Fundamentals of Algebra

Course Module 1

Prepared by:
Engr. Jaydee N. Lucero, RCE

1
Course Description
This course covers topics in algebra, trigonometry, and plane, solid and analytic
geometry, and their applications to engineering problems.

Objectives for this Module

At the end of this module, the students shall be able to

Lesson 1 (Week 2): Exponents

1. Recognize powers.
2. Simplify algebraic expressions involving powers using the laws of exponents.
3. Recognize radicals and do some simple operations to them.
4. Relate radicals to powers with rational exponents.
5. Recognize logarithms and do some simple operations to them.

Lesson 2 (Week 3): Polynomials

1. Recognize polynomials, identify their parts, and classify them.
2. Evaluate polynomials.
3. Perform mathematical operations on polynomials.
4. Perform special products when multiplying polynomials.
5. Factor polynomials completely.

Lesson 3 (Week 4): Rational Expressions

1. Recognize rational expressions.
2. Evaluate rational expressions.
3. Perform mathematical operations on rational expressions.
4. Recognize complex rational expressions and simplify them.

2
Pretest
Solve each item carefully, then choose the letter corresponding to the correct answer.
If the correct answer is not in the given choices, write E.
Important Note:
Please answer to the best of your current ability. Do not guess the answers; it will
defeat the purpose of this pretest. If you do not know the answer to a question, just
skip it; it is perfectly fine to skip questions at this point.

1. Which of the following statements is true about powers?

a. A power is a shorthand notation for repeated addition.
b. The base of a power represents the number of times a number is
multiplied to itself.
c. Nonzero constants and variables can be treated as powers with exponent
1.
d. The exponent of a power represents the number to be multiplied to itself.

2. What law of exponent must you apply to simplify the expression (𝑎2 )6 ?
a. product rule c. power-product rule
b. power rule d. power-quotient rule

3. Which of the following is true about square roots?

a. The square root 𝑎 is the number that must be multiplied to itself twice to
get 𝑎.
b. The square root of 𝑎 is a real number for all values of 𝑎.
c. The square root of 𝑎 can be positive, zero or negative.
d. The square root of 𝑎 is always an integer.

4. Which of the following is true about logarithms?

a. log 𝑏 𝑥 is the number that must be multiplied to itself 𝑏 times to get 𝑥.
b. ln 𝑥 is the logarithm of 𝑥 to the base 10.
c. The logarithm of a product of two numbers is equal to the product of the
logarithms of these two numbers.
d. The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the exponent times the
logarithm of the number.

1 1 3 1 1 −2
5. Simplify the expression (𝑥 6 𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 4 𝑦 4 ) .
a. 𝑦 c. 𝑦 4√𝑦
b. 𝑥𝑦 d. 𝑥𝑦 4√𝑦

6. What is the degree of the polynomial 𝑝2 𝑞 3 + 5𝑝6 𝑞 + 9𝑝𝑞 5 − 13𝑝3 𝑞3?

a. 5 c. 7
b. 6 d. 24

7. What property of real numbers is primarily used to multiply two polynomials?

a. associative property c. commutative property
b. distributive property d. closure property

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8. The polynomial (𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 − 9) is to be divided by (𝑥 − 4). How do we set up
the synthetic division for this problem?
a. 4 | 1 -5 0 6 -9 c. 4 | 1 -5 6 -9
b. -4 | 1 -5 0 6 -9 d. -4 | 1 -5 6 -9

9. The FOIL method is a technique used for

a. adding or subtracting two polynomials.
b. multiplying two binomials.
c. dividing a polynomial by a binomial.
d. factoring a perfect square trinomial.

10. Factor completely the polynomial 𝑥 5 − 16𝑥.

a. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)4 c. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑥 2 + 4)
b. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑥 + 2)2 d. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 4)

𝑥+2 𝑥+1
11. What is the LCD of the fractions 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4 and 𝑥 2 −8𝑥+16?
a. (𝑥 − 4)3 (𝑥 + 1) c. (𝑥 − 4)2 (𝑥 + 1)
b. (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) 2
d. (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)

12. What do you call rational algebraic expressions whose numerators and
denominators also contain rational algebraic expressions?
a. compound fractions c. tower fractions
b. multi-level fractions d. complex fractions

13. When do we say that a rational algebraic expression is in its simplest form?
I. There are no common factors in the numerator and the denominator.
II. There must be only one fraction present.
III. The numerator and denominator must be both factored.

a. I and II c. II and III

b. I and III d. I, II and III

4𝑝2 −9 6𝑝+9
14. Simplify the expression 4𝑝2 −12𝑝+9 ÷ 2𝑝2 −5𝑝+3.
(2𝑝+3)2 (𝑝−1) (2𝑝−3)2 (𝑝−1)
a. 3(2𝑝−3)2
c. 3
𝑝−1 𝑝−1
b. d.
3(2𝑝−3)2 3

15. What do you call the process of substituting the value of a variable/variables to
an algebraic expression and calculating its value?
a. simplification c. evaluation
b. factoring d. equating

4
 Lesson 1
EXPONENTS
1.1 Powers: definition

A power can be said of as a sort of repeated multiplication. A number or a variable is

multiplied to itself for several times, and instead of displaying the multiplication in full, we
shorten it to a number that we call as the power. For example, if 2 is multiplied to itself
10 times, we write the multiplication in full, and shorten it into a power as

2 multiplied 10 times and written in full

⏞
2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2= 10
2⏟ = 1024
shortened form (the power)

We call 2 as the base of the power, since this is the number being multiplied to itself
several times. On the other hand, we call 10 the exponent of the power, since it is the
number of times the base has to be multiplied to itself. Notice that the exponent is
written above and smaller in size than the base.

We read 210 as “2 to the 10th power”, or “2 raised to the 10th power”, or just “2 to the 10”
or “2 raised to 10”.

We can treat numbers or variables as powers, too, but with an exponent of 1. For
example, 2 = 21 (meaning 2 is multiplied to itself only 1 time) and 𝑥 = 𝑥 1 (x is multiplied
to itself only 1 time).

1.2 Laws of exponents

Like real numbers, mathematical operations such as multiplication, division and

exponentiation can be applied to powers as well. These operations are summarized
into seven laws, collectively known as the laws of exponents. These laws are explained
one-by-one, with lots of examples, in the next sections.

1.2.1 Product rule

Product rule
If 𝑎, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are three real numbers, then 𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 .

In other words, if we are to multiply two powers of the same base, we copy the same
base and then add the exponents.

Illustration 1.
 23 × 25 = 23+5 = 28
 𝑝2 × 𝑝6 × 𝑝−4 × 𝑝8 = 𝑝2+6+(−4)+8 = 𝑝12
 5𝑎+𝑏 × 5𝑎−2𝑏 = 5(𝑎+𝑏)+(𝑎−2𝑏) = 52𝑎−𝑏
 𝑎9 × 𝑏 7 × 𝑎10 = ⏟
𝑎9 × 𝑎10 × ⏟7
𝑏 = 𝑎9+10 × 𝑏 7 = 𝑎19 𝑏7
same base different base

5
In the last example, the powers have different bases (a and b) and therefore we
cannot combine them using product rule. As a result, we just write the powers with
different bases side by side. However, there are exceptions to this, as we shall see later.

1.2.2 Quotient rule

Quotient rule
If 𝑎, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are three real numbers, then
𝑎𝑚
𝑎 ÷ 𝑎 = 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 .
𝑚 𝑛
𝑎

So, if we want to divide two powers of the same base, we copy the same base and
then subtract the exponents.

Illustration 2.
 25 ÷ 23 = 25−3 = 22
𝑝2021
 𝑝1996
= 𝑝2021−1996 = 𝑝25
 5𝑎+𝑏
÷ 5𝑎−2𝑏 = 5(𝑎+𝑏)−(𝑎−2𝑏) = 5𝑎+𝑏−𝑎+2𝑏 = 53𝑏
𝑎9 𝑎9
 𝑏7
= 𝑏7

In the last example, the powers have different bases (a and b) and therefore we
cannot combine them using quotient rule. As a result, we just write the powers with
different bases as is. However, there are exceptions to this, as we shall see later.

Let us now apply what we have learned from product and quotient rules with these two
solved examples.

Example 1. Simplify the expression

(𝑥 6 𝑦 3 )(𝑥 8 𝑦 5 𝑧 7 )
.
𝑥 9𝑦 4𝑧

Solution. First, we simplify the numerator using product rule. Remember, only combine
powers with the same base.

(𝑥 6 𝑦 3 )(𝑥 8 𝑦 5 𝑧 7 ) (𝑥 6 × 𝑥 8 )(𝑦 3 × 𝑦 5 )(𝑧 7 ) 𝑥 6+8 𝑦 3+5 𝑧 7 𝑥 14 𝑦 8 𝑧 7

= = = 9 4
𝑥 9𝑦 4𝑧 𝑥9𝑦4𝑧 𝑥 9𝑦 4𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

Next, we divide the numerator and the denominator using quotient rule. Again, only
combine powers with the same base.

𝑥 14 𝑦 8 𝑧 7 𝑥 14 𝑦 8 𝑧 7
= ( ) ( 4 ) ( 1 ) = 𝑥 14−9 𝑦 8−4 𝑧 7−1 = 𝑥 5 𝑦 4 𝑧 6
𝑥 9𝑦4𝑧 𝑥9 𝑦 𝑧

Example 2. Simplify the expression

6
 82020 ⋅ 162019
.
42021

Solution. Notice that all powers involved in this fraction have different bases (4, 8 and
16), so we will first think that we cannot combine them using product or quotient rules.
However, as we said before there are exceptions to this, and this example is one of
them.

When faced with these kinds of problems, the first thing that we must check is if we can
write these bases as powers. Indeed, we can: applying the definition of power, we
have

4 = 2 × 2 = 22
8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 24

Therefore, replacing 4 with 22 , 8 with 23 and 16 with 24 , we get

82020 ⋅ 162019 (23 )2020 ⋅ (24 )2019 23×2020 ⋅ 24×2019 26060 ⋅ 28076
= = =
42021 (22 )2021 22×2021 24042

Surprise! All of the powers now have the same base 2. That’s a great thing for our
product and quotient rules, because we can now apply them here.

26060 ⋅ 28076 26060+8076 214136

= = 4042 = 214136−4042 = 210094
24042 24042 2

1.2.3 Zero exponents

Zero exponents
If 𝑎 is a real number not equal to zero, then 𝑎0 = 1.

To show why any nonzero real number raised to zero is equal to 1, consider the
expression 𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 . By quotient rule, we get

𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑛 = 𝑎0

But notice also that if we write this as a fraction, the numerator and denominator are
the same 𝑎𝑛 and hence cancel each other. We have

𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = = =1
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛

So 𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 is equal to 𝑎0 and also equal to 1. Therefore, 𝑎0 = 1.

Note that in 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎 cannot be equal to zero. This is because 00 is an undefined

number, meaning it has no value. Other undefined numbers are 0/0, ∞/∞, ∞ − ∞, ∞ × 0,
∞0 and 1∞ . The last five, you encountered in your calculus course.

7
Illustration 3.
 20210 = 1
 (𝑎2 𝑏 3 𝑐 4 𝑑5 )0 = 1 provided none of a, b, c and d is equal to zero

1.2.4 Negative exponents

Negative exponents
If 𝑎 and 𝑛 are real numbers, then
1
𝑎−𝑛 =
𝑎𝑛
and
1
= 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑎−𝑛
1
To show why 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛, consider the expression 𝑎0 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 . By quotient rule, we have

𝑎0 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0−𝑛 = 𝑎−𝑛

However, because 𝑎0 = 1, we can also evaluate this as

0
𝑎0 𝑛
1
𝑎 ÷𝑎 = 𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑎 𝑎
1 1
So 𝑎0 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 is equal to 𝑎−𝑛 and also equal to 𝑎𝑛. Therefore, 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 .

The rule of negative exponents goes like this: if a power has a negative exponent, or if a
power with negative exponent is in the numerator, you move it to the denominator,
and make the exponent positive. On the other hand, if a power with negative
exponent is in the denominator, you move it to the numerator and make the exponent
positive.

Illustration 4.
1
 7−3 = 73
move to denominator
1
 = 𝑘 5
move to numerator
𝑘 −5
move to numerator
𝑎 −2 𝑎 −2 1 1 ⏞6 𝑏6
 𝑏−6
= 1
× 𝑏−6
= 𝑎⏟2
× 𝑏 = 𝑎2
move to denominator

Now that’s two new concepts in our learning bank. Let us now apply these two new
laws, together with the product and quotient rule we previously learned, in this
example.

Example 3. Simplify the expression

(𝑥 −6 𝑦 3 )(𝑥 8 𝑦 −5 𝑧 7 )
.
𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1

8
Solution. This is almost the same as the previous example, except that I put negative
signs in some exponents. First, simplify the numerator using product rule.

