Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

Question: Show that the set {5, 15, 25, 35} is a group under multiplication modulo
40. What is the identity element of this group? Can you see any relationship between
this group and U(8)?

Solution : Let G = {5, 15, 25, 35}

The Cayley Table for G is

40 5 15 25 35
5 25 35 5 15
15 35 25 15 5
25 5 15 25 35
35 15 5 35 25

Clearly G is closed under ⨂40. Also, associativity holds.

Identity element is 25.

Inverse of 5, 15, 25, 35 is 5, 15, 25, 35 respectively. Therefore, G is a group under

⨂40.

Now U(8) = {1, 3, 5, 7}

Each element of U(8) when multiplied by 5 gives the set {5, 15, 25, 35}.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

Problem: The set 𝐺 = {1,2,3,4,5} is not a group w.r.t.

multiplication modulo 6, since 23 = 0 ∉ 𝐺.

Problem: The set 𝐺 = {1,2,3,4} is an abelian group w.r.t.

multiplication modulo 5.

Problem: The set 𝐺 = {1,5,7,11} is a group w.r.t. multiplication

modulo 12.

Problem: The set 𝐺 = {2,4,8} is a group w.r.t. multiplication

modulo 14.

Problem: The set 𝐺 = {1,2,3,4,5,6} is a group w.r.t.

multiplication modulo 7.

Problem: U (15)  {xZ |1  x  15, gcd ( x, 15)  1} is an abelian group

under multiplication modulo 15.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

Question. For all integers n  1, the set of complex roots of unity, 𝐺 =

 k  2 k  2 
cos  i sin k  0, 1, 2,..., n  1 
 n n 

is a group under multiplication.

2k  2k 
We have cos  i sin  ei 2 k  / n [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ]
n n

 G  {1, e 2 i / n , e 4 i / n , e6 i / n ,..., e 2( n1) i / n }  {1, w, w2 , w3 ,..., wn 1 ), where

2𝜋𝑖⁄ 𝑛
we 2 i / n
and w = n
(𝑒 𝑛 ) = 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 = 1.

∴ 𝐺  {1, w, w2 , w3 ,..., wn1 ), where 𝜔𝑛 = 1.

(i) Closure Property :

Let a, b  G, then an = 1 and bn = 1.

Now (ab)n = an bn = 1.1 = 1 abG

Therefore, G is closed w.r.t. multiplication.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

(ii) Associativity: :
The elements of G are all complex numbers and the
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.

(iii) Existence of Identity :

We have 1 G and 1.a = a = a.1 aG. Therefore, 1 is the

identity of G.

(iv) Existence of Inverse :

If wk be any element of G, then wnk is also an element of G.

We have, wn  k  wk  wn  1  wk  wn  k  wn-k is the inverse of wk.

Further, the multiplication of complex numbers is commutative.

Therefore, G is a finite abelian group w.r.t.multiplication.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

Question: Prove that

 a b 
SL(2, F )   A    a, b, c, d Q or R or C and | A |  1 is a non-abelian group
 c d  

under matrix multiplication.

Let A, BSL (2, F), then |A| = 1and |B| = 1. Since |AB| = |A|.|B| = 1.1 = 1, therefore
AB SL(2, F).

 SL (2,F) is closed under matrix multiplication

Matrix multiplication is associative.

1 0
   SL(2, F ) is the identity element.
0 1

a b d b 
Inverse of    SL(2, F ) is    SL(2, F ) .
 c d   c a

Also, matrix multiplication is not commutative in general.

Therefore, SL(2, F) is a non-abelian group under matrix multiplication.

This group is called the special linear group of 2  2 matrices over 𝑄, R or C

respectively.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

Question: For a fixed point (a, b) in R2, define

Ta, b: R2  R2 by Ta, b (x, y) = (x + a, y + b).

Prove that, 𝐺 = T ( R 2 )  {Ta , b | a, b  R} is a group under function

composition.

Let Ta , b , Tc, d  T ( R 2 ) = 𝐺

Then, Ta, b Tc, d ( x, y)  Ta, b ( x  c, y  d )  ( x  c  a, y  d  b)

 Ta  c , b d ( x, y ) T ( R 2 )

 G is closed.

