh , manipulation ulld myopia in Ihe
Press. Ncw York : 275-293. study of Meditermnean soil erosiono In A. Sinclair. E. Slaler
VAN ANDEL, TJ. : GALLlS, K. and TOUFEXIS. G. (1995): Eady and J. Gowlett (eds.). A rchaeological SÓem.:es 1995. Ox!x>w
neoJithic farrning in a Thessalian river landscape, Greecc. Monographs 64. Oxbow. Oxford: 24 I -248.
In J. Lcwin . M. G. Macklin and 1. C. Woodward (eds.). FORBES. H . (1976): 'We have a ¡iltle of everylh ing': the ecological
Medit erron eall Quatel"f/ary River Envi/"OlIments. Balke- basis of some agricultural practices in Me lh ana. Tri zini a.
mu . Rotterdam: 131-143. AI/uals ofrhe New York A cademy ofSciences. 268: 236-250.
VAN ANDEL, Tj. and RUNNELS, C. ( 1995): The earJiesl farrll ers rORBES, H. (1982): Stralegies and Soils: Techl!ologJ~ PmdllCtioll
in Europe. Aflliqllil)', 69: 481-500. alld Envimwl1enl inthe Peninsula 01 Melhflllll. Greec:e. PhI)
VAN ANDEL , Tj.: ZANGGER, E. "nd DEMITRACK. A. ( 1990): dissenalion, University of Pennsylvunia .
L1nd use and soi] erosion in prehisloric and historieal Grcecc. FORBES, H. (1997): A 'wasle' of resources: aspccts of landscape
Joun/al of Field Archaeology, 17: 379-396. exploitation in lowland Greek agricu Jture. In P. N. Kard u-
ANDREOU, S. lllld KOTSAKIS, K. (1986): Diaslas is tOLl khoro u lías and M. T. Shutes (eds.), Aegea/l Srrategies: SIl/dies of
stin kendri ki Makedoni a: apotiposi lis endokoinotik is kai Culture alld Envirol/melll 011 Ihe Ellropea" Frillge. Rowman
diakoinotik is khoroorganos is. In Amitos (Feslschri fl 10 M. a nd Liulefield. Lanham: 187-213.
A ndron ikos). University of Thessaloniki , Thessa lo niki : FORBES , H. (2000): Landscape exploi tation via pastora lis m: ex·
57-.88. amin ing Ihe ' Iandscape clegradution' vs suslainable econo-
BECKER, C. ( [999): The Middle Neolithic and Ihe Platia Magoula my debate in the post-medieval SOLJlhern Argolid. In P. Hal-
Zarkou • a rev icw of c urre nt archaeozoological research stead a nd C. Frederick (eds.), wndscape al/ti Umtl Use ill
in Thessa ly (Greece). Amhropozoologica, 30: 3-22. PosIglacial Greece. Sheffie1d Academic Press. Sheffield:
BINTLlFF. J. ; HOWARD, P. and SNODGRASS, A. (1999): Thc hid- 95-109.
den Jandscape of prehistoric Greece . Joumal 01 Meditara - GR IGG . D. B. ( 1974): Tlle Agricultural Systems 01 rhe World: WI
!!eo!! Arclzaeology. 12 (2): 139-168. Evolutionary Approach. Cambridge Univcrs ity Press. Cam·
BOGAARD. A.: C HARLES, M.: HALSTEAD, P. and JONES. G . bridge.
(2000): Thc $Cale and intensi ty of cultivation: evidence from HALSTEAD. P. ( 1981 ): Counting shecp in Neolithi c ane! Bron zc
wecd ccology. In C. Frederick and P. Halstead (eds.), !..(lIId- Age Greece. In 1. Hodder, G. Isaac and N. Hammond (eds.).
scape al/d Umd Use in Postglacial Greece. Shefficld Aca- Parterll of the Pasl: SII/dies il/ HOIlOl/r of David C/a rke,
dem ic Press, Sheftield: 129- 134. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge: 307-339 .
BOITEMA , S. ( 1982); Palynological investigalions in G rccce with HALSTEAD, P. ( 1987a); Tradilional and a nden! rural economy in
spccial refe rence to pollen as an indicalor of human acliv- Medile rranean Europc: plus ~a change? J Ol/rlllI/ of flel/ellfc
ity. Palaeohisroria. 24 : 257-289. SII/dies, 107: 77-87.
CAVANAG H, W. ( 1999): Revcnons 11 nos moulons: surface survey HALSTEAD, P. (1987b): Man and olher an imals in later Greck pre-
and Ihe Pe loponnese in Ihe Late and Final Neolithic. In J. hislOry. Anllual 01 rhe British ScJ/Ool (/l Arhell s. 82: 71-83.
Renard (ed.), Le Pélopol/llese: archéologie et histoire. Press- HALSTEAD, P. ( 1989): Like rising da mp? An ecologica l approach
es Uni vers itai res Rennes. Rennes : 3 I -65. to the spread of farming in soulheast and centra! Europe. In