(𝑥 −6 𝑦 3 )(𝑥 8 𝑦 −5 𝑧 7 ) (𝑥 −6 ⋅ 𝑥 8 )(𝑦 3 ⋅ 𝑦 −5 )(𝑧 7 ) 𝑥 (−6)+8 𝑦 3+(−5) 𝑧 7 𝑥 2 𝑦 −2 𝑧 7

= = =
𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1 𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1 𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1 𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1

Next, simplify the entire fraction using quotient rule.

𝑥 2 𝑦 −2 𝑧 7 𝑥 2 𝑦 −2 𝑧7
= ( ) ( ) ( ) = 𝑥 2−9 𝑦 −2−(−4) 𝑧 7−(−1) = 𝑥 −7 𝑦 2 𝑧 8
𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1 𝑥 9 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1

Now, notice that 𝑥 −7 is a power with negative exponent, so we have to move it to the
denominator using the law of negative exponents.

𝑦2𝑧8
𝑥 −7 𝑦 2 𝑧 8 =
𝑥7

1.2.5 Power rule

Power rule
If 𝑎, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are real numbers, then (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 .

Basically, the power rule states that if I have a power that is to be raised to a certain
exponent, I just have to keep the base and multiply the exponents.

Illustration 5.
 (𝜋 4 )3 = 𝜋 4×3 = 𝜋 12
 [(𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 5𝑐)−3 ]−6 = (𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 5𝑐)−3×(−6) = (𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 5𝑐)18
 [(−7)6 ]−9 = (−7)6×−9 = (−7)−54
4
 {[(𝑧 𝑧 ) 𝑧 ] 𝑧 } 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑧×𝑧×𝑧×𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑧

WARNING!!!
Take note that (−7)6 is NOT the same as −76 .

In (−7)6 , the exponent 6 is applied to the whole base –7, and therefore −7 is
multiplied to itself 6 times.
(−7)6 = (−7) × (−7) × (−7) × (−7) × (−7) × (−7)

On the other hand, in −76 , the exponent 6 is applied only to the base 7, and so only 7
is multiplied 6 times. The negative sign in front only tells us that the entire power 76 is
negative in sign.
−76 = −(7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7)

WARNING!!!
4
Also, take note that 𝑧 𝑧 is NOT the same as (𝑧 𝑧 )4 .

9
 4
In 𝑧 𝑧 , the base is 𝑧 and the exponent is 𝑧 4 .
In (𝑧 𝑧 )4 , the base is 𝑧 𝑧 and the exponent is 4.

1.2.6 Power-product and power-quotient rules

Power-product rule
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑚 are real numbers, then (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚.

Power-quotient rule
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑚 are real numbers, then
𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚
( ) = 𝑚.
𝑏 𝑏

These two last rules state that if we have a bunch of real numbers multiplied and or
divided to one another, and we want to raise it to an exponent, then all we need to do
is to “distribute” the exponent to these numbers.

Illustration 6.
 (𝑥𝑦𝑧)4 = 𝑥 4 𝑦 4 𝑧 4 power-product rule
3 6 36
 (5) = 56 power-quotient rule
4𝑝𝑞𝑟 −2 4−2 𝑝−2 𝑞 −2 𝑟 −2
 ( 7𝑠𝑡 ) = 7−2 𝑠−2 𝑡 −2 both power-product and power-quotient rule
5 5 5
𝑓 2 𝑔3 (𝑓2 ) (𝑔3 )
 (− 9ℎ4 ) = (−1)5 95 (ℎ4 )5 both power-product and power-quotient rule

In the fourth example, note that we can perceive the negative sign as −1, so raising a
negative sign to a 5th power is equal to (−1)5 .

Now that all laws of exponents have been discussed, let us now apply them to the next
two examples.

Example 4. Simplify the expression

−3 4
4𝑝2 2𝑝3
( 4 5) ( 2 6) .
𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 𝑟

Solution. To simplify this expression, we start from inside the brackets and work our way
towards the outside. Noticing that there is nothing to do within the parentheses (the
fractions are already simplified), we turn our attention to the outer exponents,
distributing them to the fractions by power, power-product and power-quotient rules.

10
 power rule power rule
−3 4 ⏞2×−3
4𝑝 2
2𝑝3
4 −3 (𝑝2 )−3
2 4 (𝑝3 )4
4−3
𝑝 2 𝑝⏞
43×4
( ) ( ) = ( 4 −3 5 −3 ) ( 2 4 6 4 ) =
𝑞4𝑟 5 2
𝑞 𝑟 6 (𝑞 ) (𝑟 ) (𝑞 ) (𝑟 ) 𝑞⏟4×−3 𝑟⏟5×−3 2×4
𝑞⏟ 𝑟⏟6×4

power rule power rule power rule power rule

( )( )
4−3 𝑝−6 24 𝑝12
= ( −12 −15 ) ( 8 24 )
𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 𝑟

Next, we combine powers using product and quotient rules. Since there are two
fractions multiplied to each other, we multiply the numerators and then multiply the
denominators.

product rule
−3 −6
4 𝑝 2 𝑝 4 12
4 ⋅2 ⋅ ⏞−3
𝑝−6+12 4
4−3 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 𝑝6
( −12 −15 ) ( 8 24 ) = =
𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 ⏟−12+8 ⏟
𝑞 𝑟 −15+24 𝑞 −4 𝑟 9
product rule product rule

Finally, let’s get rid of those unnecessary negative exponents. Remember, those in the
numerator must be moved to the denominator, and those in the denominator must be
moved in the numerator.

4−3 ⋅ 24 ⋅ 𝑝6 24 𝑝6 𝑞4 16𝑝6 𝑞4 𝑝6 𝑞 4
= = =
𝑞 −4 𝑟 9 43 𝑟 9 64𝑟 9 4𝑟 9

Example 5. Simplify the expression.

2
3(𝑥 −6 𝑦 3 )−2 (𝑥 −8 𝑦 5 𝑧 −7 )
[ ] .
5(𝑥 5 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1 )3

Solution. To simplify this complex expression, we start again from inside the brackets and
work our way towards the outside. First, we distribute exponents by the power-product
rule.

power−product rule 2
2
3(𝑥 −6 𝑦 3 )−2 (𝑥 −8 𝑦 5 𝑧 −7 ) 3 ⏞
(𝑥 −6 )−2 (𝑦 3 )−2 (𝑥 −8 )(𝑦 5 )(𝑧 −7 )
[ ] =
5(𝑥 5 𝑦 −4 𝑧 −1 )3 ⏟ 5 )3 (𝑦 −4 )3 (𝑧 −1 )3
5 (𝑥
[ power−product rule ]

Then, we simplify the smaller powers using the power rule.

power rule power rule 2

2 2
3(𝑥 −6 )−2 (𝑦 3 )−2 (𝑥 −8 )(𝑦 5 )(𝑧 −7 ) 3 ⏞
𝑥 −6×−2 𝑦⏞3×−2 𝑥 −8 𝑦 5 𝑧 −7 3𝑥 12 𝑦 −6 𝑥 −8 𝑦 5 𝑧 −7
[ ] = =[ ]
5(𝑥 5 )3 (𝑦 −4 )3 (𝑧 −1 )3 5 𝑥⏟ 5×3 𝑦⏟−4×3 𝑧⏟−1×3 5𝑥 15 𝑦 −12 𝑧 −3
[ power rule power rule power rule ]

And now we collect these x’s, y’s and z’s using product and quotient rules.

11
 product rule product rule 2
2 2
3𝑥 12 𝑦 −6 𝑥 −8 𝑦 5 𝑧 −7 3 ⏞
𝑥 12+(−8) 𝑦⏞−6+5 𝑧 −7 3𝑥 4 𝑦 −1 𝑧 −7
[ ] = = [ 15 −12 −3 ]
5𝑥 15 𝑦 −12 𝑧 −3 5𝑥 15 𝑦 −12 𝑧 −3 5𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
[ ]
quotient rule quotient rule quotient rule 2 2
3 ⏞ 3
=[ ⏞4−15
𝑥 𝑦 −1−(−12) ⏞
𝑧 −7−(−3) ] = [ 𝑥 −11 𝑦11 𝑧 −4 ]
5 5

Next, we get rid of these unlikeable negative exponents by moving them to the
denominator.

2 2
3 3𝑦11
[ 𝑥 −11 𝑦11 𝑧 −4 ] = [ 11 4 ]
5 5𝑥 𝑧

Finally, we combine the power, power-product and power-quotient rules to distribute

this outermost exponent 2 to the fraction inside, to get

2
3𝑦11 32 (𝑦11 )2 9𝑦11×2 9𝑦 22
[ 11 4 ] = 2 11 2 4 2 = =
5𝑥 𝑧 5 (𝑥 ) (𝑧 ) 25𝑥 11×2 𝑧 4×2 25𝑥 22 𝑧 8

Learning Activity 1
Part 1. Write out the following powers as a repeated multiplication, and then find its
value. Try to not use your calculators. Example: 84 = 8 × 8 × 8 × 8 = 4096 .
1. 34 3. (−2)8 5. −63
2. 122 4. (−5)3 6. −72

Part 2. Write the following numbers as a power with the smallest possible base. Example:
64 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 26 .
1. 625 3. 343 5. 729
2. 512 4. 169 6. 1296

Part 3. Determine the law/laws of exponent that must be used to simplify the following
expressions. No need to solve them. Example: (𝑎6 )3 ⟹ power rule .
1. 1000 4. 𝑚12 𝑛15 ⋅ 𝑚8 𝑛9 7. (𝑥𝑦𝑧)4
2. (𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑝𝑞 20
−1 243𝑥 2 𝑦 6 𝑧 10
5. 27𝑥𝑦 4 𝑧 3
8. ( )
1 7 𝑟𝑠
3. (2) 6. (311 )5 9. (22 × 32 × 53 )−4

Part 4. Simplify the following expressions. No powers with zero or negative exponents
shall be present in the final answer.
(−3𝑎4 𝑏)3 (9𝑎𝑏 5 )
1. (2𝑎2 𝑏 −3 )4 7.
−81𝑎8 𝑏 8
2 −3
𝑥 𝑦
2. (5𝑚7 𝑛6 )2 (4𝑚𝑛) 8. ( 3)
𝑧

12
 257 ⋅ 512 (𝑚−3 𝑛2 )2 𝑚5 𝑛−3
3. 9. ⋅
1256 (𝑚𝑛)−2 𝑚−4 𝑛5
−5
6𝑥 −2 𝑦 4 𝑧 −5 (𝑎𝑏 2 𝑐)−3
4. 10. ( )
3𝑥𝑦𝑧 −8 𝑏 −3
2
𝑦 −7 𝑥 6 𝑦 3
5. (2𝑎𝑏 3 0 )(3𝑎0 4 6 )(9𝑎7 5 8 )
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 11. ( )
𝑥 −3 𝑥 3 𝑦 −3
−4
𝑎𝑏 −3 2𝑎3 𝑏 −1 25𝑚2 𝑛3 128𝑎−7 𝑛−2
6. ( ) ( ) 12. ⋅
𝑐 𝑐2 −16𝑎2 𝑐 −3 125𝑚2 𝑐 4

1.3 Short discussion on radicals

In the previous sections, we have only seen powers with exponents that are integers.
Exponents can also be rational numbers (like 21/4), and even real numbers as well (like
2𝜋 ). In this section, we will focus on powers with rational exponents, by way of algebraic
expressions called radicals.

In the below expression, first introduced in section 1.1:

2 multiplied 10 times and written in full

⏞
2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2= 10
2⏟ = 1024
shortened form (the power)

2 is multiplied to itself 10 times to get 1024. We can also ask the question: “What should
be multiplied 10 times to get 1024?” In this case, the answer is 2. We call 2 the 10th root
of 1024. In general, we have the following definition:

Definition: nth root of a number

The nth root of a, denoted by √𝑎, is defined as the number that must be multiplied to
𝑛

itself n times to get the value of a. If 𝑥 is a real number, then √𝑎 = 𝑥 has the
𝑛

equivalent exponential equation 𝑥 = 𝑎. 𝑛 is strictly a positive integer.

𝑛

The square root of a is denoted by 2√𝑎, or more commonly √𝑎.

The cube root of a is denoted by √𝑎.

3

The symbol √ is the radical sign. The number outside of and above this radical sign is
called the index of the radical. The number inside this radical is called the radicand. For
example, in √𝑎, 𝑛 is the index and 𝑎 is the radicand.
𝑛

Illustration 7. Explanation Equivalent

exponential form

 √25 = 5 5 is multiplied 2 times to get 25 52 = 25

 −6 is multiplied 3 times to get −216
3
√−216 = −6 (−6)3 = −216
 2 is multiplied 5 times to get 32
5
√32 = 2 25 = 32

13
Now, you may argue: “Isn’t √25 = −5 as well because (−5)(−5) = 25?” While (−5)(−5) =
25 is correct, √25 = −5 is not. This is because the square root of a is defined as the
principal (positive) square root of a. So √25 is only positive 5, not positive 5 and negative
5. The same is true with principal fourth root, principal sixth root, and in general, principal
nth roots, where n is a positive even number.

