Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018

ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential

equations of order two and four

David I. LANLEGE1*, Rotimi KEHINDE1, Dolapo A. SOBANKE1, Abdulrahman

ABDULGANIYU2, and Umar M. GARBA2

1
Department of Mathematical Science, Federal University Lokoja P.M.B 115 Lokoja Kogi
State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Mathematics/Computer Science, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University
Lapai P.M.B 11 Lapai Niger State, Nigeria.
E-mail(s): [email protected] (DIL); [email protected] (REK);
[email protected] (UMG)
*
Corresponding author, phone: +2348030528667, +2348131235684

Abstract
The purpose of this to produce efficient numerical methods with the same
order of accuracy as that of the main starting values for exact solutions of
fourth order differential equation without reducing it to a system of first order
differential equations. The methods of the differential systems arising from
the approximate solution to the problem are adopted using the Runge-Kutta
method and stages. The methods were compared and contrasted based on the
results obtained. The comparison shows that Euler method gives accurate
approximate result than Runge-Kutta method. After the derivation of the
formulae of O(h2), the comparison was done in regards to identify the formula
with higher accuracy.

Keywords
Numerical Analysis; Numerical Approximation; Exact Solution; Accuracy;
Runge-Kutta and Euler

10
http://ljs.academicdirect.org/
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

Introduction

Numerical analysis is a branch of mathematics that deals with the study of methods
and procedures used to obtain approximate solutions to mathematical problems. EndreSull
and David Mayer defined the numerical analysis as a branch of mathematics that provides the
theoretical foundation for the numerical algorithm we rely on to solve a multitude of
computational problem in mathematical models or the study of algorithms that use numerical
approximation (as opposed to general symbolic manipulations) for the problems of
mathematical analysis [1]. Numerical analysis naturally finds applications in all fields of
engineering and the physical science, but in this 21st century, the life science and even the arts
have adopted elements of scientific computations [2].
The overall goals of the field of numerical analysis in the design and analysis of
techniques to give approximate but accurate solution are hard to get. It is therefore, important
to be able to estimate the error involved in such approximation. Thus, the aims of this work
was to compare between Euler and Runge-Kutta methods to a rigorous analysis in order to
demonstrate the efficiency of the methods to other similar techniques. It was also examine the
effect of the steps on the accuracy of the techniques.
Euler’s method is more preferable than Runge-Kutta method because it provides
slightly better results. Its major disadvantage is the possibility of having several iterations that
result from a round-error in a successive step.
Secularity band differences in the results of some numerical methods with the standard
Euler’s method of order three and four was examined.

Material and method

Euler method

In mathematics and computational science, the Euler method is a first-order numerical

procedure for solving ordinary differential equation (ODEs) with a given initial value. It is the
most basic explicit method of numerical integration of ordinary differential equation and is

11
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

the simplest Runge-Kutta method. The Euler method is named after Leonhard Euler (1707)
[3].
Two approaches named standard Euler method and modified Euler method are known.

Standard Euler method

The standard Eular method which is the first order Runge-Kutta method was derive by
Leonarhd Euler (1707-1783) [4].
Consider the initial value problem, the first order
y ' ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ); y ( x0 ) = y 0 (1)

where y ' is the first order differential equation; f ( x, y ) is the function of x and y; y is the
solution to the differential equation in equation (1) at x0 given as y 0 ; y 0 is the value of y

obtained at x0 and x0 is the point for which y is obtained as y 0

y ' ( x − x0 ) y '' (x − x0 ) y ''' ( x − x0 )

2 3
y (x ) = y0 + + + (2)
1! 2! 3!
Thus,
y ( x1 ) = y ( x0 + h ) (3)

hy ' ( x0 ) h 2 y '' ( x0 ) h 3 y ''' ( x0 ) h N y N (x0 )

y (x0 + h ) = y (x0 ) + + + + ... (4)
1! 2! 3! N!
Let n = 1
y ( x1 ) = y ( x0 ) + hy ' ( x0 ) (5)
equation (5) is the same as
y1 = y0 + hf (x0 , y 0 ) (6)

y 2 = y1 + hf ( x1 , y1 ) (7)
y3 = y 2 + hf ( x2 , y 2 ) (8a)

y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n ) (8b)
Equation (8b) is known as standard Euler method.
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

Modified Euler method

This method is a second order Runge-Kutta [5]. The convergence in this method is
higher due to a higher degree of accuracy as compared to the standard Euler.

y n+1 = y n + hf [( xn , y n ) + f ( xn+1 + y n+1 )]

1
(9)
2
DERIVATION:
Considering the Taylors series of y ( xn +1 ) about h given by

hy n' h 2 y n'' h 3 y n''' h N y nn

y ( x0 + h ) = y ( x0 ) + + + + ... (10)
1! 2! 3! N!
Truncating when n = 2
hy n' h 2 y n''
y ( xn ) = y n + + (11)
1! 2!
From the definition of derivatives
y n' = f ( xn , y n ) (12)

y ' h(xn + h ∗ ) − y ' ( xn ) f ( xn , y n )

y n'' ≅ ∗
= f (xn + h ∗ , y (xn + h ∗ )) − (13)
h h∗
Thus,
( )
y xn + h ∗ = y n + h ∗ f ( xn , y n ) (14)

( (
y n'' ≅ f xn + h ∗ , y xn + h ∗ − )) f (xh , y )
n
∗
n
(15)