111
 PAUL HALSTEAD

A . M i ll es. D. Wi ll iams and N. Gardner (eds.), Tll e Begin- JO HNSON, M. ( ! 996 ): Th e Berbati-Limnes archaeologiea! s ur-
nings 01 Ag /';clIllIlre. BAR Inlernational Series 496. British vey: the Neolilhic pe riod o In 13 . We lls (ed.), TIJ e Berbali-
ArchaeoJogical Reports. Oxford: 23 -53. LimlJes ArclweologicalS/l rvey 198 R-1990. $wedi sh InSlj -
HALST EAD. P. (1990): Waste nol. want nOI: tradil ia na! responses tUle al Athe ns. Stoc kholm: 37-73.
to erap fai lure in Ofecce. Rural His lOry, J: 147- 164. JO NES, G . ( 1987): Agricu!tura! pracliee il1 Greek prehistory. Ann/l -
HALSTEA D. P. ( 1992): Agriculture in the Bronze Age Aegean: to- (11 ofthe Brit;sh School (1/ Alhens. 82: 115- 123,
wards a model ar palatial c(;onomy. In B. Wells (ed.),Agri- JONES , G . ( 1992) : Weed phytosocio!ogy and erap husbandry: iden-
clflmre in Ancient Greece. Swtxlish lnstltute m Athens . Stock- tifying a eonlrasl belween aneient and mooem practice, Re-
holm: 105-116. view of PalaeobotrUly alld Plllyllology, 73: 133-143.
HA LSTEAD, P. (1994): T he North-South di vide: regional paths 10 JONES . G.; BOGAARD. A.; HALSTEAD. P.; CHARLES_ M . and
complcxity in prehistoric Gfeece. In C. Mathers and S. Stod- SMIT H, H. ( 1999): Ide ntifyi ng the inl ensily of c rop hus-
dart (eds.), Developmell' and Decline;/I fh e Mediterra1/ean bandry praelices on Ihe bas is of weed floras: Amwal oftlte
Brol/ze Age. JR Colli s. Sheffield: 195-219. British Sch ool al A¡hellS, 94: 167- !89.
HA LSTEA D, P. (1995): Plough aod powcr: (he economic and so- KA RAKAS IDOU , A. N. (1997): Fields of lVhear. HiIIs of Blood,
c ia! significance of cu hivation with the ox-drawn ard in Chicago Un iversity Press. Chicago.
the MediternLncan. Bulle/in 011 Sumerian Agricufture, 8: KARAVIDAS, K. D. ( 1931): Agrolika: Me/er; S;gkr;tiki. A lhens.
11-22. KILLEN , J. T. ( 1993a): The oxen's names on Ihe Knossos Ch tab!els.
HALST EA D, P. ( ! 996): Pastora!ism or househo!d herding? Prob- Mill m' 27-28: 10 1-107.
lems of seale and spccialization in carly Greek animal hus- KILLEN. J . T. ( 1993b): Rccords 01' sheep and goats at myce naean
bandry. World Archaeology, 28: 20-42. Knossos and Pylos. B/llIetil/ Oll Sume ria/! Ag rien/tI/ re, 7:
HALSTEAD. P. ( 1998): MOfl alily models and milking: problems of 209-218.
uniform itarianism, optima!ity and equifinality reconsidered. KILLEN, J. 1'. (!994): T hebes seal ings, Knossos lablets and myec-
Anthmpozoologica, 27: 3-20. naean s tale banqucls. Bul/elin of Ihe /nstitllte of Classica!
HALSTEA D, P. ( 1999a): Ne ighbours frorn he!!: the household in Srudies, 1994: 67-84 .
Neolith ie Greeee. In P. Halstead (ed,), Neolithie Society ;1/ KOSTER , H . A. (1997): Yours, mine and ours : privafe and publie
