CHAPTER 9 – NETWORK LAYER:

LOGICAL ADDRESSING

9.1 Introduction
9.2 IPv4 Addresses
9.3 IPv6 Addresses

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9.1 Introduction

• Network layer  host-to-host delivery

• Computers located in different areas around the world
communicate with each other through the Internet.
• The packet transmitted by the sending computer may
pass through several LANs or WANs before reaching
the destination computer.

Required

Logical Address (IP Address)

The identifier used in the network layer of the Internet
model to identify each device connected to the Internet.
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9.1 Introduction Contd..

IPv4 (IP version 4) addresses

• 32 bits in length.
• Gives a maximum of 232 addresses.

IPv6 (IP version 6) addresses

• Uses 128-bit addresses.

• It gives much greater flexibility in address allocation.

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• These addresses are unique and universal.

• 32 bits long.

9.2.1 Address Space

• The total number of addresses used by the protocol.
• If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the
address space is 2N because each bit can have two
different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values
• The address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296.
• This means that, theoretically, if there were no
restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be
connected to the Internet.
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9.2.2 Notations
Binary Notation

Dotted-Decimal Notation

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Example 1:

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation

to dotted-decimal notation.

a) 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b) 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

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Example 2:

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

a) 129.11.11.239
b) 193.131.27.255

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Example 3:

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

a) 111.56.045.78
b) 221.34.7.8.20
c) 75.45.301.14
d) 11100010.23.14.67

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9.2.3 Classful Addressing

• The architecture, that using the concept of classes at its

inception, knows as Classful Addressing.
• Address space is divided into five classes (A, B, C, D
and E)
• Each class occupies some part of the address space.

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9.2.3 Classful Addressing Contd..

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Example 4:

Find the class of each address.

a) 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b) 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c) 14.23.120.8
d) 252.5.15.111

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9.2.4 Netid and Hostid

• IP address in class A, B or C is divided into netid and

hostid.
• These parts are of varying length, depending on the
class of the address.

Netid – Network Hostid – Host Identification

Identification
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9.2.4 Netid and Hostid Contd..

• The mask helps to find the netid and the hosted.

• The mask for a class A address has eight 1s, which
means the first 8 bits of any address in class A define
the netid; the next 24 bits define the hostid.
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CLDR) notaion, also
called as slash notation is used in classless addressing.

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9.2.5 Classes and Blocks

In classful addressing, a large part of the available

addresses were wasted

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9.2.5 Classes and Blocks Contd..

Class A
• Divided into 128 blocks; each block has different netid.
• 1st block  0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255 (netid - 0)
2nd block  1.0.0.0 to 1.255.255.255 (netid - 1)
last block  127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 (netid-127)
• For each block of addresses the first byte (netid) is the same, but
the other 3 bytes (hostid) can take any value in the given range.
• 1st address in the block is used to identify the organization to the
rest of the internet. (Network address – defines the network of
the organization, not individual hosts)
• Last address is reserved for a special purpose.

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9.2.5 Classes and Blocks Contd..

Class B
• Divided into 16,384 blocks; each block has different netid.
• 16 blocks are reserved for private addresses, leaving 16,368
blocks for assignment to organizations.
• 1st block  128.0.0.0 to 128.0.255.255 (netid – 128.0)
last block  191.255.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 (netid 191.255)
• First 2 bytes (netid) are same for each block, other 2 bytes
(hostid) can take any value in the given range.

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9.2.5 Classes and Blocks Contd..

Class C
• Divided into 2,097,152 blocks; each block has different netid.
• 256 blocks are reserved for private addresses, leaving 2,096,896
blocks for assignment to organizations.
• 1st block  192.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.255 (netid – 192.0.0)
Last block  223.255.255.0 to 223.255.255.255 (netid –
223.255.255)
• First 3 bytes (netid) for each block is the same, but the remaining
byte (hostid) can take any value in the given range.

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9.2.5 Classes and Blocks Contd..

Class D
• There is just one block of class D addresses.
• It is designed for multicasting.

Class E
• There is just one block of class E addresses.
• It was designed for use as reserved addresses.

In the network address, all hostid bytes are 0s.

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Example 5:

Find the netid, hostid and the network address.

a) 4.23.145.90
b) 227.34.78.7
c) 246.7.3.8
d) 129.6.8.4
e) 198.76.9.23

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9.2.6 Classless Addressing

• Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is

replaced with classless addressing.
• There are no classes, but the addresses are still granted
in blocks.
• The size of the block (number of addresses) varies
based on the nature and size of the entity.

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9.2.7 Subnetting

• If an organization was granted a large block in class A

or B, It could divide the addresses into several
contiguous groups and assign each group to smaller
networks (subnets).
• Such a division of a network into subnetworks is called
subnetting.
• Each subnetwork is assigned a subnet number.
• The Hostid portion of the Internet address is partitioned
into a subnet number (Subnetid) and a host number
(Hostid).
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9.2.8 Masking

• Masking is a process that extracts the address of the

physical network from an IP address.
• Masking can be done whether we have subnetting or
not.
• If we have not subnetted the network, masking extracts
the network address from an IP address.
• If we have subnetted, masking extracts the subnetwork
address from an IP address.

