Power Efficient Mini Inverter project

Project Report

by

Arijit Roy

Registration No.: 18304080028

Semister-6 ,session-2018-21

Under the guidance of

K.K. POLYTECHNIC , Govindpur, Dhanbad

Department of Electrical Engineerig

K.K. Polytechnic , Govindpur

Dhanbad-828109 , Jharkhand , India

August 2021
 K.K. Polytechnic , Govindpur

Dhanbad - 828109, Jharkhand, India

CERTIFICATE

I hereby forward the Project Report entitled "Power Efficient Mini Inverter Project"
submitted by (Arijit Roy) (Registration No.:18304080028 of 2018-2021) under my guidance
and supervision in partial fulfil-
ment of the requirements for the degree of Diploma in Electrical Engineering from this
institution.

.Arif Hussain
(Name of the guide)
Lecturer,

Electrical Engeneering
(Name of the department)
K.K. Polytechnic , Govindpur
Dhanbad – 828109

Countersigned by:

Kanhai Kumar
(Name of the HOD) (Name of the Principal)
Lecturer and Head, Principal,
K.K. Plytechnic ,Govindpir

Electrcal Engineering Dhanbad - 828109

(Name of the department)
K.K. Plytechnic , Govindpur
Dhanbad - 828109
 K.K Polytechnic, Govindpur
Dhanbad - 828109, Jharkhand, India

Students' Declaration

I certify that

_ The work contained in the report is original and has been done by
myself under the general supervision of my supervisor.

_ I have conformed to the norms and guidelines given in the Ethical

Code of Conduct of the Institute.

_ Whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, and text)

from other sources, I have given due credit to them by citing them in
the text of the report and giving their details in the references.

_ Whenever I have quoted written materials from other sources, I have

put them under quotation marks and given due credit to the sources
by citing them and giving required details in the references.

Date – 11/08/2021 Arijit Roy

Place :Electrical Engineering, (Name of the Student)
KKP, Govindpur Regn. No.:18304080028
 Acknowledgement

This is an honor for me to thank those who have helped to make this report possible. First of all I
would like to pay my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Utsava Prasad Mahato for giving me
the opportunity to work on this project under his supervision. His support, guidance and
encouragement from the initial stage to the end has enabled me to understand the concept
behind this thesis work. I also express my gratitude to all the faculty members and lab
technologist for their guidance and support. Finally, all the thanks to Almighty GOD that I have
come to this far.

Date – 11/08/2021 Arijit Roy

Place :Electrical Engineering, (Name of the Student)
KKP, Govindpur Regn. No.:18304080028
 Abstract

The power electronics device which converts DC power to AC

power at required output voltage and frequency level is known
as inverter. Inverters can be broadly classified into single level
inverter and multilevel inverter. Multilevel inverter as compared
to single level inverters have advantages like minimum
harmonic distortion and can operate on several voltage levels.
Inverters are used for many applications, as in situations where
low voltage DC sources such as batteries, solar panels or fuel
cells must be converted so that devices can run off of AC power.
One example of such a situation would be converting electrical
power from a car battery to run a laptop, TV or cell phone.
This report focuses on design and simulation of single phase,
three phase and pulse width modulated inverter and use of pulse
width modulated inverter in the speed control of Induction
motor.
 K.K Polytechnic, Govindpur
Dhanbad - 828109, Jharkhand, India

Certificate of Approval

We hereby recommend that Project Report entitled " Power Efficient Mini Inverter Project "
submitted by Arijit Roy ( Registration No. 18304080028:
of 2018-2021) be accepted in partial fufilment of the requirements for the degree of Diploma in
Electrical Engineering (Name of the department)from this institution.

Examiners

1—Arijit Roy
Regn no.--18304080028

2—Gopal Prasad Mahato

Regn no.-- 18304080054

3—Riyajul Haque Ansari

Regn no.-- 18304080129

4—Md.Raza Alam
Regn no.—18304080076

5—Ashish Kumar Mahato

Regn no.--18304080031
 CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION OF MINI INVERTER

1. INTRODUCTION
 An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC), the converted
AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control
circuits. An inverter is essentially the opposite of a rectifier.

Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching
power supplies in computers, to large electric utilityhigh-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk
power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC
converters was made to work in reverse, and thus was "inverted", to convert DC to AC.

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by such sources as
batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may
flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as
in electron or ion beams. The electric charge flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current
(AC). A term formerly used for direct current was galvanic current.
 CHAPTER - 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MINI INVERTER

2.0 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig: bock
Diagram of Mini Inverter.