Grecce. Shefficld Aeademie Prcss. Sheffiel d: 77-95. pasture in Greeee. In P.N, Kardulias and M.T. Shules (eds.),
HALSTEA D, P. ( 1999b): Surplus and share-croppcrs: Ihe grai n pro- Aegea/l Straleg ies: Slue/ies of Culture alld Ellvirol/lnelll 0 11
d uction stratcgies 01' myeenaean palaees. In P. BeUlneou n . the European Frin ge. Rowman and Lin! efreld , Lanham:
V. Karageorghis, R. Laffine ur and \V.-D. Niemeier (eds.), 141 - 186.
MELETHMATA , Srudies Presented to Maleolm fI. Wien er KRAHTO POULO U, A.~2(00) : Ho! ocene alluvia! hi story ofnonh -
as he Elllers his 65th Yea!: Aegaeum 20. UniversilY of Liegc. cm Pieria, Macedonia, Greece, In P. HalSlead and C. Frcd-
Liege: 31 9-326. erick (eds.), ulIldscape and Land Use ill Pos/glacial Greeee,
HA LSTEAD , p, ( 1999c) : Missing shcep: on the meaning and widcr S hetlie ld Academ ic Press. S heffield : 15-27 .
significance 01' o in Knossos SHEE P records, AI/nua! oflhe LEA KE, W. M. (1967): Travels in Norlflem Greece. 4. Hakkert. Am-
Briris/¡ School at Athem , 94: 145-1 66. sterdam,
HA LSTEA D , p, (2000): Land Use in Pos lglacial Grccce: Cul - LEGGE, A. 1. (1 981) : The agricu!t ural eCQnom y, [n R, J. Merec r
tu ra l Causes and Envi ronmen lal Effec ls. In P. Ha1s lcad (ed.). Grimes Graves Excav{l/iolls 1971 -72. Her Majesty's
and C. Frederick (eds,), wndscape alld ullld Use ill /'OSI _ Stationery Oftice, London: 79- 103.
glacial Greea. Sheffi eld Academic Press. S hefficld: 110- MCNEILL, J, R. (1992): -/lIe MOllll1aills oftlle Medire rralleal/ I~vrld.

128. Cambridge Universi lY Press. Cambridge.

HALSTEA D, P., in prcss: Texts, bones and herders: approaehcs to MA INLAN D, 1. L. ( 1998): The ¡amb's last suppcr: Ihe role of den-
an imal husbandry in Lale BronzeAge Greece, MillOS 33-34, lal mic rowear analysis in rcconstrucling livcstock diet in Ihe
HALST EAD. p, and JONES , G . (1989): Agrarian ecology in the pas!. E/lviml/lnental Arc}¡aeology. 1: 55-62.
Greek islands: time stress, sC<lle and risk. JOll/'lllll of He/- NTlNOU , M. and BADAL, E. (2000): Local vegc(ation and char-
lellic Srudies, !09: 41 -55, coa! a na1ysis: an example from IWO Lale Ncolilhic si le!. in
JACOBSEN, TW. ( 1984): Seaso nal paswralism in soulhcrn Greece: non he rn Greece, In P. Ha! Slead and C. Frederick (eds.).
a consideration of the ceo!ogy of nco!ithic urfi rnis potlery. wndscape alld Lalld Use in Postglacial Greece. Sheffi e ld
In P. M, Rice, Pots alld Porrers: Cll rrelll Approaches in Ce- Acadc mic Press, Sheffield : 38-51 ,
ramie Arclweology . UCLA Institute of Archaeol ogy, Los PA YNE, S, (1973): Kili-off palterns in sheep and goals: the mandibles
Angeles: 27-43 from Asvan Kalé, Ana/()liall Stl/dies, 23: 281-303.

