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CHAPTER#13 BIO – CHEMISTRY

Carbohydrates:-
Carbohydrates are most abundant class of organic compound. Their
general
formulas is Cx(H2O)y. They are also called hydrates of carbon. Plants produce
carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis.
6H2O + 6O2 Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Classification of Carbohydrates:-
There are three classes of carbohydrates.
i) Monosaccharides
ii) Oligosaccharides.
i) Polysaccharides.
i. Monosaccharides:-
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They
cannot be
hydrolized. Their general formula is (CH2O)n. Where “n” represent 3 to 6 carbon atoms.
Those monosaccharide which contain 3 carbon atoms are called trioses.
Those monosaccharides which contain 4 carbon atoms are called tetroses.
Those monosaccharides which contain 5 carbon atoms are called pentoses.
Those monosccharides which contain 6 carbon atoms are called hexoses.
Example:-
Glucose and fructose are examples of monosaccharides. Their molecular formula is
C6H12O6.
Glucose is a pentahydroxy aldehyde and fructose is a pentahydroxy ketone.
Dextro Rotatory or Dextrose Sugars:-
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Some monosaccharide molecules can rotate the plane of plane

polarized light to clockwise direction. These monosaccharides molecules are called
dexto-rotatory or
dextrose sugars.
Properties of Monosaccharides:-
i. Monosaccharides are white crystalline solids.
ii. They are soluble in water and have sweet taste.
iii. They cannot be hydrolized.
iv. They are reducing in nature.

ii. Oligosaccharides:-
Those carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis from 2 to 9 molecules of
monosaccharides or simple sugars are called oligosaccharides.
Those oligosaccharides which are formed by hydrolysis of two molecules of
monosaccharides (simple sugars) are called disaccharides.
Those oligosaccharides which are formed by the hydrolysis of three molecules
of
simple sugar are called trisaccharides.
Similarly tetrasaccharides, pentasaccharides, hexasaccharides etc are formed.
Properties:-
Oligosaccharides are white crystalline solids. They are soluble in water and have sweet
taste.
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iii. Polysaccharides:-
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Those carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis form 10 to 1000 units of

simple
sugars are called polysaccharides.
Properties:-
Polysaccharides are amorphous solid, they are insoluble in water. They are
tasteless and non-reducing in nature.
Example: Starch and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides.
Sources of Carbohydrates:-
i. Monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose and galactose are obtained from
fruits, vegetables and cereals. They are also present in honey.
ii. Disaccharide such as sucrose is obtained from sugar-cane and fruits.
iii. Cellulose is obtained from plants. Cotton is pure cellulose.
iv. Starch is present in cereals, wheat, barley, rice, maize, and potato.
Uses of Carbohydrates:-
i. Carbohydrates store and transport energy in both plants and animals. 1g of
glucose provides us 15.6 kJ of energy.
ii. Carbohydrates serve as food source for most organisms.
iii. Sucrose is a special type of carbohydrates and it is used as common table sugar.
iv. Glucose is stored in animal muscles and liver cells in the form of glycogen.
This
glycogen is a long term energy source. It can be converted back to glucose
when needed.
v. Cellulose is a special types of carbohydrates and it is used by animals such as
cows, cattle, goats and sheep to derive nutrition.

Proteins
Proteins are complex nitrogenous substances that produce amino acids on complete
hydrolysis.
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The building blocks of all proteins are amino acids therefore proteins produce
amino acids on hydrolysis. The human body contains tens of thousands of different
proteins.
Functions of Proteins in Human Body:-
i. Proteins transport and store oxygen and nutrients in human body.
ii. Proteins act as catalyst for many chemical reactions that make life possible.
iii. Proteins regulate many important systems in human body.
Amino Acids:
Amino acids are building blocks of all proteins. Twenty different types of
amino acids are involved in protein synthesis.
Non-Essential Amino Acids:
Those ten amino acids which can be synthesized by human body are called non-
essential amino acids.
Essential Amino Acids:
Those ten amino acids which cannot be synthesized by human body are called
essential amino acids. They must be present in our diet.
Sources of Proteins:-
i. Most of the proteins are obtained from animals sources.
ii. Meat, fish, eggs, milk and cheese are important sources of proteins.
iii. Plants also provide us proteins e.g. pulses and beans are rich sources of
proteins.
Uses of Proteins:-
i. Proteins provide us amino acids which are used to make muscles, hair,
enzymes and they repair body tissues.
ii. Proteins are essential for the formation of protoplasm and component of cells.
iii. Proteins are essential for physical and mental growth in children.
iv. A very special protein known as gelatin which is obtained by heating bones and
tendons in water. It is used in bakery products.
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v. Enzymes are special proteins which are used as a catalyst for many biological
reactions.
vi. The anti-bodies that help us to fight against diseases are protein molecules.