Resonance circuit or the oscillator circuit is known as the tank circuit. It is built up by using suitable power transistor
and a combination of inductor and capacitor with resistors of required value. The resistor, capacitor, inductor etc.
Used for building up the oscillations are called the Resonant Element.The D.C is fed to the oscillator from d.c
source. The oscillator builds up oscillation at the designed frequency at low voltage. The basic condition for
producing damped oscillation by the tank circuit.
( R2 ) < [ 4L/C]
The low voltage a.c output from the oscillator is then fed to a step up transformer for raising the output a.c. voltage
at the required voltage. The explanation about the each part in the block diagram of mini inverter.

2.1 D.C SOURCE:

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by sources such
as batteries, power supplies, thermocouples, solar cells, or dynamos. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as
a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams.
The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly
used for this type of current was galvanic current.[1]
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or
voltage.[2][3]

Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a rectifier, which contains electronic
elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in one direction.

Direct current may be converted into alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator set.

Direct current is used to charge batteries and as power supply for electronic systems. Very large quantities of direct-
current power are used in production of aluminum and other electrochemical processes. It is also used for some
railways, especially in urban areas. High-voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from
remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current power grids.

Fig: Current Graph & Symbols of DC Voltages Sources.

2.2 OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT:

An electronic circuit that generates a sine wave is called an oscillator.  To oscillate means to move back and
forth continuously between two points.  A sine wave signal also oscillates continuously between its maximum and
minimum value.Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called
Inverters.
 An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a
sine wave or a square wave.[1][2] Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating current
(AC) signal. They are widely used in many electronic devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators
include signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz
clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games.

2.2.1 Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:
 A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency below ≈20 Hz. This
term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
 An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz.[2]
 An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz.

2.2.2 There are two main types of electronic oscillator:

2.2.2.1 Linear or Harmonic Oscillator.
2.2.2.2 Nonlinear or Relaxation Oscillator.

2.2.2.1 Harmonic Oscillator:

The harmonic or linearoscillator produces a sinusoidal output.
There are two types:

1. Feedback oscillator:
The most common form of linear oscillator is an electronic amplifier such as a transistor or op amp
connected in a feedback loop with its output fed back into its input through a frequency selective electronic filter to
provide positive feedback. When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, electronic noise in the circuit
provides a non-zero signal to get oscillations started. The noise travels around the loop and is amplified and filtered
until very quickly it converges on a sine wave at a single frequency.
Some of the many Feedback Oscillator circuits are listed below:
 RC oscillator circuit,
 LC oscillator circuit
 Crystal oscillator circuit

2. Negative resistance oscillator:

 Negative resistance oscillators, a resonant circuit, such as an LC circuit, crystal, or cavity resonator, is
connected across a device with negative differential resistance, and a DC bias voltage is applied to supply energy. A
resonant circuit by itself is "almost" an oscillator; it can store energy in the form of electronic oscillations if excited,
but because it has electrical resistance and other losses the oscillations are damped and decay to zero. The negative
resistance of the active device cancels the (positive) internal loss resistance in the resonator, in effect creating a
resonator with no damping, which generates spontaneous continuous oscillations at its resonant frequency.
Some of the many Negative Resistance Oscillator circuits are listed below:
 Armstrong oscillator
 Clapp oscillator
 Colpitts oscillator
 Cross-coupled oscillator
 Dynatron oscillator
 Hartley oscillator
 Meissner oscillator
 Opto-electronic oscillator
 Pierce oscillator
 Phase-shift oscillator
 Robinson oscillator
 Tri-tet oscillator
 Vackář oscillator
 Wien bridge oscillator

2.2.2.2 Relaxation oscillator:

A nonlinear or relaxation oscillator produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square, sawtooth or triangle wave.[3]
It consists of an energy-storing element (a capacitor or, more rarely, an inductor) and a nonlinear switching device (a
latch, Schmitt trigger, or negative resistance element) connected in a feedback loop. The switching device
periodically charges and discharges the energy stored in the storage element thus causing abrupt changes in the
output waveform.
Some of the more common Relaxation Oscillator circuits are listed below:
 Multivibrator
 Pearson-Anson oscillator
 Ring oscillator
 Delay line oscillator
  Royer oscillator

2.3 TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through
electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is
exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in
electric power applications.

2.3.1 Step-Up Transformer:

A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are many turns on the
secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up transformers. Thus, the voltage supplied in the
secondary transformer is greater than the one supplied across the primary winding. That means Step-up transformer
convert 12V AC input into 230V AC output at 50HZ.
Because of the principle of conservation of energy, the transformer converts low voltage, high-current to
high voltage-low current. In other words, the voltage has been stepped up.