11 2
 AGRO PASTORAL LAND USE ANO LANDSCAPE IN LAT ER PREHISTORIC GREECE

PERLEs, c. ( 1990): L' outiltage de piclTC taillée néol ilhique en Grece: Greek Macedonia. PhD Disscrtation. University of Shetlield.
approvisionnemem et exploitation des matieres premieres. VA ROA KI. E .. in press : Consumplion stnuegies in a highlllnd vil·
EI/l/erin de Correspondal1ee Hel/élliq/le, 114: I A2. lagc of central Cretc: Ihe ease of marri age banquets. In E.
PS IKHOG IOS , O. K. ( 1987): Proikes. Foroi, SlaJida ka; P~wmi : KOljabopou lou , Y. Ham ilaki s. P. Halstcad , e. Gamble and
Oikollomia kai Oikogenia stin Agroliki Ellada rOIl 19 Aiollo. P. Elefami (eds.), Zooarcllaeology in Greece. Briti sh School
Et hniko Kentro Koinonikon Erevnon . Athens. at At hens, London.
P ULL EN , D. J. (1992): O x and pl ough in th e Early Bronze Age VE RGO PO ULOS, K. ( 1975): To Agrotiko Zirima s/in El/alfa, i
Aegcan. American l ournal of Archaeology, 96: 45·54. Koilloniki Enso /llatoú lis Georgias. Exandas. Athens.
SA MPSON , A. ( 1992): Late Neo li lhic re m a in ~ al Th aroun ia, Eu· WHITELAW, T. (2000): Settl ement instability and land<:, cape degra-
boca: a modet fo r ¡he seasonal use of seulements and caves. dalion in Ihe somhern Aegean in the Ihird rnill ennium Be.
AI/lllwl oflhe Brirish Sehool al Alhells, 87: 61 - 101 . In P. Halstead and C. Frederick (eds.). umdscape (I/J{J /..1lI1l1
SHE RRArr. A.G. (1980): Water, soil and seasonalily in earl y ce- Use ill Pos/g/acial C reece. Shertie ld Academic Press.
real clI lt ivation. World Arclwe%gy, 11: 313-330 . Shertield: 135- 161.
S IVIG NON , M. ( 1975): La Thessa/ie: allalyse géographiqlle d' /Ill e WILK IE. N. C. and SAV INA , M. E. ( 1997): Thc earliesl farmers in
provillee grecqlle. Mcmoires el Docllments 17. Institut des Macedon ia. Allliquity, 71: 201 -207.
Études Rhodan iennes. Lyon. WILLl S. K. J. and BENNETI, K. D. (1994): The neolit hic lransi-
TOUFEXIS, G. (t 994): Neolilhic animal figuri nes fmm Thessaly. In li on fae l ur fiction? Pa laeoecological ev idence fro111 Ihe
U I Thessalie: qlli1lze anllées de recherches archéologiques, Balkans. Tll e /-I%cene. 4: 326-330.
1975-1990. Min istry ofCulture. Alhens: 163- 168. ZANGGER. E. (1 99 1): Prch istoric coastal cnvironmenls in Grecce:
TR IANTAPHYLLOU. S. ( 1999): A Bioarchaeological Approach ro th e vanished landscape s o f Dimin i bay and Lakc Lerna.
Pfehi~'/o ric Cemerely Populariol1sfrom Wesrern (llId Celllra/ lOl/mal of Fie/d ArcJweology, 18: 1- 16.

11 3