Definition: principal nth root, n even

Let x be a real number and n be a positive even number. Then √𝑥 𝑛 = |𝑥|.
𝑛

Square roots of negative numbers have no real value. For example, in √−25, can you
think of a real number that when multiplied to itself twice, gives −25? There is none. So
√−25 has no real value. The same is true with fourth roots, sixth roots, and in general, nth
roots where n is a positive even number.

Illustration 8.
 √−100 has no real value because the radicand −100 is negative and the index 2
is an even number.
 √−100 has a real value because the index 3 is not an even number.
3

 √−100 has no real value because the radicand −100 is negative and the index 4
4

is an even number.

1.3.1 Radicals as rational exponents

Consider √𝑎 = 𝑥. This has the equivalent exponential equation 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎. If we raise both

𝑛

sides of the equation to the exponent 1/𝑛, we have

1 1 1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎 ⟹ (𝑥 𝑛 )𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛⋅𝑛 = 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛
1 1
So, 𝑥 is equal to √𝑎 and also equal to 𝑎𝑛 . Therefore, √𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑛 𝑛

Rational exponents
1
If 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑛 is a positive integer, then √𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑛

Illustration 9.
 251/2 = √25 = √25 = 5
2

 (−343)1/3 = √−343 = −7
3

 (𝑥𝑦)1/6 = 6√𝑥𝑦

Using power rule, we can extend this rule by raising 𝑎 to the exponent 𝑚.

Rational exponents
𝑚
If 𝑎 is a real number and m, 𝑛 are positive integers, then √𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 𝑛 .
𝑛

Illustration 10.
3
 82/3 = √82 = √64 = 4
3

14
 
7
(−343)4/7 = √(−343)4

2
𝑝1.5 = 𝑝3/2 = √𝑝3 = √𝑝3

With this, we can express radicals in terms of rational exponents, enabling us to use the
laws of exponents to them.

Example 6. Find the value of 3125−6/5 without using a calculator.

Solution. If we directly convert this to radicals, we have

1 1
3125−6/5 = 6/5
=5
3125 √31256

Unfortunately, 31256 is a very large number, and finding its value will be time consuming
and inefficient. So, we must find another way to solve this.

One way is to rewrite the power so that its base is as small as possible. Since 3125 = 5 ×
5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 55 , we have

6 6 1 1
3125−6/5 = (55 )−5 = 55×−5 = 5−6 = 6
=
5 15625

Example 7. Simplify the expression

1
3
(𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) (√𝑥 √𝑦 2 )
1 .
5 3
(𝑥 𝑦 )2

Solution. First, we express everything as powers with rational exponents to get

1 1 1 2
3
(𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) (√𝑥 √𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 2 𝑦 3 )
1 = 1
(𝑥 5 𝑦 3 )2 (𝑥 5 𝑦 3 )2

Now, we use the laws of exponents, and proceed as usual.

1 1 2
1 1 2 5 7
(𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 2 𝑦 3 ) 𝑥 2+2 𝑦 2+3 𝑥2𝑦6 5 5 7 3 1 1 1
1 = 1 1 = 5 3 = 𝑥 2−2 𝑦 6−2 = 𝑥 0 𝑦 −3 = 1 or = 3
(𝑥 5 𝑦 3 )2 𝑥 5⋅2 𝑦 3⋅2 𝑥2𝑦2 𝑦3 √𝑦

1.3.2 Laws of radicals

Because radicals are just powers with rational exponents, mathematical operations
involving radicals just follow the laws of exponents.

Laws of radicals
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive real numbers, and 𝑚, 𝑛 are positive integers, then

15
 𝑛 𝑛
1. Product rule: √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 ⋅ √𝑏
𝑛

𝑛
𝑛 𝑎 √𝑎
2. Quotient rule: √𝑏 = 𝑛
√𝑏
𝑚 𝑛
3. Power rule: √ √𝑎 = √ √𝑎 =
𝑛 𝑚 𝑚×𝑛
√𝑎

The product rule particularly is very useful for radicals because it allows us to simplify
radicals by removing perfect squares, cubes, etc. from the radicand until there’s none
left in it.

Illustration 11 (using the product rule)

 √72 = √22 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 2 = ⏟
√22 ⋅ √32 ⋅ √2 = 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ √2 = 6√2
product rule
12

4 4 4 4 4 4
√𝑝12 ⋅ √𝑝3 = 𝑝 4 ⋅ √𝑝3 = 𝑝3 √𝑝3
√𝑝15 = √𝑝12 ⋅ 𝑝3 = ⏟
product rule
10 15 10
5 5

5 5 5
√𝑥 12 𝑦15 𝑧13 = √𝑥 10 𝑦15 𝑧10 ⋅ 𝑥2𝑧3 = ⏟
√𝑥 10 𝑦15 𝑧10 ⋅ √𝑥 2 𝑧 3 = 𝑥 5 𝑦 5 𝑧 5 ⋅ √𝑥 2 𝑧 3 =
product rule
2 3 25
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 √𝑥 2 𝑧 3

Illustration 12 (using the quotient and power rules)

3 3
3 4 √4 √4
 √ = 3 =
27 ⏟
√27 3
quotient rule
4 6 4×6 24
 √ √𝑎2 𝑏 = ⏟ √𝑎2 𝑏 = √𝑎2 𝑏
power rule
3 3 3 3

3
√2√2 = √√4 ⋅ √2 = ⏟
√√4 ⋅ 2 = √√8 = √
⏟ √8 = √2
product rule power rule

Learning Activity 2
Part 1. Write the following radical equations as an equivalent exponential equation.
Example: √36 = 6 ⟹ 62 = 36 .
1. √196 = 14 5. √𝑎 = 𝑥
3 𝑛
3. √512 = 8
𝑝
2. √10.89 = 3.3 4. √243 = 3 6. √𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓
5

Part 2. Find the value of the following radicals. Try to not use your calculators.
1. √400 3. √0.49 5. √128
7

2. √2048 4. √343 6. √1296

3 4

Part 3. Write the following powers as an equivalent radical and then find its value.
5
Example: 322/5 = √322 = 4 .
1. 6251/4 3. 1331−1/3 5. 10005/3
2. 1281/7 4. 813/4 6. 49−3/2

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering
3
Part 4. Write the following radicals as an equivalent power. Example: √82 = 82/3.
1. √49 3. √1331
3 8
5. √177
5
2. √53 4. √𝑥 3 6. √𝑝11
6

Part 5. Simplify the following expressions.

9
1. √98 11. √
4
3 6
2. 4
√32 12. √
128
4 81𝑦 6
3. √27𝑥 3 𝑦 5 13. √
𝑧4
4√28
4. √192𝑎3 𝑏7 14.
3√7
√54𝑝7 𝑞9
5. 3
√81𝑥 6 𝑦 5 𝑧 4 15.
√2𝑝4 𝑞 3
6. √14 ⋅ √21 16. √ 4√𝑥𝑦𝑧
3 5
7. √3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 ⋅ √12𝑥 5 𝑦 17. √ √8

6 4
8. √15𝑎𝑥 3 ⋅ √45𝑎2 𝑥𝑦 3 18. 3
√ √ √𝑥 2
1
(𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 −2 )−3 (𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑧 3 )−2
9. 19.
3
√3𝑥 2 ⋅ √2𝑥 5
(𝑥𝑦𝑧 −3 )−2
1 6
2 1 1 2 2
10. √6𝑥 3 ⋅ 3√4𝑥 4 𝑦 2 20. [𝑥 3 (𝑥 −3 𝑦 −2 (𝑥 2 𝑦 −2 )−3 ) ]

1.4 Short discussion on logarithms

Let’s go back again to the expression we first introduced in Section 1.1:

2 multiplied 10 times and written in full

⏞
2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2= 10
2⏟ = 1024
shortened form (the power)

There is yet another question that we ask from this. “How many times must 2 be multiplied to
itself to get 1024?” The answer, of course, is 10. We may call 10 the logarithm of 1024 to the
base 2. In general, we have the following definition.

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Definition: logarithms
The logarithm of 𝒃 with respect to 𝒙, written as log 𝑏 𝑥, is defined as the number of times the
number 𝑏 must be multiplied to itself to get the value of 𝑥. If 𝑛 is the value of this logarithm, 𝑛
is the exponent in the equation 𝑏 𝑛 = 𝑥.

The common logarithm of x, written log 𝑥 or less commonly lg 𝑥, is the logarithm of x to base
10 (log 𝑥 = log10 𝑥).

The binary logarithm of x, seldom written as lb 𝑥, is the logarithm of x to base 2 (log 2 𝑥).

The natural logarithm of x, written ln 𝑥, is the logarithm of 𝑥 to base 𝑒 (ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥). 𝑒 is called
the Euler’s constant, with value 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828.

Illustration 13. Explanation Equivalent

exponential form

 log 3 81 = 4 3 must be multiplied 4 times to get 81 34 = 81

 log 6 216 = 3 6 must be multiplied 3 times to get 216 63 = 216
1 −2
 log 1 4 = −2 (2) =4
2
 log 2.5 6.25 = 2 2.5 must be multiplied 2 times to get 6.25 2
2.5 = 6.25
1 1
 log 5 3125 = −4 5−4 = 3125
1
1 1 1
 log16 = − 16−4 =
2 4 2
 log 100 = 2 10 must be multiplied 2 times to get 100 102 = 100
 ln 5 ≈ 1.609 𝑒 1.609 ≈ 5

However, unlike powers and radicals, logarithms have more restrictions over real numbers. In
the expression log 𝑏 𝑥, 𝑥 is only positive and cannot be zero or negative. Also, 𝑏 is only positive,
and cannot be equal to 1.

Illustration 14.
 log 2.5 6.25 valid logarithm, since 𝑏 = 2.5 > 0 and ≠ 1, and 𝑥 = 6.25 > 0.
 log 2.5 −6.25 not valid, since 𝑥 = −6.25 is negative.
 log 2.5 0 not valid, since 𝑥 = 0.
 log1 6.25 not valid, since the base 𝑏 = 1.
 log −2.5 6.25 not valid, since the base 𝑏 = −2.5 is negative.
 log 0 6.25 not valid, since the base 𝑏 = 0.

1.4.1 Laws of logarithms

Realizing that logarithms are just the exponents of their corresponding powers, the laws of
logarithms immediately follow from the laws of exponents. The three most common laws of
logarithms are given below.

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Laws of logarithms
If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are positive real numbers, 𝑛 is a real number, and 𝑏 is a positive real number not
equal to 1, then
1. Product rule. log 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 + log 𝑏 𝑦
𝑥
2. Quotient rule. log 𝑏 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 − log 𝑏 𝑦
3. Power rule. log 𝑏 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 log 𝑏 𝑥

Illustration 15.
1. log 5 75 = log 5 (3 ⋅ 25) = ⏟
log 5 3 + log 5 25 = log 5 3 + 2
product rule
2. ln 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = ln
⏟ 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 + ln 𝑧
product rule
3. log 6 2 + log 6 1 + log 6 18 = ⏟
log 6 (2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 18) = log 6 36 = 2
product rule
1
4. log 1000 =⏟
log 1 − log 1000 = 0 − 3 = −3
quotient rule
𝑝
5. log 2 𝑞 =⏟
log 2 𝑝 − log 2 𝑞
quotient rule
1000
6. log 5 1000 − log 5 8 = log
⏟ 5 = log 5 125 = 3
8
quotient rule
7. log 4 4𝑥 = ⏟
𝑥 log 4 4 = 𝑥(1) = 𝑥
power rule
8. log 9 6561 = log 9 (9 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 9) = log 9 94 = 4
⏟log 9 9 = 4(1) = 4
power rule
9. 2021 log 3 𝑧 = ⏟
log 3 𝑧 2021
power rule
𝑎7 𝑏8
10. ln 9 ln 𝑎 𝑏 − ln 𝑐 9 = (ln
=⏟ 7 8
⏟ 𝑎7 + ln 𝑏 8 ) − ln 𝑐 9 = 7 ln 𝑎
⏟ + 8 ln 𝑏
⏟ − 9 ln 𝑐
⏟
𝑐
quotient rule product rule power rule power rule power rule
112
11. 2 log 11 − 3 log 13 − log 15 = ⏟
log 112 − ⏟
log 133 − log 15 = log
⏟ 133 ⋅15
power rule power rule quotient rule

Learning Activity 3
Part 1. Convert the following logarithms to their equivalent exponential forms. Example:
log 7 49 = 2 ⟹ 72 = 49 .
1. log 3 27 = 3 5
3. log16 32 = 4 5. ln 2 = 0.6932
2. log 5 625 = 4 4. log 100,000,000 = 8 6. log 1 81 = −2
9

Part 2. Find the value of the following logarithms. For numbers 1 to 6, try not to use your
calculator.
1. log 4 1024 1
4. log 1 625 7. log 3 4
2. log 7 343 5 8. log 19
1 5. log 10,000,000 9. ln 10
3. log 2 128
6. ln 𝑒 10

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Part 3. Reduce the following expressions to a single logarithm of a number or expression.