Fig: Step-up Transformer

You can find step-up transformers located near power plants that are designed to operate megawatts of power. Apart
from the power plants, step-up transformers can also be used for local and smaller applications such as x-ray
machine which requires about 50,000 volts to work. Even a micro-wave oven requires a small step-up transformer to
operate.
 CHAPTER – III
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

3.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

It is a Mini Inverter that converts 12 volt DC to 230 volt AC. Two high power NPN transistors.T1 and T2
acts as a simple oscillator to generate the frequency. The oscillating pulses are fed to the inverter transformer and
from its secondary winding, AC will be available.The 12 volt DC from the battery first passes through the 330 uH
choke that eliminates noise from the circuit during the switching of the inverter transformer. Resistor R1 biases T1
directly and T2 through the winding of transformer. So with C1, Transistors T1 and T2 oscillate and the oscillations
are fed to the winding of transformer with a center tap that gets DC from the battery through the choke. So the
oscillations of T1 and T2 induce AC current in the secondary of transformer which lights the CFL.

CHAPTER – IV

COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION OF MINI INVERTER

4.1 COMPONENTS USED IN MINI INVERTER:

4.1.1 Battery 12V DC.
4.1.2 Inductor 33ouH.
4.1.3 Resistor 330ohms.
4.1.4 Capacitors 123J & 104J.
4.1.5 Transistors CTC 880
4.1.6 Step-up Transformer.
4.1.7 CFL Bulb.

4.1.1 12V DC BATTERY:

A battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy. This conversion enables electrical power to be
stored.An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections
provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smart phones, and electric cars. When a battery is supplying
electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an
external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within,
allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external
circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform
work. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage
has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.[4]
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly
changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of
portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using
mains power from a wall socket; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current.
Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such
as laptops and smart phones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches
to small, thin cells used in smart phones, to large lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest
extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges
and computer data centers.

4.1.1.1 Principle of Operation:

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections
provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.When a battery is supplying
electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an
external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within,
allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external
circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform
work. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage
has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.
 Fig: Basic Chemical Production Of Electrical Power.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a
multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged
multiple times using mains powerfrom a wall socket; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by
reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable
electronics such as laptops and smartphones.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches
to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest
extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges
and computer data centers.
 Fig: Electron Flow through a Battery.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the
interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells. [15] Thus,
if the electrodes have emfsE1and E2, then the net emf isE2-E1. In other words, the net emf is the difference between
the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

4.1.1.2Battery Testing:

Battery testing can be done in more than one way. The most accurate method is measurement of specific
gravity and battery voltage. To measure specific gravity buy a temperature compensating hydrometer, to measure
voltage use a digital D.C. Voltmeter. A quality load tester may be a good purchase if you need to test sealed
batteries.
 fig: Battery Levels & a 12V DC battery
For any of these methods, you must first fully charge the battery and then remove the surface charge. If the
battery has been sitting at least several hours (I prefer at least 12 hours) you may begin testing.

4.1.2 INDUCTOR:

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component which resists changes
in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. Energy is
stored in a magnetic field in the coil as long as current flows. When the current flowing through an inductor changes,
the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. According to Lenz's law the direction of induced electromotive force (or "e.m.f.") is always such that it
opposes the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors always oppose a change in current, in the same
way that a flywheel opposes a change in rotational velocity. Care should be taken not to confuse this with the
resistance provided by a resistor.

An inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current, which
has units of henries (H). Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH (10 −6H) to 1 H. Many inductors have a
magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the
inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linearcircuit elements that
make up electric circuits. Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in
radio equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are
called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination
with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.
4.1.3 RESISTOR:

A resistor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit

element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias
active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many
watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating
voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as
sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors
are also implemented within circuits. The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of
the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

4.1.3.1 Theory of operation:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:
V=IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached
across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation between voltage and current
in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to
a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units
of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megaohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.

Fig: different types of Resistors & 330Ω Resistor.

4.1.4 CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component used to

temporarily store electrical energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but most
contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by
becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte,
etc. The non-conducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as
dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy.
Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a
battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and
negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount
of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of
the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is defined as the
ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V between them. The SI unit of
capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from
about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).
 The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between them, the greater
the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current
to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to
particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

Fig: Symbols of Different Capacitors

Fig:123J & 104J Capacitors.