Question:-
What kind of solution is used in drips to give those patients who are unable to
eat?
Ans: 5% m/v aqueous solution of dextrose is used in drips. 5% m/v aqueous solution
means 5 grams of dextrose dissolved in water to form 100 cm3 of solution. This
solution is given to a patient who is severely dehydrated or a patient that is unable to
eat or who is not allowed to eat.
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Vitamins:-
Vitamins are specific organic compounds which are required by our body to
prevent specific diseases. Vitamins are not produce by our body. Therefore they must
be present in our diet.
Different types of Vitamins
Vitamins A:
It is very important in the process of vision. It helps in the chemical transmission
of images from the eye to the brain. It also keeps the cornea moist.
Vitamins C:
It is required for formation of blood. It also protects us from certain illness such as common
cancer.
Vitamins B:
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It is useful to regulate nerve impulse. It is used in the formation of

Homeoglobin.
Vitamins D:
Vitamins “D” are very important for proper growth of bones & teeth. It also
regulates the amounts of calcium in our body.
Fat Soluble Vitamins:-
A vitamin that dissolves in fat is called fat soluble vitamin. Vitamin A, D, E
and K are examples of fat soluble vitamins. Taking on excess amount of fat soluble
vitamins A can cause dry skin and feeling of pressure inside the head. An excess
amount of vitamin D can cause pain in bones, kidneys and weight loss.
Water Soluble Vitamins:-
A vitamin that dissolves in water is called water soluble vitamin. Vitamin B
(complex) and vitamins C are examples of water soluble vitamins. These vitamins are
not toxic even if they are taken in excess amount.

Lipids:-
A lipid is any component of plant or animal tissue that is insoluble in water but
soluble in low polarity solvents such as ether, benzene, hexane and carbon
tetrachloride. There are four major components of lipids.
i) Fats and oils. ii) Cholesterol iii) Component of cell membrane
(phospholipids).
ii) Vitamins such as A, D, E and K.
Sources of Lipids:-
i. Animals, plants and marine organism such as whales and salmon are rich sources of
lipids.
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ii. Milk is an important sources of animal fat from which butter, ghee and cheese are
obtained.
iii. Seeds of many plants such as sunflower, corn, cotton, ground nut, coconut and
olive oil are good sources of lipids. (Vegetable oils)
Uses of lipids:-
i. Butter, ghee and vegetables oils are used for cooking and frying of food. They
are
also used in preparing bakery products and sweets.
ii. In mammals a layer of fat is present under the skin this layer act as thermal
insulator.
iii. A layer of fat around our heart and kidneys protect these organs from injury.
iv. Lipid provide some important vitamins such as A, D and E. These vitamins are
very important for our health.
v. Fats and oils are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents.
vi. Vegetable oils are converted into vegetable ghee by a special process known as
catalytic hydrogenation.
Q. When a lipid is called fats and when a lipid is called oil?
Ans:- A lipid is called fat if it is solid at room temperature and a lipid is called oil if it
is
liquid at room temperature.
Q. What kind of deficiencies is caused by the lack of proteins and vitamins?
Ans:- An extreme lack of proteins and vitamins causes a deficiency disease called
Kwashiokor. The symptoms of this disease include retarded growth, discolouration of
skin and hair, a swellen belly and mental apathy.
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Q. How the amount of cholesterol in eggs can be decreased?
Ans:- From different experiments it has been found that feeding hens a diet containing a
lot of flax seeds lowers the amount of cholesterol in eggs.
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Q. Does any kind of cholesterol comes from vegetable products?

Ans: All the cholesterol in human diet comes from animal products such as milk, meat,
cheese, and eggs. No vegetable product contains cholesterol.
Hydrogenation:-
Addition of hydrogen to an alkene is called hydrogenation. This reaction
takes place in the presence of (Ni, Pd, or Pt) as catalyst.
This reaction is used to make margarine or vegetable ghee. Fatty acid
component of vegetable oil contain carbon – carbon double bond. When hydrogen is
added to these oils then as a result of a chemical reaction (hydrogenation) these oils
become saturated and
harder.
Chemical reaction:-

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Nucleic Acids:-
Nucleic acids are a special class of nitrogen containing compounds present in
the
nuclei of cells. Nucleic acids are very important component of life. They are found in
every
living cell. They serve as the information and control centers of the cells. They were first
obtained from the pus of infected wounds.
Nucleic acids are long chain molecules made up of Nucleotides and each
nucleotide
consist of three components.
i. Nitrogenous base ii. A pentose sugar (five carbon atoms) iii. Phosphate
group
Types of Nucleic Acids
There are two types of nucleic acids.
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i. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

ii. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
i. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA):-
DNA exist in the form of two strands twisted around each other in a spiral
formation. This spiral formation is called double helix. Each strand of DNA is made up of
Deoxyribose sugar, phosphate unit and a nitrogen base. The strands of DNA are held
together by hydrogen bonds. DNA store genetic information and pass it on from one
generation to the next generation.
ii. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA):-
RNA exists in the form of single strand. It consists of three major
components.
i) Ribose sugar
ii) Phosphate unit
iii) Nitrogen base
RNA is responsible for synthesis of new proteins. RNA receives, reads, decodes
and uses genetic information from DNA to synthesize new proteins.