𝑎2 𝑏3
Simplify where possible. Example: 2 log 𝑎 + 3 log 𝑏 − 4 log 𝑐 = log 𝑎2 + log 𝑏 3 − log 𝑐 4 = log 𝑐4
.
1. log 12 + log 13 4. 6 ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 3 − ln 𝑥 2
2. log 3 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + log 3 𝑥 −1 𝑦 7 + log 3 𝑥 5 𝑦 −6 5. 3 log 𝑝 + 6 log 𝑞 − 9 log 𝑟 − 12 log 𝑠
3. log 7 1000 − log 7 8 6. log 4 𝑝5 𝑞 −3 − 4 log 4 𝑝 + 8 log 4 𝑞

20
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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Lesson 2
POLYNOMIALS
2.1 Definition

In the previous lesson, we consider powers. If we combine one or more powers and constants
using the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication under certain
conditions, we form another algebraic expression called polynomials. For example, the
algebraic expression below is a polynomial.

7𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 − 8𝑥 2 𝑦 9 𝑧 4

Here, we have a bunch of powers and constants multiplied together to get larger expressions
7𝑥 3 𝑦 2, 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 and 8𝑥 2 𝑦 9 𝑧 4. These are called the terms of the polynomial. Also, the exponents
must be nonnegative (positive or zero) integers only; otherwise, it will not be called a
polynomial.

Illustration 1.
 7𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 valid polynomial
 7𝑥 3 𝑦 0 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 valid polynomial; 0 is a valid exponent
 7𝑥 3 𝑦 −2 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 not valid; one of the exponents −2 is negative
 7𝑥 3 𝑦 √2 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 not valid; the exponent √2 is not a real number
 7𝑥 3 𝑦 𝑎 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 not valid; one exponent 𝑎 is a variable
 7𝑥 3 √𝑦 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 not valid; variable 𝑦 is in the radical sign
7𝑥 3
 𝑦2
+ 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 not valid; a power 𝑦 2 is in the denominator

2.1.1 Some terminologies

For each term of the polynomial, there are two parts: the real number part called the
numerical coefficient, and the variable part called the literal coefficient. For example, in the
term −5𝑥 6 𝑦 4 , −5 is the numerical coefficient and 𝑥 6 𝑦 4 is the literal coefficient.

A term may appear to have no numerical coefficient, like 𝑥 6 𝑦 4. In this case, the numerical
coefficient is considered to be 1, because 𝑥 6 𝑦 4 = 1 ⋅ 𝑥 6 𝑦 4.

A term can also have no literal coefficient, like −5. These are called constants. Constants are
considered to have a literal coefficient consisting of powers with zero exponents. That is, −5 =
−5𝑥 0. The exception for this is the constant 0, which can take any literal coefficient of any
exponent. For example, 0 = 0𝑥 2021 or 0 = 0𝑥 5 .

Two terms are said to be like terms if and only if their literal coefficients are the same. For
example, −5𝑥 6 𝑦 4 and 12𝑥 6 𝑦 4 are like terms because they have the same literal coefficient
𝑥 6 𝑦 4. On the other hand, −5𝑥𝑦 2 and 5𝑥 2 𝑦 are not like terms because 𝑥 2 𝑦 and 𝑥𝑦 2 are not the
same. All constants are considered to be like terms.

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

The degree of a term is the sum of all exponents in the term. For example, the term 5𝑥 6 𝑦 4 𝑧 2 has
degree 6 + 4 + 2 = 12. Constants are considered to have a degree of 0, except for the
constant 0, in which the degree is undefined.

If we take the degree of all terms in the polynomial and take the highest value among them,
that value is called the degree of the polynomial. For example, in the polynomial

7𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 15𝑥 5 𝑦 6 𝑧 2 − 8𝑥 2 𝑦 9 𝑧 4

The first term has degree 3 + 2 = 5, the second has 5 + 6 + 2 = 13, and the third has 2 + 9 + 4 =
15. The highest among the three is 15. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial is 15.

A polynomial is considered to be in its standard form if the terms are arranged from the term
with the highest degree to the term with the lowest degree. For example, 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 +
5 is a polynomial in standard form.

Polynomials can be classified based on the number of terms it has. These are:
1. Monomials: polynomials with only one term 2𝑥𝑦 2
2. Binomials: polynomials with two terms 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧
3. Trinomials: polynomials with three terms 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑧 5
4. Multinomials: polynomials with two or more terms 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5

Polynomials can also be classified based on its degree. The most common are:
1. Linear: polynomials of degree 1 4𝑥 + 1
2. Quadratic: polynomials of degree 2 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
3. Cubic: polynomials of degree 3 8𝑥 3 − 1
4. Quartic: polynomials of degree 4 𝑥4 + 4
5. Quintic: polynomials of degree 5 32𝑥 5 − 243

2.2 Evaluation of polynomials

Evaluation is the process of substituting the value of the unknowns to the algebraic expression
and then finding its value.

1
Example 1. Evaluate the polynomial 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ − 3 𝜋ℎ3, if 𝑟 = 2.5, ℎ = 1.5 and 𝜋 = 3.14.

Solution. Just substitute 𝑟 = 2.5, ℎ = 1.5 and 𝜋 = 3.14 to the polynomial and calculate:

1 1
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ − 𝜋ℎ3 = (3.14)(2.5)2 (1.5) − (3.14)(1.5)3 = 25.905
3 3

Learning Activity 4

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Part 1. For each of the following polynomials: (1) find its degree, and (2) classify based on the
number of terms.
1. 12𝑥 3 𝑦 4 + 18𝑥 4 𝑦 2 − 36𝑥𝑦 3 4. 7𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 14𝑥 5 𝑦 3 + 28𝑥 8 𝑦 5 − 21𝑥 7 𝑦 6
2. 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 𝑦 + 5𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦
3 2 2 3
5. 2021
3. 2𝑥 + 1 6. −5𝑥 2 𝑦 2

Part 2. Evaluate the following polynomials.

1. 3𝑥 + 4 at 𝑥 = 1 4. 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑦 2 at 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑦 = 1
2. 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 at 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 3 5. 100 − 20𝑡 − 0.5𝑔𝑡 2 at 𝑔 = 9.81, 𝑡 = 5
3. −3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3 at 𝑥 = −4 6. 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ at 𝑟 = 4 and ℎ = 6

2.3 Operations on polynomials

2.3.1 Addition and subtraction

Addition and subtraction of polynomials is very simple: You take like terms, and add/subtract
their numerical coefficients.

Illustration 2.
(2𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 ) + (5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 ) = (2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 2 ) − 2𝑥𝑦 + (5𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 )
= 7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2

Illustration 3.
(2𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 − 8𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 − 3) − (6𝑠 4 − 8𝑠 2 + 2𝑠)
= (2𝑠 4 − 6𝑠 4 ) + 𝑠 3 + (−8𝑠 2 − (−8𝑠 2 )) + (−6𝑠 − 2𝑠) − 3
= −4𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 + 0 − 8𝑠 − 3
= −4𝑠 4 + 𝑠 3 − 8𝑠 − 3

2.3.2 Multiplication

Multiplication of polynomials is also simple: we use the distributive property of real numbers
and the laws of exponents that we learned in the previous module.

Illustration 4.
−4𝑥 2 𝑦(2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 ) = (−4𝑥 2 𝑦)(2𝑥𝑦) + (−4𝑥 2 𝑦)(3𝑦 2 )
= −8𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 2 𝑦 3

Illustration 5.
5𝑝2 (3𝑝2 − 3𝑝 − 7) = (5𝑝2 )(3𝑝2 ) − (5𝑝2 )(3𝑝) − (5𝑝2 )(7)
= 15𝑝4 − 15𝑝3 − 35𝑝2

In the two previous illustrations, polynomials are multiplied by a monomial only. If we are to
multiply two polynomials that are not monomials, we still use the distributive property, except
that we have to apply it twice for each pair of polynomials to be multiplied.

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Example 3. Simplify the expression (8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 )(4𝑢3 𝑣 5 − 7𝑢6 𝑣).

Solution. We can choose either of the two polynomials to be distributed to the other one. For
this example, we distribute (8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 ).

(8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 )(4𝑢3 𝑣 5 − 7𝑢6 𝑣) = (8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 )(4𝑢3 𝑣 5 ) − (8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 )(7𝑢6 𝑣)

Now, we can distribute the monomials 4𝑢3 𝑣 5 and 7𝑢6 𝑣 to the remaining terms.

(8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 )(4𝑢3 𝑣 5 ) − (8𝑢2 𝑣 3 + 5𝑢𝑣 4 )(7𝑢6 𝑣)

= (8𝑢2 𝑣 3 )(4𝑢3 𝑣 5 ) + (5𝑢𝑣 4 )(4𝑢3 𝑣 5 ) − [(8𝑢2 𝑣 3 )(7𝑢6 𝑣) + (5𝑢𝑣 4 )(7𝑢6 𝑣)]
= 32𝑢5 𝑣 8 + 20𝑢4 𝑣 9 − (56𝑢8 𝑣 4 + 35𝑢7 𝑣 5 )
= 32𝑢5 𝑣 8 + 20𝑢4 𝑣 9 − 56𝑢8 𝑣 4 − 35𝑢7 𝑣 5

Finally, check if there are like terms that can be combined. There is none; so, the last line is the
final answer.

Example 4. Simplify the expression (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 3).

Solution. For this example, we distribute (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1).

(𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 3) = (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎2 ) − (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎) + (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(3)

We can now distribute 𝑎2 , 𝑎 and 3 to their respective polynomials.

(𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎2 ) − (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎) + (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(3)

= [(𝑎2 )(𝑎2 ) + (5𝑎)(𝑎2 ) − 1(𝑎2 )] − [(𝑎2 )(𝑎) + (5𝑎)(𝑎) − 1(𝑎)] + [(𝑎2 )(3) + (5𝑎)(3) − 1(3)]
= (𝑎4 + 5𝑎3 − 𝑎2 ) − (𝑎3 + 5𝑎2 − 𝑎) + (3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 − 3)

Check if the last expression has like terms. Here, there are, so we must combine them.

(𝑎4 + 5𝑎3 − 𝑎2 ) − (𝑎3 + 5𝑎2 − 𝑎) + (3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 − 3)

= 𝑎4 + 5𝑎3 − 𝑎2 − 𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 − 3
= 𝑎4 + (5𝑎3 − 𝑎3 ) + (−𝑎2 − 5𝑎2 + 3𝑎2 ) + (𝑎 + 15𝑎) − 3
= 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 + 16𝑎 − 3

By looking at Example 4, you will see that multiplying two polynomials this way becomes messy.
We can make it more organized and efficient if we multiply them vertically. In vertical
multiplication, we do the distributive property vertically, and immediately align like terms so
that addition of like terms become faster. We redo Example 4, this time using vertical
multiplication, as shown below.

Example 5. Simplify the expression (𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1)(𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 3).

Solution.

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Step Description Calculation

1 Write the polynomials to be 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 −1
multiplied vertically × 𝑎2 −𝑎 +3

2 Multiply 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1 by 3. 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 −1
× 𝑎2 −𝑎 +3
3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 −3

Multiply 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1 by −𝑎. 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 −1
Immediately write the result × 𝑎2 −𝑎 +3
so that like terms align 3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 −3
vertically. −𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 +𝑎

Multiply 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 − 1 by 𝑎2 . 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 −1
Again, immediately write the × 𝑎2 −𝑎 +3
result so that like terms align 3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 −3
vertically. −𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 +𝑎
𝑎4 + 5𝑎3 − 𝑎2

3 Add the terms vertically. The 𝑎2 + 5𝑎 −1

resulting expression at the × 𝑎2 −𝑎 +3
bottommost line is the final 3𝑎2 + 15𝑎 −3
answer. −𝑎3 − 5𝑎2 +𝑎
4
𝑎 + 5𝑎3 − 𝑎2
𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 + 16𝑎 −3

2.3.3 Long division

Division of polynomials by a monomial is essentially the same as that of multiplication. We still

use distributive property and the laws of exponents.

Illustration 6.
22𝑎2 𝑏 + 11𝑎𝑏 − 33𝑎𝑏 2 22𝑎2 𝑏 11𝑎𝑏 33𝑎𝑏 2
= + − = 2𝑎 + 1 − 3𝑏
11𝑎𝑏 11𝑎𝑏 11𝑎𝑏 11𝑎𝑏

Division by a polynomial that is not a monomial, however, is a different one. For this, we take
inspiration from the long division procedure that we use to divide two numbers. The steps to
divide two polynomials using the long division method is shown in the next example.

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 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Example 6. Simplify the expression using long division:

2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15
.
𝑥−4

Solution.
Step Description Calculation
1 Write the division problem so that
the dividend, 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15 is 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15
written inside the long division bar,
and the divisor, 𝑥 − 4 is written
outside.

Note:

(1) Arrange the terms of the

dividend and divisor from highest
degree to lowest degree.