The value 123J indicates the value 12 with 3 zeros added after it. This means that the value is 12000pF.
and104J indicates the value 10 with 3 zeros added after it. This means that value is 14000pF. The letter “J”
following indicates the tolerance of the part (5% in this case).
4.1.5 TRANSISTOR:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switchelectronic signals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A
voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.

4.1.5.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor:

A bipolar junction transistor (bipolar transistor or BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron and hole
charge carriers. In contrast, unipolar transistors, such as field-effect transistors, only use one kind of charge carrier.
For their operation, BJTs use two junctions between two semiconductor types, n-type and p-type.

BJTs are manufactured in two types, NPN and PNP, and are available as individual components, or
fabricated in integrated circuits, often in large numbers. The basic function of a BJT is to amplify current. This
allows BJTs to be used as amplifiers or switches, giving them wide applicability in electronic equipment, including
computers, televisions, mobile phones, audio amplifiers, industrial control, and radio transmitters.

4.1.5.2 Working:

BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN based on the doping types of the three main
terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped anode region,
and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped cathode region.
 Fig:NPN BJT with forward-biased E–B junction and reverse-biased B–C junction.
Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different
charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and base.[note 1] A discrete transistor has
three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other two
layers, whereas the majority charge carrier concentrations in base and collector layers are about the same. By design,
most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the
base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier
devices.

In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction
is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN
transistor, when positive bias is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between the
thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the n-doped emitter depletion region. This allows
thermally excited electrons to inject from the emitter into the base region. These electrons diffuse through the base
from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector.
The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the
majority carrier in the base.

To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base junction, the
transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the
semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the
diffusion length of the electrons. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so little electron injection occurs
from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse through the base towards the collector are swept into the
collector by the electric field in the depletion region of the collector–base junction. The thin shared base and
asymmetric collector–emitter doping are what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely
biased diodes connected in series.

4.1.5.3 NPN Transistor:

Fig: The symbol of an NPN BJT.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the
"base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and
emitter current. That is, when there is a positive potential difference measured from the emitter of an NPN transistor
to its base (i.e., when the base is high relative to the emitter) as well as positive potential difference measured from
the base to the collector, the transistor becomes active. In this "on" state, charge flows between the collector and
emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is carried by electrons moving from emitter to collector as minority
carriers in the P-type base region. To allow for greater current and faster operation, most bipolar transistors used
today are NPN because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.

A mnemonic device for the NPN transistor symbol is "not pointing in", based on the arrows in the symbol and the
letters in the name.
4.1.5.4 Active-mode NPN transistor:

Fig: Structure and use of NPN transistor.

The diagram shows a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. To
make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1 mA) from C to E, VBE must be above a minimum
value sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage is usually about 650 mV for silicon BJTs at
room temperature but can be different depending on the type of transistor and its biasing. This applied voltage
causes the lower P-N junction to 'turn on', allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active
mode, the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by VCE) will cause the majority of these
electrons to cross the upper P-N junction into the collector to form the collector current IC. The remainder of the
electrons recombines with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to
form the base current, IB. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, IE, is the total transistor current, which is the
sum of the other terminal currents, (i.e., IE =  IB  + IC).

In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of electrons
is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of
the collector current to the base current is called the DC current gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust
circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see op-amp).

The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to ashFEand the value of this gain for small signals is referred
to as hfe. That is, when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient time has passed for the new condition to
reach a steady state ishfe the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current. The symbolβis
used for both hFEand hfe. The emitter current is related toVBEexponentially. At room temperature, an increase inVBEby
approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately
proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way.
CTC 880 NPN Transistor is used Mini Inverter. The Pin diagram of CTC 880 as shown below figure.

Fig: pins of CTC 880 Transistor.

4.1.6 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through
electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is
exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in
electric power applications.
On a step-up transformer there are more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil. The induced
voltage across the secondary coil is greater than the applied voltage across the primary coil or in other words the
voltage has been “stepped-up”.

A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are many turns on the
secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up transformers. Thus, the voltage supplied in the
secondary transformer is greater than the one supplied across the primary winding. Because of the principle of
conservation of energy, the transformer converts low voltage, high-current to high voltage-low current. In other
words, the voltage has been stepped up.

Fig:a Step-up transformer.

You can find step-up transformers located near power plants that are designed to operate megawatts of power. Apart
from the power plants, step-up transformers can also be used for local and smaller applications such as x-ray
machine which requires about 50,000 volts to work. Even a micro-wave oven requires a small step-up transformer to
operate.