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9.2.8.1 Masks without subnetting

• To be compatible, router use a mask even if there is no

subnetting.
Class Mask Address (Ex:) Network Address
(Ex:)
A 255.0.0.0 15.32.56.7 15.0.0.0
B 255.255.0.0 135.67.13.9 135.67.0.0
C 255.255.255.0 201.34.12.72 201.34.12.0
D N/A N/A N/A
E N/A N/A N/A

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9.2.8.2 Masks with subnetting

• When there’s subnetting, the mask can vary.

Class Mask Address (Ex:) Subnetwork

Address (Ex:)
A 255.0.0.0 15.32.56.7 15.0.0.0
B 255.255.0.0 135.67.13.9 135.67.0.0
C 255.255.255.192 201.34.12.72 201.34.12.64
D N/A N/A N/A
E N/A N/A N/A

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9.2.9 Finding the Subnetwork Address

• To find the subnetwork address, apply the mask to the

IP address.

9.2.9.1 Boundary-Level Masking

• If the masking is at the boundary level (mask numbers
are either 255 or 0), follow the 2 rules:
1. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 255
in the mask will be repeated in the subnetwork
address.

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9.2.9.1 Boundary-Level Masking Contd..

2. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 0
in the mask will change to 0 in the subnetwork
address.

Example 6:
IP address 45 23 21 8
Mask 255 255 0 0

Subnetwork 45 23 0 0
address

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9.2 IPv4 Addresses Contd..

Example 7:

Find the subnetwork address from the IP address

173.23.21.8. Mask is 255.255.255.0

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9.2.9.2 Nonboundary-Level Masking

• If the masking is not at the boundary level, finding the
subnetwork address involves using the bit-wise AND
operator and follow the following rules.
1. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 255
in the mask will be repeated in the subnetwork
address.
2. The bytes in the IP address that correspond to 0 in
the mask will change to 0 in the subnetwork
address.
3. For other bytes, use the bit-wise AND operator.

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9.2 IPv4 Addresses Contd..

Example 8:

IP address 45 123 21 8

Mask 255 192 0 0

Subnetwork 45 64 0 0
address

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Example 9:

Find the subnetwork address from the IP address

213.23.47.37. Mask is 255.255.255.240.

Note: y bits

Netid Subnetid Hostid

x bits z bits (y-z) bits

Number of subnetworks = 2z
Number of hosts in a subnetwork = 2(y-z) - 2
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9.2.10 Local, Global and Private Addresses

• An IP address must be assigned to each end system or

inter-connection equipment that uses the TCP/IP
protocols.
• 3 types of addresses are used for hosts:
1. Local
2. Global
3. Private

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9.2.10.1 Local Addresses

• Within an isolated network (no connections to the

Internet), can assign IP address at random as long as
each one is unique.
• These addresses are called as Local Addresses and are
defined by the user.
• Can freely choose one of the classes (A, B or C)
according to the number of end systems(hosts).

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9.2.10.2 Global Addresses

• When connecting a private network to the Internet

requires using registered IP addresses, called Internet
addresses, to avoid duplicates.
• Can be obtained from the local Internet Service
Provider (ISP) (Ex: SLT)
• Currently only class C addresses are available for this
purpose.

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9.2.10.3 Private Addresses

• Network Address Translation (NAT), an internet

standard that enables a LAN to use one set of IP
addresses for internal traffic and one address or a small
second set of addresses for external traffic.
• The IP addresses used for internal traffic are called
Private Address.
• They are unique inside the organization, but they are
not unique globally.
• No router will forward a packet that has one of these
addresses as the destination address.
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9.2 IPv4 Addresses Contd..

9.2.10.3 Private Addresses Contd..

Addresses for Private Networks

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9.3 IPv6 Addresses

Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4

• Larger address space: AN IPv6 is 128 bits long.

Compared with the 32-bit address of IPv4, this is a
four-fold increase in the address space.
• Better header format: IPv6 uses a new header format in
which options are separated from the base header and
inserted, when needed, between the base header and the
upper-layer data. This simplifies and speeds up the
routing process because most of the options do not
need to be checked by routers.

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Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 Contd..

• New options: IPv6 has new options to allow for

additional functionalities.
• Allowance for extension: IPv6 is designed to allow the
extension of the protocol if required by the new
technologies or applications.
• Support for resource allocation: In IPv6, the type-of-
service field has been removed, but a mechanism
(called flow label) has been added to enable the source
to request special handling of the packet.

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9.3 IPv6 Addresses

Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 Contd..

• Support for more security: The encryption and

authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality
and integrity of the packet.

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9.3 IPv6 Addresses

Abbreviated Addresses

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