(2) If some terms are missing in the

dividend, put 0 as the numerical
coefficient. For example, 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 −
15 has no 𝑥 2 term. Therefore, put
0𝑥 2 to complete it: 2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 −
15.
2 Divide 2𝑥 3 by 𝑥. Write the result 2𝑥 2
above the long division bar. 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15

3 Multiply 2𝑥 2 by (𝑥 − 4). Place the 2𝑥 2

result below the dividend. 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15
2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2

4 Subtract the two lines and then 2𝑥 2

bring down the next term, −7𝑥. 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15
− 2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 ↓
0 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥

5 Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4, using the 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥

result of the subtraction, as the new 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15
dividend. Stop when the degree of − 2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 ↓
the result of subtraction is less than 0 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 ↓
the degree of the divisor. − 7𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 ↓
0 21𝑥 − 15
7𝑥 2 ÷ 𝑥 = 7𝑥
7𝑥(𝑥 − 4) = 7𝑥 2 − 28𝑥

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

The degree of the result of

subtraction 21𝑥 − 15, is 1, which is
not less than the degree of the
divisor 𝑥 − 4, which is also 1. So, we
continue.

Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4, using the 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 21

result of the subtraction, as the new 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15
dividend. Stop when the degree of − 2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2
the result of subtraction is less than 0 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥
the degree of the divisor. − 7𝑥 2 − 28𝑥
0 21𝑥 − 15
21𝑥 ÷ 𝑥 = 21 − 21𝑥 − 84
21(𝑥 − 4) = 7𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 0 + 69

The degree of the result of

subtraction 69, is 0, which is less
than the degree of the divisor 𝑥 − 4,
which is also 1. So, we stop.
6 Write the remainder of the division 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 21
69
+
on top of the long division bar, in 𝑥−4
the form 𝑥 −4 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 15
− 2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2
remainder 0 7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥
+ − 7𝑥 2 − 28𝑥
divisor
0 21𝑥 − 15
The expression at the top is the final − 21𝑥 − 84
answer. + 69

2.3.4 Synthetic division

Long division is already an organized way of doing division of two polynomials. It is also very
useful in almost all cases of polynomial division. However, when the dividend gets longer, the
division becomes longer and more tedious as well. A shorter and more compact way is using
synthetic division. In synthetic division, operations are performed on the numerical coefficients
of polynomials only, and many steps in long division are removed. Let us rework Example 6, this
time using synthetic division.

Example 7. Simplify the expression using synthetic division:

2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15
.
𝑥−4

Solution.
Step Description Calculation
1 Equate the divisor to 0 and solve for 𝑥. 𝑥−4=0

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

𝑥=4
2 Outside the synthetic division bar, write the 4 2 −1 −7 −15
result that you had in Step 1. Inside the
synthetic division bar, write the numerical
coefficients of the terms of the dividend.

2𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −7𝑥 −15
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2 −1 −7 −15

Note:
(1) Arrange the terms of the dividend and
divisor from highest degree to lowest
degree.

(2) If some terms are missing in the

dividend, put 0 as the numerical
coefficient.
3 Bring down 2. 4 2 −1 −7 −15
↓
2
4 Multiply this to 4. 4 2 −1 −7 −15
8
2
5 Add −1 and 8. 4 2 −1 −7 −15
8
2 7
6 Repeat steps 4 and 5. Stop when you 4 2 −1 −7 −15
reach the rightmost end of the synthetic 8 28
division. 2 7

4 2 −1 −7 −15
8 28
2 7 21

4 2 −1 −7 −15
8 28 84
2 7 21

4 2 −1 −7 −15
8 28 84
2 7 21 69
7 Convert the bottommost result to our final 2 7 21 69
answer. ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Since we are dividing by a binomial (𝑥 − 69

2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 21 +
4), the last number, 69, is our remainder. 𝑥−4
Same with long division method, write the
remainder in the form
remainder
+
divisor

The degree of the dividend is 3, while the

degree of the divisor is 1. Therefore, the
degree of the quotient is 3 − 1 = 2. So,
starting from the first number, write 𝑥 2 , and
then 𝑥 1 = 𝑥, and then 𝑥 0 = 1.

Learning Activity 5
Part 1. Perform the following operations.
1. (3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1) + (4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7) 4. (2𝑦 + 1) − (2𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 5)
2. (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 6) + (3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 9) 5. (6𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 10) − (9𝑎2 𝑏 + 8𝑎 − 5)
3. (7𝑝2 𝑞 + 4𝑝𝑞 2 + 𝑝𝑞) + (9𝑝2 𝑞 − 𝑝𝑞) 6. (13𝑞 3 + 2𝑞 2 − 3) − (6𝑞 2 − 5𝑞 − 3)

Part 2. Perform the following operations.

1. (𝑘 + 3)(𝑘 − 6) 6. (−𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 )(𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦)
2. −10𝑧 5 (𝑧 6 + 2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 − 1) 7. (𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 + 5𝑎 + 2)(𝑎 + 2)
3. (4𝑚 + 1)(𝑚2 − 2𝑚 − 3) 8. (𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 + 5 − 𝑥 3 )(3𝑥 − 4 + 𝑥 2 )
4. (𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )(𝑥 + 𝑦) 9. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)
5. (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 4) 10. 8𝑗 4 𝑘 7 (9𝑗 2 𝑘 3 − 6𝑗 5 𝑘 + 3𝑗 4 𝑘 2 )

Part 3. Perform the indicated operations.

1. (6𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 4 𝑦) ÷ 3𝑥𝑦 6. Divide 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 6𝑥 3 − 12𝑥𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 3 by
2. (7𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 14𝑥 5 𝑦 3 + 28𝑥 8 𝑦 5 ) ÷ 7𝑥 3 𝑦 2 2𝑥 − 3𝑦.
3. (16𝑎6 𝑏 7 + 24𝑎5 𝑏 8 − 32𝑎4 𝑏 9 ) ÷ (−8𝑎3 𝑏4 ) 7. Divide 4𝑥 3 + 5 − 4𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 by 2𝑥 + 5.
4. Divide 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10 by 𝑥 − 5. 8. Divide 5𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 by 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 +
5. Divide 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 4 by 2𝑥 − 1. 1.

2.4 Special products

In section 2.3.2, we discussed how to multiply two polynomials. We see that as the polynomials
become longer, the multiplication becomes more tedious. In this section, we will talk about
certain shortcuts that we can use when multiplying two polynomials. In some instances, this will
make your multiplication tasks faster and easier.

2.4.1 Squaring polynomials

Square of a binomial
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 .

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Illustration 7. (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)2

Square the first term (2𝑥)2 = 4𝑥 2
2 times first term times last term 2(2𝑥)(3𝑦) = 12𝑥𝑦
Square the last term (3𝑦)2 = 9𝑦 2
Therefore, (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)2 = 4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦 2 .

Illustration 8. (𝑢𝑣 2 − 4𝑢2 𝑣)2

Square the first term (𝑢𝑣 2 )2 = 𝑢2 𝑣 4
2 times first term times last term 2(𝑢𝑣 2 )(−4𝑢2 𝑣) = −8𝑢3 𝑣 3
Square the last term (−4𝑢2 𝑣)2 = 16𝑢4 𝑣 2
Therefore, (𝑢𝑣 2 − 4𝑢2 𝑣)2 = 𝑢2 𝑣 4 − 8𝑢3 𝑣 3 + 16𝑢4 𝑣 2 .

Square of a trinomial
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers, then (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑎𝑐.

Notice that in the last three terms of the product, we multiply all possible pairs for 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐
(which are 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎𝑐 and 𝑏𝑐). This can be extended to (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑)2 , where all possible pairs for
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎𝑐, 𝑎𝑑, 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑 and 𝑐𝑑.

(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑐 + 2𝑎𝑑 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑏𝑑 + 2𝑐𝑑

Illustration 9. (4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 6)2

Square of first term (4𝑥)2 = 16𝑥 2
Square of second term (5𝑦)2 = 25𝑦 2
Square of third term 2
(−6) = 36
2 times first term times second term 2(4𝑥)(5𝑦) = 40𝑥𝑦
2 times first term times third term 2(4𝑥)(−6) = −48𝑥
2 times second term times third term 2(5𝑦)(−6) = −60𝑦
Therefore, (4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 6) = 16𝑥 + 25𝑦 + 36 + 40𝑥𝑦 − 48𝑥 − 60𝑦 .
2 2 2

2.4.2 Cubing binomials

Cube of a binomial
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 .

Illustration 10. (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)3

Cube of first term (2𝑥)3 = 8𝑥 3
3 times square of first times second 3(2𝑥)2 (3𝑦) = 3(4𝑥 2 )(3𝑦) = 36𝑥 2 𝑦
3 times first times square of second 3(2𝑥)(3𝑦)2 = 3(2𝑥)(9𝑦 2 ) = 54𝑥𝑦 2
Cube of second term (3𝑦)3 = 27𝑦 3
Therefore, (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)3 = 8𝑥 3 + 36𝑥 2 𝑦 + 54𝑥𝑦 2 + 27𝑦 3 .

Illustration 11. (4𝑝𝑞 − 5)3

Cube of first term (4𝑝𝑞)3 = 64𝑝3 𝑞3

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

3 times square of first times second 3(4𝑝𝑞)2 (−5) = 3(16𝑝2 𝑞2 )(−5)

= −240𝑝2 𝑞2
3 times first times square of second 3(4𝑝𝑞)(−5)2 = 3(4𝑝𝑞)(25) = 300𝑝𝑞
Cube of second term (−5)3 = −125
Therefore, (4𝑝𝑞 − 5)3 = 64𝑝3 𝑞3 − 240𝑝2 𝑞2 + 300𝑝𝑞 − 125 .

2.4.3 Difference of two squares

Difference of two squares

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2.

Take note of the requirement so that a difference of two squares is achieved. The two factors
𝑎 − 𝑏 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 must have the same terms 𝑎 and 𝑏. One factor has a positive sign, while the
other one has a negative sign.

For example, (5𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )(5𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 ) leads to a difference of two squares because both factors,
5𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 and 5𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 have the same terms 5𝑥 2 and 8𝑦 2 . Also, one has a + sign, while the
other has a – sign. Its product becomes as follows:

Illustration 12. (5𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )(5𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 )

Square of first term (5𝑥 2 )2 = 25𝑥 4
Minus square of second term − (8𝑦 2 )2 = −64𝑦 4
Therefore, (5𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )(5𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 ) = 25𝑥 4 − 64𝑦 4 .

2.4.4 Sum and difference of two cubes

Difference of two cubes

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3.

Take note of the following. First, the binomial 𝑎 − 𝑏 must be a difference of two terms 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Second, the trinomial 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 shall consists of the square of the first term, the square of the
second term, and the product of the two terms. Third, since 𝑎 − 𝑏 has a minus sign in between,
the sign of 𝑎𝑏 must be positive.

For example, let’s check if (3𝑎𝑏 − 7)(9𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 21𝑎𝑏 + 49) satisfies the requirements:
3𝑎𝑏 − 7 has two terms separated by a − sign yes
square first term (3𝑎𝑏) 2 2 2
= 9𝑎 𝑏 yes
square second term (7)2 = 49 yes
product of terms (3𝑎𝑏)(7) = 21𝑎𝑏 yes
since 3𝑎𝑏 − 7 has – sign, the sign of 21𝑎𝑏 must be + yes

Since all requirements are satisfied, (3𝑎𝑏 − 7)(9𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 21𝑎𝑏 + 49) simplifies as follows:

Illustration 13. (3𝑎𝑏 − 7)(9𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 21𝑎𝑏 + 49)

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Cube of first term (3𝑎𝑏)3 = 27𝑎3 𝑏 3

Cube of second term (−7)3 = −343
Therefore, (3𝑎𝑏 − 7)(9𝑎2 𝑏2 + 21𝑎𝑏 + 49) = 27𝑎3 𝑏3 − 343 .

The difference of two cubes can be extended to difference of two fourth powers, two fifth
powers, and so on, as shown below. The difference of two squares previously discussed can
also be considered as an extension of this.

(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3
(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎3 + 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 ) = 𝑎4 − 𝑏 4
(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎4 + 𝑎3 𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4 ) = 𝑎5 − 𝑏 5
(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎5 + 𝑎4 𝑏 + 𝑎3 𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 3 + 𝑎𝑏 4 + 𝑏 5 ) = 𝑎6 − 𝑏 6

Sum of two cubes

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3.

The sum of two cubes is similar to the difference of two cubes, except for the sign of 𝑎𝑏. Since
𝑎 + 𝑏 is separated by a + sign, 𝑎𝑏 must be negative. Compare the two:

(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3
(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3

Illustration 14. (𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 100).

First check if the given factors satisfy the requirements.
𝑥 + 10 has two terms separated by a + sign yes
square first term (𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 yes
square second term 2
(10) = 100 yes
product of terms (𝑥)(10) = 10𝑥 yes
since 𝑥 + 10 has + sign, the sign of 10𝑥 must be − yes
Since all requirements have been satisfied, perform the multiplication.
Cube of first term (𝑥)3 = 𝑥 3
Cube of second term (10)3 = 1000
Therefore, (𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 100) = 𝑥 3 + 1000 .

The sum of two cubes can be extended to sum of two powers with odd exponents, as shown
below. Notice that the second factor shall have alternating signs (+, -, +, -, …) of terms.