4.1.6.1 Basic Principle:

For simplification or approximation purposes, it is very common to analyze the transformer as an ideal
transformer model as presented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is
lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the
magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and
zero net magnetomotive force.

Ideal transformer connected with source VPon primary and load impedance ZL on secondary, where 0<ZL<∞.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying
magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped
around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance
connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the
indicated directions. (See also Polarity.)

Fig: an Ideal transformer and induction law.

According to Faraday's Law, since the same magnetic flux

passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal
transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding, according to eq. (1) in
the secondary winding case, according to eq. (2) in the primary winding
case.[8] The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF. This is in
accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always
opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.

The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according
to eq. (3). According to the law of conservation of energy, any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's
secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real and reactive power consistent with eq. (4).

The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial
transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding
current ratio.
By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity
  The secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)
 The apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq. (7) to be equal to the turns ratio
squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.

4.1.6.2 Relationship between voltage and Current:

The relationship among voltages, currents and number of turns is shown in the following figure for an ideal
transformer with NP turns in the primary winding and NS turns in the secondary winding. VP and VSare
respectively the primary and secondary voltages.

NP/NSis the turns ratio or transformer ratio.

The voltage ratio is directly proportional to the turns ratio, but the current ratio is inversely proportional to the turns
ratio. The secondary voltage is given by:

In a step-up transformer the secondary voltage VSis higher than the primary voltage VP.This is achieved by
using a secondary winding with more turns than the primary winding. The voltage increase is determined by the
turns ratio.

In a step-down transformer the secondary voltage VSis smaller than the primary voltage VP.
The secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary winding. The voltage decrease is determined by the turns
ratio.
In an ideal transformer the input and output powers are the same:
P=VPIP=VSIS

4.1.6.3 Applications of Transformer:

Transformers are used to increase (or step-up) voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long
distances through wires. Wires have resistance which loses energy through joule heating at a rate corresponding to
square of the current. By transforming power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of
power and distribution. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting
generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has
passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.

Since the high voltages carried in the wires are significantly greater than what is needed in-home,
transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease (or step-down) the supply voltage to a level
suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain.The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact
with the supply voltage.Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices
such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to
carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires.

A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to
ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. Transformers made to medical grade standards isolate
the users from the direct current. These are found commonly used in conjunction with hospital beds, dentist chairs,
and other medical lab equipment.

4.1.7 CFL BULB:

 A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light, and compact
fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lamp; some types fit into light fixtures
normally used for incandescent lamps. The lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an
incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs use one-fifth to one-
third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a higher purchase price than an
incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. [1] Like
all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain toxic mercury[2] which complicates their disposal. In many countries,
governments have banned the disposal of CFLs together with regular garbage. These countries have established
special collection systems for CFLs and other hazardous waste.

Fig: a CFL bulb

The principle of operation in a CFL bulb remains the same as in other fluorescent lighting: electrons that are
bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will radiate ultraviolet light as they return to a lower energy
level; this emitted ultraviolet light is converted into visible light as it strikes the fluorescent coating on the bulb (as
well as into heat when absorbed by other materials such as glass).

CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps. Improved phosphor
formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by CFLs, such that some sources rate the best
"soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color to standard incandescent lamps. White LED lamps now compete
with CFLs for high-efficiency house lighting.
4.1.7.1 Energy Efficiency:

Because the eye's sensitivity changes with the wavelength, the output of lamps is commonly measured in
lumens, a measure of the power of light as perceived by the human eye. The luminous efficacy of lamps is the
number of lumens produced for each watt of electrical power used. The luminous efficacy of a typical CFL is 50–70
lumens per watt (lm/W) and that of a typical incandescent lamp is 10–17 lm/W. Compared to a theoretical 100%-
efficient lamp (680 lm/W), CFL lamps have lighting efficiency ranges of 7–10%, versus 1.5–2.5% for
incandescents.