Function composition is always associative.

T0, 0  T ( R 2 ) is the identity as

𝑇𝑎,𝑏 𝑇0,0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇𝑎,𝑏 (𝑥 + 0, 𝑦 + 0) = 𝑇𝑎,𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦)

Ta , b T0, 0  Ta , b  T0, 0 Ta , b .

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

The inverse of Ta , b T ( R 2 ) is T a, b  T ( R 2 ). as

𝑇𝑎,𝑏 𝑇−𝑎,−𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇𝑎,𝑏 (𝑥 − 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑏)

= (𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑏 + 𝑏) = (𝑥 + 0, 𝑦 + 0)
= 𝑇0,0 (𝑥, 𝑦)

Also, G is abelian. Therefore, G is an abelian group under

function composition.

Question: Prove that the set G  {0,1, 2,3, 4,5} is a finite abelian
group of order 6 w.r.t. addition modulo 6.

Question: Prove that the set U(7) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a finite

abelian group w.r.t multiplication modulo 7.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

Elementary Properties of Groups

Theorem : In a group G, prove that

(1) Identity element is unique.

Proof: Suppose e and e are two elements of G which act as

identity.

Then, since eG and e is identity, therefore

ee  ee  e …(1)

and as e  G and e is identity, therefore

ee  ee  e …(2)

(1) and (2)  e  e

which establishes the uniqueness of identity in a group.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

(2) Inverse of each aG is unique.

Proof: Let aG be any element and let a and a be two inverse
elements of 𝑎, then

aa  aa  e and aa  aa  e

To show: a  a,

Now, a  ae  a(aa)  (aa) a  ea  a, showing thereby that inverse of
an element is unique.

Note : We shall denote inverse of 𝑎 by a1.

Remember 𝑏 is inverse of 𝑎 iff 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑒, 𝑖. 𝑒. in other words,

𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 = 𝑎−1 𝑎.

(3) (a1)1 = a, aG, where a1 stands for inverse of a.

Proof: Since a1 is inverse of 𝑎, ∴ aa 1  a 1a  e

which also implies 𝑎 is inverse of a1. Thus, (a1)1 = a.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

(4) (ab)1 = b1a1, a, bG

Proof: We have to prove that b1a1 is inverse of 𝑎𝑏 for which

we need to show:

(ab) (b 1a 1 )  (b 1a 1 )(ab)  e.

Now, ( ab)(b 1a 1 )  [( ab)b 1 ]a 1  [ a(bb 1 )]a 1  (ae)a 1  aa 1  e.

Similarly (b1a1) (ab) = e and thus the result follows.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

(5) (𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 )−1 = 𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑎𝑛−1 −1 … 𝑎1 −1 for 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 in

𝐺

Proof: We prove the result by induction on 𝑛.

Clearly the result holds for 𝑛 = 1.

Suppose that the result holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘, 𝑖. 𝑒.,

(𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑘 )−1 = 𝑎𝑘 −1 𝑎𝑘−1 −1 … 𝑎1 −1 …(i)

Now, (𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑘+1 )−1 = ((𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑘 )𝑎𝑘+1 )−1

= (𝑎𝑘+1 )−1 (𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑘 )−1 [ Using (4) ]

= (𝑎𝑘+1 )−1 (𝑎𝑘 −1 𝑎𝑘−1 −1 … 𝑎1 −1 ) [ Using (i) ]

= 𝑎𝑘+1 −1 𝑎𝑘 −1 … 𝑎1 −1

Hence, the result holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Thus, by induction, the

result holds for all natural numbers 𝑛.

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Group Theory Dinesh Khattar

(6) ab = ac  b = c and ba = ca  b = c a, b, cG.

(called the cancellation laws)

Proof: Let ab = ac, then

b  eb  (a 1a )b  a 1 (ab)  a 1 (ac)  (a 1a )c  ec  c.

Thus, ab  ac  b  c,

which is called the left cancellation law.

Now, let ba = ca, then

b  be  b(aa 1 )  (ba )a 1  (ca )a 1  c(aa 1 )  ce  c.

Thus, ba  ca  b  c,

which is called the right cancellation law.

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