(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎4 − 𝑎3 𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4 ) = 𝑎5 − 𝑏 5
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎4 𝑏 2 − 𝑎3 𝑏 3 + 𝑎2 𝑏 4 − 𝑎𝑏 5 + 𝑏 6 ) = 𝑎7 − 𝑏 7
6 5

2.4.5 Product of two binomials

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Although the distributive property that we discussed in Section 2.3.2 is useful in all multiplication
problems, a shorter method exists for multiplying two binomials, called the FOIL method. FOIL
stands for “First, Outer, Inner, Last” and by its name states how we multiply two binomials as
shown below. Take note carefully of the highlighted terms and the designation given to them.

Illustration 15. Suppose we want to multiply (5𝑥 + 6𝑦) by (6𝑥 − 5𝑦).

(5𝑥 + 6𝑦)(6𝑥 − 5𝑦) F Multiply the FIRST terms, meaning the (5𝑥)(6𝑥) = 30𝑥 2
first terms of each binomial.
(5𝑥 + 6𝑦)(6𝑥 − 5𝑦) O Multiply the OUTER terms, meaning the (5𝑥)(−5𝑦) = −25𝑥𝑦
first term of the first binomial and the
second term of the second binomial.

If you think of the problem as a cake,

these terms are the frosting/icing of the
cake, the edge, the outermost part.
(5𝑥 + 6𝑦)(6𝑥 − 5𝑦) I Multiply the INNER terms, meaning the (6𝑦)(6𝑥) = 36𝑥𝑦
second term of the first binomial and
the first term of the second binomial.

If you think of the problem as a cake,

these terms are the meat of the cake,
the inside, the innermost part.
(5𝑥 + 6𝑦)(6𝑥 − 5𝑦) L Multiply the LAST terms, meaning the (6𝑦)(−5𝑦) = −30𝑦 2
last terms of each binomial.
Now, add all the results. Therefore,
(5𝑥 + 6𝑦)(6𝑥 − 5𝑦) = 30𝑥 2 − 25𝑥𝑦 + 36𝑥𝑦 − 30𝑦 2 = 30𝑥 2 + 11𝑥𝑦 − 30𝑦 2

Learning Activity 6
Part 1. Perform the following operations.
1. −3𝑥(2𝑥 + 7𝑦) 10. (2𝑎 + 𝑏)3
2. 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧(𝑧 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦𝑧) 11. (5𝑥 − 3𝑦)3
3. (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)(2𝑥 + 3𝑦) 12. (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 9)
4. (𝑥 + 2𝑦)(𝑥 − 2𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 ) 13. (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4)
5. (2𝑥 + 7𝑦)2 14. (2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 3)(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 3)
6. (3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 5𝑧 2 )2 15. (2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 5)(3𝑥 − 9𝑦 − 2)
7. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 5) 16. (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 +
8. (4𝑥 − 3𝑦)(7𝑥 + 3𝑦) 𝑏2)
9. (𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧)2

2.5 Factoring

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

The reverse operation of multiplying polynomials or algebraic expressions is factoring. Factoring

algebraic expressions involves using algebraic techniques to express an algebraic expression
as a product of smaller algebraic expressions.

2.5.1 Factoring by greatest common factor (GCF)

Recall that the greatest common factor (GCF) of two positive integers is the largest number
that can be divided from the two integers and yields no remainder. The way we determine the
GCF of two or more numbers is by getting the prime factorization of each number, and then
getting the smallest power for each prime factor. For example, for 60 and 126, we have

60 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 22 × 3 × 5
126 = 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 = 2 × 32 × 7

For the prime factor 2, the smaller power between 2 and 22 is 2. For the prime factor 3, the
smaller power between 3 and 32 is 3. For the prime factor 5, 126 has no factor 5, so we do not
consider it. For the prime factor 7, 60 has no factor 7, so we do not consider it. Therefore, the
GCF of 60 and 126 is 2 × 3 = 6.

The same procedure can be employed to monomials as well. It might be better to do the
determination of GCF in tabular form to be more organized, as shown below.

Illustration 15. Find the GCF of 40𝑥 6 𝑦 5 𝑧 3, 32𝑥 4 𝑦 6 𝑧 5 and 24𝑥 8 𝑦𝑧 4 .

40𝑥 6 𝑦 5 𝑧 3 = 23 ×5 × 𝑥6 × 𝑦5 × 𝑧3
32𝑥 4 𝑦 6 𝑧 5 = 25 × 𝑥4 × 𝑦6 × 𝑧5
24𝑥 8 𝑦𝑧 4 = 2 3 ×3 × 𝑥8 ×𝑦 × 𝑧4
GCF 𝟐𝟑 × 𝒙𝟒 ×𝒚 × 𝒛𝟑
Therefore, the GCF is 23 𝑥 4 𝑦𝑧 3 = 8𝑥 4 𝑦𝑧 3 .

We are now ready to discuss the first factoring technique, factoring by GCF. Given a
polynomial, we first determine the GCF of the terms in it. After that, we take the GCF out of the
terms using polynomial division. See the example below.

Example 8. Factor the polynomial 27𝑎3 𝑏 2 𝑐 + 45𝑎2 𝑏 3 𝑐 3 − 18𝑎3 𝑏 4 𝑐 2.

Solution. First, we determine the GCF of the terms 27𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐, 45𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐 3 and 18𝑎3 𝑏4 𝑐 2 . We will do it
in tabular form as shown.

27𝑎3 𝑏 2 𝑐 = 33 × 𝑎3 × 𝑏2 ×𝑐
45𝑎2 𝑏 3 𝑐 3 = 32 ×5 × 𝑎2 × 𝑏3 × 𝑐3
18𝑎3 𝑏 4 𝑐 2 = 2 × 32 × 𝑎3 × 𝑏4 × 𝑐2
GCF 𝟑𝟐 × 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒃𝟐 ×𝒄

Therefore, the GCF is 32 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐 = 9𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐. We now pull the GCF out of the polynomial using
division.

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

27𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐 + 45𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐 3 − 18𝑎3 𝑏4 𝑐 2

27𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐 + 45𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐 3 − 18𝑎3 𝑏 4 𝑐 2 = 9𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 ( )
9𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐
27𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐 45𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐 3 18𝑎3 𝑏 4 𝑐 2
= 9𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐 ( 2 2 + − )
9𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 9𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 9𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐
= 9𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐(3𝑎 + 5𝑏𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 2 𝑐)

2.5.2 Factoring quadratic trinomials

While factoring polynomials by GCF is mechanical in nature, factoring quadratic trinomials

using the traditional method, however, involves trial and error. Trial-and -error requires a lot of
practice, luck and imagination so that you can find the correct ones among the trial values
without having to test all of them. Nevertheless, the traditional method is the top choice
among factoring enthusiasts and pros because of its efficiency. If you practice a lot, you can
actually do this mentally!

The following examples will show how the traditional method goes.

Example 9. Factor 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 56.

Solution. Because the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is already 1, we can directly search for two numbers
whose product is 56 and whose sum is 15. By trying several pairs, we find that 7 and 8 satisfy
these, because 7 + 8 = 15 and 7 × 8 = 56. Therefore,

𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 56 = (𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 + 8)

Example 10. Factor 2𝑝2 + 3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 .

Solution. Because the first term is 2𝑝2 = 2𝑝 × 𝑝, the factorization is of the form

(2𝑝 + 𝑎𝑞)(𝑝 + 𝑏𝑞)

We need to find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that the product is −27 and yields the middle term
+ 3𝑝𝑞 when expanded. Trial values are

𝒂 𝒃 Check
1 −27 (2𝑝 + 1𝑞)(𝑝 − 27𝑞) = 2𝑝2 − 54𝑝𝑞 + 𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 = 2𝑝2 − 53𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2
−1 27 (2𝑝 − 1𝑞)(𝑝 + 27𝑞) = 2𝑝2 + 54𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 = 2𝑝2 + 53𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2
3 −9 (2𝑝 + 3𝑞)(𝑝 − 9𝑞) = 2𝑝2 − 18𝑝𝑞 + 3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 = 2𝑝2 − 15𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2
−3 9 (2𝑝 − 3𝑞)(𝑝 + 9𝑞) = 2𝑝2 + 18𝑝𝑞 − 3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 = 2𝑝2 + 15𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2
9 −3 (2𝑝 + 9𝑞)(𝑝 − 3𝑞) = 2𝑝2 − 6𝑝𝑞 + 9𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞 2 = 2𝑝2 + 3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞 2

Among the trial values, (2𝑝 + 9𝑞)(𝑝 − 3𝑞) is the one that gives 2𝑝2 + 3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 . Therefore, 2𝑝2 +
3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞 2 = (2𝑝 + 9𝑞)(𝑝 − 3𝑞) .

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

If you do not want to be frustrated in doing trial-and-error, another method is to use the
quadratic formula, which we will discuss in detail in Lesson 2 of this course. If you have a
trinomial 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, we solve for the values

−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= and 𝑥=
2𝑎 2𝑎

and then rewrite each so that the right-hand side of each equation becomes 0 and that no
fraction exists. Finally, we multiply the two equations to get the factors of the original
polynomial. Let’s now rework Examples 9 and 10, this time using the quadratic formula.

Example 11. Factor 𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 56 using the quadratic formula method.

Solution. Comparing with 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, we have 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 15 and 𝑐 = 56, so that

−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −15 + √152 − 4(1)(56) −15 + √1 −15 + 1 −14

𝑥= = = = = = −7
2𝑎 2(1) 2 2 2
−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −15 − √152 − 4(1)(56) −15 − √1 −15 − 1 −16
𝑥= = = = = = −8
2𝑎 2(1) 2 2 2

So, we have 𝑥 = −7 and 𝑥 = −8. Making the right side zero and removing fractions, we have
𝑥 + 7 = 0 and 𝑥 + 8 = 0. Multiplying the left sides, we get the factorization (𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 + 8) .

Example 12. Factor 2𝑝2 + 3𝑝𝑞 − 27𝑞2 using the quadratic formula.

Solution. We have 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3 and 𝑐 = −27, so that

𝑝 −𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −3 + √32 − 4(2)(−27) −3 + √225 −3 + 15 12

= = = = = =3
𝑞 2𝑎 2(2) 4 4 4
𝑝 −𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −3 − √32 − 4(2)(−27) −3 − √225 −3 − 15 −18 9
= = = = = =−
𝑞 2𝑎 2(2) 4 4 4 2
Now, rewriting these equations so that the right side is 0 and that there are no fractions, we
have

𝑝
= 3 ⟹ 𝑝 = 3𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 − 3𝑞 = 0
𝑞
𝑝 9
= − ⟹ 2𝑝 = −9𝑞 ⟹ 2𝑝 + 9𝑞 = 0
𝑞 2

Multiplying the two equations, we get the factorization (𝑝 − 3𝑞)(2𝑝 + 9𝑞) .

2.5.3 Factoring perfect square trinomials

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Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Perfect square trinomials (PST) are quadratic trinomials whose two factors are equal to each
other. Given the trinomial 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, PSTs have the property that 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0. The quantity
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called the discriminant of the polynomial, which we will discuss in detail in Lesson 2.

Illustration 16.
 𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 49 is a PST because 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−14)2 − 4(1)(49) = 0
 9𝑢2 + 30𝑢𝑣 + 25𝑣 2 is a PST because 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (30)2 − 4(9)(25) = 0
 2𝑧 2 + 𝑧 − 6 is not a PST because 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (1)2 − 4(2)(−6) = 49 ≠ 0
 𝑎2 − 4𝑏 2 is not a PST because 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (0)2 − 4(1)(−4) = 16 ≠ 0

If the trinomial is a PST, then factoring it is simple. We take the square root of the first term, take
the square root of the last term, take the sign of the middle and put it in between, and finally
square the result.

Factoring PSTs
If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 .

Illustration 17. 9𝑢2 + 30𝑢𝑣 + 25𝑣 2 is a PST from the previous illustration.
Square root of first √9𝑢2 = 3𝑢
Sign of the middle term (+30𝑢𝑣) +
Square root of second √25𝑣 2 = 5𝑣
Therefore, 9𝑢2 + 30𝑢𝑣 + 25𝑣 2 = (3𝑢 + 5𝑣)2 .

Illustration 18. 𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 49 is a PST from the previous illustration.

Square root of first √𝑥 2 = 𝑥
Sign of the middle term (−14𝑥) −
Square root of second √49 = 7
Therefore, 𝑥 2 − 14𝑥 + 49 = (𝑥 − 7)2 .

2.5.4 Factoring difference of two squares

Factoring a difference of two squares is also simple: You take the square root of the first term,
take the square root of the second term, and then make two factors, one separating the two
terms by a + sign, and another factor by a minus sign.

Factoring difference of two squares

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏).

Illustration 19. 𝑎2 − 4𝑏 2
Square root of first √𝑎2 = 𝑎
Square root of second √4𝑏 2 = 2𝑏
Therefore, 𝑎2 − 4𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎 − 2𝑏)(𝑎 + 2𝑏) .