Because of their higher efficacy, CFLs use between one-seventh and one-third of the power of equivalent
incandescent lamps. Fifty to seventy percent of the world's total lighting market sales were incandescent in 2010.
Replacing all inefficient lighting with CFLs would save 409 terawatt-hours (1.47 exajoules) per year, 2.5% of the
world's electricity consumption. In the US, it is estimated that replacing all the incandescent would save 80 TWh
yearly. Since CFLs use much less energy than incandescent lamps (ILs), a phase-out of ILs would result in less
carbon dioxide (CO2) being emitted into the atmosphere. Exchanging ILs for efficient CFLs on a global scale would
achieve annual CO2 reductions of 230 Mt (million tons), more than the combined yearly CO 2 emissions of the
Netherlands and Portugal.
 CHAPTER – V

APPLICATIONS OF MINI INVERTER

5.0 APPLICATIONS:

 Inverter designed to provide 230V AC from the 12V DC source provided in an automobile. The unit shown
provides up to 3 amperes of alternating current, or just enough to power Eighteen (18) watt light bulbs.
 This circuit can be used in cars and other vehicles to charge small batteries.
 This circuit can be used to drive low power AC motors
 It can be used in solar power system.
 An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC
electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage in particular it can operate AC equipment designed
for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.
 Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric
grid.

5.0.1 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES (UPS):

 An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when main power
is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the
batteries.

5.0.2 INDUCTION HEATING:

 Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for used in induction heating. To do
this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes. The DC power to high
frequency AC power.

5.0.3 HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION:

 With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to another
location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC.
5.0.4 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES:
 A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency and
voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power.
 In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be
provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives are
sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

5.0.5 ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVES:

 Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors in some electric and
diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles
such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for
electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the
motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.

5.1 LIMITATIONS:
 If there is no power supply at all in an area, if the power in the battery is drained, then the Inverterwill be of
no use. Invertercan be used only for a few hours as otherwise the batterywill be drained out.
 Battery maintenance is required. Some electronic goods like computerwill get reset even if on an inverter,
because there is a small disruption in power supply.
 Not applicable for above 20 Watt load
 It is damage if given above the 12Volt input power supply
 CHPATER - VI
CONCLUSION

6.0 CONCLUSION:

I think we’re uncomfortable when problems don’t have neat solutions. When the real
world frustrates us, we make assumptions and propose simple models that may or maynotcapture the true behavior
With all the work done so far, I believe some progress has been made in settling the problem with systems addressed
in the introduction.

The simple circuit topology supports a low cost and high efficiency power converter.

The proposed inverter circuitry has a low component count with only two transistors, resistors, inductors,
capacitors and step-up transformer.

An inverter is used to produce an un-interrupted 220V AC (depending on the line voltage of the particular
country) supply to the device connected as the load at the output socket. The inverter gives constant AC voltage at
its output socket when the AC mains power supply is not available.The 18 Watt inverter applicable for MOBILE
CHARGING and LIGHT LOAD.
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/circuitarchives/view_article.asp?sno=600
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component
[3] http://octopart.com/tda2005m-stmicroelectronics-407800
[4] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/555Timer
[5]www.wikipedia.com
[6]www.scribd.com
[7] www.google.com

INTRODUCTION
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC) the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with
the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. An inverter is
essentially the opposite of a rectifier. Static inverters have no moving parts and
are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in
computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that
transport bulk power. Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric
charge. Direct current is produced by such sources as batteries, thermocouples,
solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct
current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through
semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion
beams. The electric charge flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from
alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic
current.

What is a "Mini Inverter "?

This “Mini Inverter” is basically a DC to AC converter it takes power with Battery

and convert it into 230 volt AC. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power
from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
History:

From the late 19th century through the middle of the 20th century, DC
to AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or
motor ± generator sets. In the early 20th century, vacuum tubes and

gas filled tubes begin to be used as switches in inverters circuits. The

most widely used type of tube was the thyratron. The origins of electro
mechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. An
inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to
alternating current (AC) the converted AC can be at any required
voltage

and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching and

control circuits an inverter is essentially the opposite of a rectifier. An
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to
supply ac power when main power is not available. When main power
is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge the
batteries. The circuit work based on the operation of the IC CD4047.it
consists of two 555 timers in it.12v AC is step up to 230v AC by using a
step up transformer.

Need:

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so

named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to
work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.
 PROBLEM ANALYSIS:

Literature Review (Existing System)

Due to shortage of power in the country, back-up power system

market is undoubtedly growing with newer technologies and
methodologies being incorporated and implemented. Indian
UPS market is a steadily growing market with both Indian and
multinational manufacturers contending for a major chunk of
market share. The Indian inverter market comprises several
organized and unorganized players jostling for space. Let us
look into major driving factors for this industry
Major Achievements

The major achievements of this project were to integrate the

knowledge of advance embedded system like raspberry pi,
various types of sensors, introduction with Internet Of Thing and
in the last the most important the gained the experience in the
world of automation.
 OBJECTIVES:

The main objective of this project is to design and simulate a

single phase, three phase and pulse width modulated inverter
that converts dc to ac power. Inverter designed to provide 115
VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an automobile. The
unit provides up to 1.2 Amps ofalternating current, or just
enough to power two sixty watt light bulbs. An inverter converts
the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or
fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required
voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for
mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired
voltage. Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the
distribution network because they produce alternating current
with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the
distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in
the event of a blackout.
 HYPOTHESIS

If we had more time to implement this project we would

investigate or try to adding the new features into the project then
we learn about the new technologies such as IRFZ44N
MOSFET and CD4047 IC which gave us the motivation to
complete the project and move in the forward direction.

Proposed Project:

The proposed project having the following features:

 Convertor: DC to AC
 Voltage: 12 volt DC to 220 volt AC
 MOSFET : For Triggering Purpose
 MOSFET : For Voltage Controller
 Low Power: IC CD4047
 Smooth Current : Capacitor
 LIMITATION:

This comfortable for high power consumption. And also we all

know a square wave is never suitable for operating sophisticated
electronic equipment such TV, Music players, Computers etc.

MOTIVATION

The motivation for doing this project was primarily an interest in

undertaking a challenging project in an interesting area of
research. The opportunity to learn about a new area of
computing not covered in lectures was appealing. This area is
very large for research and for making efficient and economical
power consumption.
INNOVATION

Due to shortage of power in the country, back-up power system

market is undoubtedly growing with newer technologies and
methodologies being incorporated and implemented. Indian UPS
market is a steadily growing market with both Indian and
multinational manufacturers contending for a major chunk of
market share. The Indian inverter market comprises several
organized and unorganized players jostling for space. Let us
look into major driving factors for this industry.
There are several players operating in the industry, which has
led to a stiff price competition in the market. While unorganized
players sell their products at significantly lower prices, products
from the organized players are generally sold at premium costs.
The difference in prices can be attributed to the quality of the
products and the superior aftersales services offered by the
bigger brands.
 Components required for DC to AC Inverter

IC CD4047:

CD4047 is a low power IC capable of operating in either in a

stable or monostable mode.

Figure1, IC CD4047 Pin dig.

Resistors (1K, 18K, 100 ohm-0.5W ×2)

Resistor is a passive two terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In
electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses.

Figure2, 1k resistor
Figure3, 18k resistor

Figure4, 100 ohm resistor

Capacitor ( 0.22uf)

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

stores potential energy in an electric field.

Figure5, Capacitor ( 0.22uf)

12 V rechargeable battery

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell,

or accumulator is a type of electrical battery which can be charged,

discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a
disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and
discarded after use.
 Figure6, 12V Rechargeable battery

IRFZ44 MOSFET × 2

The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect

transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-

effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by
the controlled oxidation of silicon.

Figure7, IRFZ44 MOSFET × 2

Step down Tansformer( 230V primary 12v-0-12V, 5Asecondary)

A Step up Transformer is a device which converts the low primary

voltage to a high secondary voltage i.e. it steps up the input voltage. A
Step down Transformer on the other hand, steps down the input voltage
i.e. the secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage.

Figure8, step down transformer

 CONCLUSION:

Using the theoretical background we have successfully simulated different types of

Voltage Source Inverter such as Single phase VSI, Three phase VSI (180 degree
conduction mode), Single phase PWM Inverter. Further using this PWM Inverter we
have simulated the circuit for speed control of Induction motor using closed loop V/f
control.
Using a monostable, multivibrator (CD4047) we have
designed a single phase inverter which successfully
convert the 12 V dc signal into 120 V, 50 Hz ac signal.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DIRECT VERSUS ALTERNATING CURRENT

In the world today, there are currently two forms of electrical transmission, direct current (DC) and
alternating current (AC) systems, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. DC power is
simply the application of a constant voltage across a load resulting in a constant current [6]. A battery
is the most common power source for DC along with several forms of power generation. This is
widely used in digital circuitry as it provides constant high and low values which represent the basic
1 and 0 bits used by computers. Thomas Edison, inventor of the light bulb, was the first to transmit
electricity commercially using DC power lines. It was not capable of transmission over long
distances because the technology did not exist to step-up the voltage along the transmission path over
which the power would dissipate. The equation below demonstrates how high voltage is necessary to
decrease power loss. 𝑉=𝐼𝑅 𝑃=𝐼2∗𝑅=𝑉2𝑅
‘