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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

However, be careful when factoring difference of two terms. If you take the square roots of
the terms and realize that the square roots remain or the square roots are not integers, then
the polynomial is not a difference of two squares, and so you cannot use this procedure.

Illustration 20. 4𝑎3 − 75𝑏 2 is not a difference of two squares, because

√4𝑎3 = √4𝑎2 ⋅ 𝑎 = √4𝑎2 ⋅ √𝑎 = 2𝑎√𝑎 (square roots remain)

√75𝑏 2 = √25𝑏 2 ⋅ 3 = √25𝑏 2 ⋅ √3 = 5𝑏√3 (square roots remain)

2.5.5 Factoring sum and difference of two cubes

Factoring sum and difference of two cubes

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Make sure that no radicals remain when you take cube roots to ensure that we indeed have a
sum or difference of two cubes.

Illustration 21. 27𝑔3 ℎ3 + 64, a sum of two cubes

Cube root of first
3
√27𝑔3 ℎ3 = 3𝑔ℎ
Sign between the two +
Cube root of second
3
√64 = 4
Therefore, the first factor is (3𝑔ℎ + 4).
Square of first (3𝑔ℎ)2 = 9𝑔2 ℎ2
Sign of middle term −, since this is a sum of two cubes
Product of first and second (3𝑔ℎ)(4) = 12𝑔ℎ
Square of second 42 = 16
Therefore, the second factor is (9𝑔 ℎ − 12𝑔ℎ + 16), and
2 2

27𝑔3 ℎ3 + 64 = (3𝑔ℎ + 4)(9𝑔2 ℎ2 − 12𝑔ℎ + 16)

Illustration 22. 125 − 8𝑥 3, a difference of two cubes

3
Cube root of first √125 = 5
Sign between the two −
3
Cube root of second √8𝑥 3 = 2𝑥
Therefore, the first factor is (5 − 2𝑥).
Square of first (5)2 = 25
Sign of middle term +, since this is difference of two cubes
Product of first and second (5)(2𝑥) = 10𝑥
Square of second (2𝑥)2 = 4𝑥 2
Therefore, the second factor is (25 + 10𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 ), and
27𝑔3 ℎ3 + 64 = (5 − 2𝑥)(25 + 10𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )

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Institute of Civil Engineering

Using the methods of factorization that we discussed in the previous sections, we can factor
completely almost all polynomials. By factoring completely, we mean continuously factoring
the polynomials and all its factors, until we reach the point where nothing left can be
factored.

Example 13. Factor completely the polynomial 64𝑠 6 − 1.

Solution. There are two ways to factor this polynomial, but for this example, we’ll show the
easier way. Notice that we have a difference of two squares here, because √64𝑠 6 = 8𝑠 3 and
√1 = 1 have no radicals left. Therefore,

64𝑠 6 − 1 = (8𝑠 3 − 1)(8𝑠 3 + 1)

The first factor 8𝑠 3 − 1 is a difference of two cubes, while the second one 8𝑠 3 + 1 is a sum of
3
two cubes. Both of these can still be factored, because √8𝑠 3 = 2𝑠 and √1 = 1 leave no
3

radicals hanging. Therefore, we have

8𝑠 3 − 1 = (2𝑠 − 1)((2𝑠)2 + (2𝑠)(1) + (1)2 ) = (2𝑠 − 1)(4𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1)

8𝑠 3 + 1 = (2𝑠 + 1)((2𝑠)2 − (2𝑠)(1) + (1)2 ) = (2𝑠 + 1)(4𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 + 1)

and hence

64𝑠 6 − 1 = (8𝑠 3 − 1)(8𝑠 3 + 1) = (2𝑠 − 1)(4𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1)(2𝑠 + 1)(4𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 + 1)

The four factors cannot be factored further, and hence we have our final answer.

Example 14. Factor completely the polynomial 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 8𝑥.

Solution. When factoring polynomials completely, the first method that you must consider is
factoring by GCF. In this problem, the GCF of the four terms is 2𝑥. Therefore, we can take out
2𝑥 from the terms using division.

2𝑥 4 2𝑥 3 8𝑥 2 8𝑥
2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = 2𝑥 ( + − − ) = 2𝑥(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4)
2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥

For the factor 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4, we can group the first two terms, and then group the last two
terms, and then factor them separately by GCF. This technique is called factoring by grouping.

2𝑥(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4) = 2𝑥 [(𝑥
⏟ 3 + 𝑥2) − ⏟ ⏟2 (𝑥 + 1) − ⏟
(4𝑥 + 4)] = 2𝑥 [𝑥 4(𝑥 + 1)]
group group GCF=𝑥 2 GCF=4

and in 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1) − 4(𝑥 + 1), we see that there is (𝑥 + 1) common to both terms, so we can take
it out of them.

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2𝑥[𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1) − 4(𝑥 + 1)] = 2𝑥 ⏟

(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 4)
GCF=(𝑥+1)

The last factor 𝑥 2 − 4 is still factorable: it is a difference of two squares. Hence,

2𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 4) = 2𝑥(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

⏟
difference of two squares

Example 15. Factor completely the polynomial 𝑦 4 + 4𝑧 4 .

Solution. This polynomial does not fall to any one of the factoring methods we discussed; this is
clearly not a sum of two cubes because the exponents are not divisible by 3. BUT! There is a
cool trick that we can use here, since all the other methods do not work. The trick is adding
and subtracting terms.

Notice that the two terms are perfect squares, because √𝑦 4 = 𝑦 2 and √4𝑧 4 = 2𝑧 2. So, you
would think that this polynomial is related to the factorization (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2 . Indeed, it does; if we
expand (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2 , we have

(𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2 = (𝑦 2 )2 + 2(𝑦 2 )(2𝑧 2 ) + (2𝑧 2 )2 = 𝑦 4 + 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 4

This is almost the same as 𝑦 4 + 4𝑧 4, except that there is an extra 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 in it. So, what if in the
original polynomial, we add and subtract 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 ? We have

𝑦 4 + 4𝑧 4 = (𝑦 4 + 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 4 ) − 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2

The first three terms are what we’ve seen earlier (a perfect square trinomial) and is therefore
factorable to (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2.

(𝑦 4 + 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 4 ) − 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 = (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2 − 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2

Now, both (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2 and 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 are perfect squares, which makes the expression a difference
of two squares. Finally,

(𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 )2 − 4𝑦 2 𝑧 2 = (𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 − 2𝑦𝑧)(𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 + 2𝑦𝑧) .

Learning Activity 6
Part 1. Factor the following polynomials completely.

1. 4𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦 3
2. 𝑎2 𝑏 3 𝑐 4 − 𝑎3 𝑏 4 𝑐 5 + 2𝑎2 𝑏 4 𝑐 4
3. 2𝑧 2 (𝑥 + 3𝑦) − 6𝑥𝑧(𝑥 + 3𝑦)
4. 16𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2

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Institute of Civil Engineering

5. 225𝑎8 − 64𝑏 2
6. (3𝑥 − 2𝑦)2 − 25𝑧 2
7. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16
8. 4𝑎2 − 12𝑎𝑏 + 9𝑏 2
9. 2𝑥 3 − 28𝑥 2 + 98𝑥
10. 27𝑎3 − 343
11. 𝑝6 − 64
12. 𝑞 3 + 8𝑟 3
13. 𝑧 6 + 2𝑧 3 + 1
14. 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 8
15. 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12
16. 35𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 4
17. 2𝑥 2 − 23𝑥𝑦 − 39𝑦 2
18. 6𝑎2 + 7𝑎 − 20
19. (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 2𝑧)2 − (2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧)2
20. 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 8
21. 𝑦 3 − 2𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 10
22. 𝑥𝑦 3 + 2𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 2
23. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑦 2 − 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 6
24. 𝑎4 + 64
25. 𝑦 4 + 𝑦 2 + 2

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Institute of Civil Engineering

Lesson 3
POLYNOMIALS
3.1 Definition

Rational algebraic expressions are essentially a quotient of two polynomials. Examples of

rational algebraic expressions are

𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 15 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 𝑥4 + 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 6)

Pure polynomials can also be considered as rational expressions, but with denominator 1.

3.2 Evaluation of rational expressions

𝑎 2 +9𝑎+18
Example 1. Evaluate the expression when 𝑎 = 2.
𝑎 2 +3𝑎−18

Solution. Just substitute 𝑎 = 2 to the expression.

𝑎2 + 9𝑎 + 18 22 + 9(2) + 18 4 + 18 + 18 40
= = = = −5
𝑎2 + 3𝑎 − 18 22 + 3(2) − 18 4 + 6 − 18 −8

3.3 Simplifying rational algebraic expressions

Remember in Section 2.5 that polynomials can be factored, so as well the numerator and
denominator of rational expressions. There will be cases where there are factors of the
numerator that are also present in the denominator. In this case, these can be cancelled,
because any nonzero number divided by itself equals 1. After cancelling all these factors, we
are left with a rational expression in simplest form or lowest term. A rational expression in its
simplest form shall be a single fraction with no common factors in the numerator and the
denominator.

Example 2. Simplify the expression

𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 + 4
.
𝑘 3 − 2𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 + 8

Solution. The numerator is a perfect square trinomial, which can be factored as

𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 + 4 = (𝑘 − 2)2

The denominator is a polynomial of four terms, and can be factored by grouping the first two
terms and the last two terms.

𝑘 3 − 2𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 + 8 = (𝑘 3 − 2𝑘 2 ) + (−4𝑘 + 8)
= 𝑘 2 (𝑘 − 2) − 4(𝑘 − 2)

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= (𝑘 2 − 4)(𝑘 − 2)
= (𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 − 2)
= (𝑘 − 2)2 (𝑘 + 2)

The numerator and denominator have a common factor (𝑘 − 2)2 , which can be cancelled.
Therefore,

𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 + 4 (𝑘 − 2)2 1
= =
𝑘 3 − 2𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 + 8 (𝑘 − 2)2 (𝑘 + 2) 𝑘+2

3.4 Operations on rational expressions

3.4.1 Multiplication

Multiplication of rational expressions is simple. We can treat the product as if it is just a single
rational expression and then just simplify it as before.

Example 3. Simplify the expression

6𝑏 2 + 13𝑏 + 6 6𝑏 2 + 31𝑏 − 30
⋅ .
4𝑏 2 − 9 18𝑏2 − 3𝑏 − 10

Solution. Factor the numerators and denominators. After which, the common factors in the
numerator and denominator are color highlighted and can be cancelled. We have

6𝑏 2 + 13𝑏 + 6 6𝑏 2 + 31𝑏 − 30 (2𝑏 + 3)(3𝑏 + 2) (6𝑏 − 5)(𝑏 + 6) 𝑏+6

⋅ = ⋅ =
4𝑏 2 − 9 18𝑏 2 − 3𝑏 − 10 (2𝑏 − 3)(2𝑏 + 3) (6𝑏 − 5)(3𝑏 + 2) 2𝑏 − 3

3.4.2 Division

Division of rational expressions is also simple, like dividing two fractions. Change the division
sign to a multiplication sign, and then get the reciprocal of the second expression (meaning,
interchange the numerator and the denominator). The problem becomes a multiplication
one, which can be done using Section 3.4.1.

Example 4. Simplify the expression

16𝑎2 − 24𝑎 + 9 16𝑎2 − 9
÷
4𝑎2 + 17𝑎 − 15 4𝑎2 + 11𝑎 + 6

Solution. First change ÷ to ×, and then get the reciprocal of the second expression.

16𝑎2 − 24𝑎 + 9 16𝑎2 − 9 16𝑎2 − 24𝑎 + 9 4𝑎2 + 11𝑎 + 6

÷ = ×
4𝑎2 + 17𝑎 − 15 4𝑎2 + 11𝑎 + 6 4𝑎2 + 17𝑎 − 15 16𝑎2 − 9

Now that this is a multiplication problem, we can now factor the numerators and
denominators and then cancel common factors, so that

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16𝑎2 − 24𝑎 + 9 4𝑎2 + 11𝑎 + 6 (4𝑎 − 3)(4𝑎 − 3) (4𝑎 + 3)(𝑎 + 2) 𝑎+2

× = ⋅ =
4𝑎2 + 17𝑎 − 15 16𝑎2 − 9 (4𝑎 − 3)(𝑎 + 5) (4𝑎 + 3)(4𝑎 − 3) 𝑎+5

3.4.3 Addition and subtraction

Addition or subtraction of rational expressions is more involved than adding or subtracting

fractions, but the method is the same. Recall that two or more fractions can only be
combined to each other when their denominators are the same. The denominators can be
made same using the concept of least common denominator (LCD).

The LCD of two fractions with denominators 𝑎 and 𝑏 is the smallest positive number which,
when divided by either 𝑎 or 𝑏, gives no remainder. For example, supposing that 24 and 36 are
the denominators of two fractions, we have

24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 23 × 3
36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 22 × 32

The highest power of 2 present is 23 , while the highest power of 3 present is 32 . Therefore, the
LCD will be 23 × 32 = 8 × 9 = 72.

The LCD can also be calculated from rational expressions, as well.