When the voltage is increased, the current decreases and concurrently the power loss decrease
exponentially. Therefore, high voltage transmission decreases power loss. AC power was found to be
much more efficient at transmitting power as it alternates between two voltages at a specific
frequency, making it easier to either step up or down using a transformer [6]. Today, electrical
transmission is based mostly of AC power, supplying homes and businesses with 240V AC power at
50Hz.While DC power is used in many digital applications, AC power also used in many other
applications such as in power tools, televisions, radios, medical devices, and lighting. Therefore, it is
necessary to have an efficient means of transforming DC to AC and vice versa. Without this ability,
people would be restricted to using devices that only works on the power that is supplied to them.
 REFRENCES:

https://www.nqr.gov.in/sites/default/files/An
nexure%20I_ 4.pdf
https://www.electronicshub.org/step-down-
transformer/

https://www.istockphoto.com/in/photos/car-
battery?
sort=mostpopular&mediatype=photography&phra
se=car%20battery
https://electronics.stackexchange.com/ques
tions/18102/ce ramic-capacitors-how-to-
read-2-digit-markings
https://electrosome.com/low-power-inverter-
using- cd4047/
https://www.petervis.com/electronics/Standard_R
esistor_ Values/18K.html
Appendix B
Table of cost item Price per item Total
of components (Kshs) (kshs)
quantity
1 12 resistors 5 60
2 10 capacitors 30 300
2 4 Mosfet 150 600
4 2 Voltage 50 100
regulator
5 2 Ir2110 250 500
6 2 diodes 50 100
7 1 microcontr 690 690
oller
8 1 crystal 50 50
9 1 PCB board 2000 2000
10 1 LED 50 50
11 6 Heat sinks 50 300
total 4750
APPENDIX
Appendix A
Microcontroller C code using MicroC pro compiler.
int duty=50; //initialize variable
void main() {
TRISB=0x00; //set port B as output
TRISC=0x00; //set port B as output
PORTB=0; //initalize port B
PWM1_start(); //initalize PWM1
PWM2_start(); //initalize PWM2
PWM1_init(5000); //set pwm frequency to 5khz
PWM2_init(5000); //set pwm2 frequency to 5khz
RB3_bit=1; // switch on led to indicate power on
while(1){ // endless loop
RB2_bit=1; //output high pulse for square wave1 half cycle
while(duty<100){
pwm1_set_Duty(duty*2.55); //set duty cycle for pwm1 first quarter
delay_us(22);
duty+=2;
}
while(duty>50){
pwm1_set_Duty(duty*2.55); //set duty cycle for pwm1 second quarter
delay_us(22);
duty-=2;
}
pwm1_set_Duty(0); //set duty cycle for pwm1 to zero for rest of cycle
RB2_bit=0; //set low pulse for square wave1 second half cycle
delay_us(140);
RB1_bit=1; // output high pulse for square wave2
while(duty<100){
pwm2_set_Duty(duty*2.55); //set duty cycle for pwm2 third quarter F17/28234/2009
- 43 -
delay_us(22);
duty+=2;
}
while(duty>50){
pwm2_set_Duty(duty*2.55); //set duty cycle for pwm2 fourth quarter
delay_us(22);
duty-=2;
}
pwm2_set_Duty(0); //set duty cycle for pwm2 to zero
RB1_bit=0; //output low pulse for square wave2
delay_us(130);
}
}
 INSTRUCTION SET

RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. Microcontrollers with

von-Neumann's architecture are called 'CISC microcontrollers', which stands
for Complex Instruction Set Computer. PIC16F877A is a RISC
microcontroller that means it has a reduced set of instructions; more precisely
35 instructions. Advantages of RISC is that the microcontroller is fast, it’s
easy to learn programming language needed to program it and the user only
sees the final results[3].

3.3.2.1.3 COST
PIC16F877A is an 8 bit microcontroller classified under medium range
microcontrollers which makes it very cost competitive with other similar
products in the market and hence its pocket friendly. Due to its low cost the
overall cost of the inverter ends up being low and market competitive given
that the microcontroller is the most expensive chip in the design.

3.3.2.1.4 AVAILABILITY IN THE MARKET

Since in our country we don’t have a plant to fabricate microchips it is very
important to choose a chip which readily available in the local market to avoid
incurring extra cost of shipping. PIC16F877A was available in the local stores
hence the reason to using it.
PIC16F877a perfectly fits many uses, from automotive industries and controlling
home appliances to industrial instruments, remote sensors, electrical door locks
and safety devices. It is also ideal for smart cards as well as for battery-supplied
devices because of its low power consumption [4]