Example 5. Simplify the expression.

1 5 3
+ 2 − 3.
4𝑥 6𝑥 8𝑥

Solution. Here, we have the denominators 4𝑥, 6𝑥 2 , 8𝑥 3 . The LCD of 4, 6 and 8 is 24, while the
highest power of 𝑥 present is 𝑥 3 . Therefore, the LCD of 4𝑥, 6𝑥 2 and 8𝑥 3 is 24𝑥 3 .

1
To make the denominator of 4𝑥 equal to the LCD 24𝑥 3 , we need to multiply both the
24𝑥 3 5
numerator and the denominator by 4𝑥
= 6𝑥 2 . To make the denominator of 6𝑥 2 equal to 24𝑥 3 ,
24𝑥 3 3
we multiply by 6𝑥 2
= 4𝑥. Finally, to make the denominator of 8𝑥 3 equal to 24𝑥 3 , we multiply by
24𝑥 3
= 3. Therefore,
8𝑥 3

1 5 3 1 6𝑥 2 5 4𝑥 3 3 6𝑥 2 20𝑥 9 6𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 9
+ 2− 3= ⋅ 2+ 2⋅ − 3⋅ = + − =
4𝑥 6𝑥 8𝑥 4𝑥 6𝑥 6𝑥 4𝑥 8𝑥 3 24𝑥 3 24𝑥 3 24𝑥 3 24𝑥 3

Example 6. Simplify the expression

6 2
− 2 .
𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 4

Solution. First, factor the numerator and the denominator.

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6 2 6 2
− 2 = −
𝑥2 + 4𝑥 + 4 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)

The highest power of (𝑥 + 2) occurring in the denominator is (𝑥 + 2)2 , while the highest power
of (𝑥 − 2) is just (𝑥 − 2). Therefore, the LCD is (𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2). Multiply the first fraction by (𝑥 − 2)
and the second fraction by (𝑥 + 2) so that both denominators are equal to the LCD.

6 2 6 𝑥−2 2 𝑥+2
− = ⋅ − ⋅
(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 2)2 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 2
6(𝑥 − 2) 2(𝑥 + 2)
= −
(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)
2
6(𝑥 − 2) − 2(𝑥 + 2)
=
(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)
6𝑥 − 12 − 2𝑥 − 4
=
(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)
4𝑥 − 16
=
(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)

Once the fractions have been added or subtracted, check if the result can be simplified
further. The numerator factors to 4𝑥 − 16 = 4(𝑥 − 4), and (𝑥 − 4) is not present in the
denominator. Therefore, the fraction is already in its simplest form.

Example 7. Simplify the expression

2𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑝 + 𝑞
+ .
𝑝 − 𝑞 2𝑝 − 𝑞

Solution. The denominators are already in factored form, and the LCD is (𝑝 − 𝑞)(2𝑝 − 𝑞).
Multiply the first fraction by 2𝑝 − 𝑞 and the second fraction by 𝑝 − 𝑞.

2𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑝 + 𝑞 2𝑝 + 𝑞 2𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝 + 𝑞 𝑝 − 𝑞
+ = ⋅ + ⋅
𝑝 − 𝑞 2𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝 − 𝑞 2𝑝 − 𝑞 2𝑝 − 𝑞 𝑝 − 𝑞
(2𝑝 + 𝑞)(2𝑝 − 𝑞) + (𝑝 + 𝑞)(𝑝 − 𝑞)
=
(𝑝 − 𝑞)(2𝑝 − 𝑞)
(4𝑝2 − 𝑞 2 ) + (𝑝2 − 𝑞 2 )
=
(𝑝 − 𝑞)(2𝑝 − 𝑞)
5𝑝2 − 2𝑞 2
=
(𝑝 − 𝑞)(2𝑝 − 𝑞)

The result is already in its simplified form, because the numerator is not factorable.

3.5 Complex fractions

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Complex fractions are fractions whose numerator and/or denominator contain rational
algebraic expressions or complex fractions or both. Examples are

1 1
− 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 1
𝑥 𝑦 2+
𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 1
1 1 2+ 1
𝑥𝑦 +
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 2+ 1
2+2

There are two ways to simplify complex fractions:

1. Treating the numerator and the denominator as two different rational expression
problems, and then dividing the two results, or;
2. Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by the LCD of all the fractions in the
expression, and then simplifying the result.

Example 8. Simplify the expression

𝑥 𝑦2
+
𝑦 𝑥2
𝑦 1 1
− +
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦

Solution 1. Treat the numerator and denominator as two separate rational expression problems
and simplify each.
𝑥 𝑦2 𝑥3 + 𝑦3 𝑥3 + 𝑦3
+
𝑦 𝑥2 𝑥2𝑦 𝑥2𝑦
= 2 2 = 2
𝑦 1 1 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
2 −𝑥+𝑦
𝑥 𝑥2𝑦 𝑥2𝑦

The result can now be treated as a division problem, which we discussed in Section 3.4.2.
𝑥3 + 𝑦3
𝑥2𝑦 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 𝑥2𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑥2𝑦
= ÷ = ⋅ = ⋅
𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥2𝑦 𝑥2𝑦 𝑥2𝑦 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥2𝑦 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝑥2𝑦
= 𝑥+𝑦

Solution 2. In this complex fraction, there are five denominators: 𝑦, 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 and 𝑦. The LCD
becomes 𝑥 2 𝑦. Therefore, we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the
complex fraction by 𝑥 2 𝑦.
𝑥 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑦2 2
+
𝑦 𝑥2 2
𝑥 𝑦 (𝑦 + 𝑥2) 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥3 + 𝑦3 𝑥3 + 𝑦3
⋅ 2 = = 2 =
𝑦 1 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 1 1 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
2 −𝑥+𝑦 ( 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑦) 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

The result is a simple rational expression, which we can simplify easily.

𝑥3 + 𝑦3 (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )
= = 𝑥+𝑦
𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

46
 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Learning Activity 7
Part 1. Evaluate the following rational algebraic expressions.
𝑥 2 − 16 𝑎3 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1
1. when 𝑥 = 5 3. when 𝑎 = −4
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 𝑎4 + 𝑎2 + 1
𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 2016
2. 2 2
when 𝑝 = −2, 𝑞 = 3 4. when 𝑧 = 1
2𝑝 − 3𝑞 8𝑧 3 + 1

Part 2. Simplify the following expressions.

𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 25 𝑎2 + 9𝑎 + 18
1. 4.
𝑦 2 + 11𝑦 + 30 𝑎2 + 3𝑎 − 18
6𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4 𝑞 3 + 3𝑞 2 − 9𝑞 − 27
2. 5.
3𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 + 20 𝑞 2 + 6𝑞 + 9
4
12𝑛2 − 29𝑛 − 8 𝑝 −1
3. 6.
28𝑛2 − 5𝑛 − 3 𝑝6 − 1

Part 3. Perform the indicated operations. Express your answer in simplest form.
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 15 2𝑎 + 3 2
1. 2
⋅ 2
9. 2
−
2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 −9 𝑎 − 7𝑎 + 12 𝑎 − 3
6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 50 20𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 6 𝑎+2 3
2. 2
⋅ 2 10. 2
+ 2
15𝑥 − 44𝑥 − 20 2𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 10 𝑎 + 𝑎 − 2 𝑎 + 2𝑎 − 3
3𝑦 2 − 7𝑦 − 6 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 2 3𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 5
3. ÷ 11. +
2𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 − 9 2𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 3 6𝑦 2 9𝑥𝑦
2 2
6𝑝 + 𝑝 − 12 6𝑝 − 11𝑝 + 4 4 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8
4. ÷ 12. ( − ) ÷
8𝑝2 + 18𝑝 + 9 2𝑝2 + 11𝑝 − 6 𝑥−2 𝑥+3 𝑥2 − 4
2
𝑥
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 40 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 48 𝑥 2 − 36 𝑥+𝑦−𝑥
5. ÷ ⋅ 13.
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 35 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 18 𝑥 2 − 9 𝑦2
−𝑦
𝑥+𝑦
3𝑧 2𝑧 + 5 1
6. + 14. 1 +
1
𝑧+1 𝑧−2 1−𝑥−1
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
7.
𝑥 − 1 2𝑥 + 3
15. 𝑎 − 𝑏
−
𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 + 1 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 6 𝑥+1−𝑥−1
8. − 16. 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1
𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 36 𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 42
𝑥−1−𝑥+1

47
 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

Chapter Assessment
Solve each item carefully, then choose the letter corresponding to the correct answer.
If the correct answer is not in the given choices, write E.
Important Note:
This is the exact same question set as that of the pretest to test if your answers to the
questions will improve after learning this chapter. Do not look at your answers in the
Pretest; this will defeat the purpose of this chapter assessment.

1. Which of the following statements is true about powers?

a. A power is a shorthand notation for repeated addition.
b. The base of a power represents the number of times a number is
multiplied to itself.
c. Nonzero constants and variables can be treated as powers with exponent
1.
d. The exponent of a power represents the number to be multiplied to itself.

2. What law of exponent must you apply to simplify the expression (𝑎2 )6 ?
a. product rule c. power-product rule
b. power rule d. power-quotient rule

3. Which of the following is true about square roots?

a. The square root 𝑎 is the number that must be multiplied to itself twice to
get 𝑎.
b. The square root of 𝑎 is a real number for all values of 𝑎.
c. The square root of 𝑎 can be positive, zero or negative.
d. The square root of 𝑎 is always an integer.

4. Which of the following is true about logarithms?

a. log 𝑏 𝑥 is the number that must be multiplied to itself 𝑏 times to get 𝑥.
b. ln 𝑥 is the logarithm of 𝑥 to the base 10.
c. The logarithm of a product of two numbers is equal to the product of the
logarithms of these two numbers.
d. The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the exponent times the
logarithm of the number.

1 1 3 1 1 −2
5. Simplify the expression (𝑥 6 𝑦 2 ) (𝑥 4 𝑦 4 ) .
a. 𝑦 c. 𝑦 4√𝑦
b. 𝑥𝑦 d. 𝑥𝑦 4√𝑦

6. What is the degree of the polynomial 𝑝2 𝑞 3 + 5𝑝6 𝑞 + 9𝑝𝑞 5 − 13𝑝3 𝑞3?

a. 5 c. 7
b. 6 d. 24
7. What property of real numbers is primarily used to multiply two polynomials?
a. associative property b. distributive property

48
 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

c. commutative property d. closure property

8. The polynomial (𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 − 9) is to be divided by (𝑥 − 4). How do we set up

the synthetic division for this problem?
a. 4 | 1 -5 0 6 -9 c. 4 | 1 -5 6 -9
b. -4 | 1 -5 0 6 -9 d. -4 | 1 -5 6 -9

9. The FOIL method is a technique used for

a. adding or subtracting two polynomials.
b. multiplying two binomials.
c. dividing a polynomial by a binomial.
d. factoring a perfect square trinomial.

10. Factor completely the polynomial 𝑥 5 − 16𝑥.

a. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)4 c. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑥 2 + 4)
b. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑥 + 2)2 d. 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 4)

𝑥+2 𝑥+1
11. What is the LCD of the fractions 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4 and 𝑥 2 −8𝑥+16?
a. (𝑥 − 4)3 (𝑥 + 1) c. (𝑥 − 4)2 (𝑥 + 1)
b. (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) 2
d. (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4)

12. What do you call rational algebraic expressions whose numerators and
denominators also contain rational algebraic expressions?
a. compound fractions c. tower fractions
b. multi-level fractions d. complex fractions

13. When do we say that a rational algebraic expression is in its simplest form?
I. There are no common factors in the numerator and the denominator.
II. There must be only one fraction present.
III. The numerator and denominator must be both factored.
a. I and II c. II and III
b. I and III d. I, II and III

4𝑝2 −9 6𝑝+9
14. Simplify the expression ÷ .
4𝑝2 −12𝑝+9 2𝑝2 −5𝑝+3
(2𝑝+3)2 (𝑝−1) (2𝑝−3)2 (𝑝−1)
a. 3(2𝑝−3)2
c. 3
𝑝−1 𝑝−1
b. d. 3
3(2𝑝−3)2

15. What do you call the process of substituting the value of a variable/variables to
an algebraic expression and calculating its value?
a. simplification c. evaluation
b. factoring d. equating

49
 HOLY CROSS COLLEGE
Sta. Lucia, Sta. Ana, Pampanga
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER AND LIBRARY STUDIES
Institute of Civil Engineering

References
Vance, Elbridge P. Modern Algebra and Trigonometry, Third Edition. Massachusetts: Addison-
Wesley Publishing, Inc., 1973.
Alferez, Merle S. & Ma. Cecilia A. Duro. MSA Elementary Algebra. Quezon City: MSA Publishing
House, 2007.
Bird, John. Basic Engineering Mathematics, Fifth Edition. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2010.
Abramson, Jay. Algebra and Trigonometry. Texas: (Openstax) Rice University, 2017.
Tiong, Jaime R. & Romeo A. Rojas, Jr. 1001 Solved Problems in Engineering Mathematics. Excel
Review Center, 2012.

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