Substitute yn'' and yn' into equation (6):

h2
y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n ) + (16)
f ( xn , y n ) ⎞
⎛
( (
2⎜ f xn + h ∗ , y xn + h ∗ − ))
h∗
⎟
⎝ ⎠
Let
h ∗ = ah (17)
Then we have
h 2 ⎛ f ( xn + ah, y n + ahf ( xn , y n )) ⎞
y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n ) + ⎜ ⎟ (18)
2⎝ ah ⎠

y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n ) + ( f (xn + ah, yn + ahf (xn , yn ) − f (xn , yn )))

h
(19)
2a

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Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

h ⎛ ⎞
y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n ) + ⎜ f (xn + ah, y n + ahf ( xn , y n )) − f ( x n , y n )⎟
h
(20)
2a ⎝ 2a ⎠

y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n ) − f ( xn , y n ) + ( f ( xn + ah, y n + ahf ( xn , y n )))

h h
(21)
2a 2a
⎛ h ⎞ h
y n+1 = y n + hf ( xn , y n )⎜1 − ⎟ + ( f ( xn + ah, y n + ahf ( xn , y n ))) (22)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 2a
Equation (22) can be written as
y n+1 = y n + c1k1 + c2 k 2 (23)
where
⎛ 1 ⎞
c1 = h⎜1 − ⎟ (24)
⎝ 2a ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞
c2 = h⎜ ⎟ (25)
⎝ 2a ⎠
k1 = f (xn , y n ) (26)

k 2 = f ( xn + ah, y n + ahk1 ) (27)

Let
1
a= (28)
2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 ⎟
c1 = h⎜1 − ⎟ = h(1 − 1) = 0 (29)
⎜ 21 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
c2 = ⎜ h ⎟
=h (30)
⎜ ⎛1⎞⎟
⎜ 2⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝2⎠⎠
k1 = f (xn , y n ) (31)

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
k 2 = f ⎜ xn + h, y n + hk1 ⎟ (32)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
Hence,
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
y n+1 = y n + hf ⎜ xn + h, y n + hk1 ⎟ (34)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
OR
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

y n+1 = y n + hf [( xn , y n ) + f ( xn+1 + y n+1 )]

1
(35)
2

Runge-Kutta method
The Runge-Kutta method is also a second order Runge-Kutta Method using Taylors
series expansion to derive it, like modified Euler’s method [6].
From equation (22)
⎛ h ⎞ h
y n +1 = y n + hf ( x n , y n ) ⎜1 − ⎟ + ( f (xn + ah, y n + ahf (x n , y n ))) (36)
⎝ 2a ⎠ 2a
Equation (36) can be written as
y n+1 = y n + c1k1 + c2 k 2 (37)

where:
⎛ 1 ⎞
c1 = h⎜1 − ⎟ (38)
⎝ 2a ⎠
⎛ h ⎞
c2 = ⎜ ⎟ (39)
⎝ 2a ⎠
k1 = f (xn , y n ) (40)

k 2 = f ( xn + ah, y n + ahk1 ) (41)

Let
2
a= (42)
3
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
c1 = h⎜1 −
1 ⎟ = h⎛⎜1 − 3 ⎞⎟ = h⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ = 1 h (43)
⎜ 22 ⎟ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝4⎠ 4
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
c2 = ⎜ h ⎟ 3h
= (44)
⎜ ⎛2⎞⎟ 4
⎜ 2⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝3⎠⎠
k1 = f ( x n , y n ) (45)

⎛ 2 2 ⎞
k 2 = f ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk 1 ⎟ (46)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠

15
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

hf (x n , y n ) + (f (x n + ah, y n + ahk 1 ))
1 3h
⇒ y n +1 = y n + (47)
4 4
1 3h
ie : y n +1 = y n + hk1 + k 2 (48)
4 4

thus : y n +1 = y n +
h
(k1 + 3k 2 ) (49)
4

Third-stage Runge-Kutta method

The third-stage Runge-Kutta method express how formulations of k iterations are
obtained.

ie : y1 = y 0 +
1
(k1 + 4k 2 + k 3 ) (50)
6
where
k1 = hf ( x0 , y 0 ) (51)

⎛ k ⎞
k 2 = hf ( x0 + h, y 0 + k 2 ) k 4 = hf ⎜ x9 + , y 0 + 1 ⎟
h
(52)
⎝ 2 2⎠
Equation (52) is the third order Runge-Kutta method with error of order h4.

Fourth-stage Runge-Kutta
One of the most frequently used of the Rung-Kutta family is the fourth order Runge-
Kutta method or the classical fourth order Runge-Kutta method [7]. This method is generally
superior to second order, its derivative is algebraically complicated and involves five
equations.

y n +1 = y n + h(k1 + 2k 2 + 2k 3 + k 4 )
1
(53)
6
where:
k1 = hf ( x n , y n ) (54)

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
k 2 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟ (55)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
k 4 = hf ( x n + h, y n + hk 3 ) (56)

Other renowned mathematicians that worked on this method are Runge-Kutta-

Fehlberg and Runge-Kutta Nystrom.
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

Fehlberg’s fifth – order Rk methodis:

y n +1 = y n + α 1k1 + α 2 k 2 + α 3 k 3 + α 4 k 4 + α 5 k 5 + α 6 k 6 (57)

where:
k1 = hf ( x n , y n ) (58)

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
k 2 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟ (59)
⎝ 4 4 ⎠
⎛ 3 3 9 ⎞
k 3 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 + k 2 ⎟ (60)
⎝ 8 32 12 ⎠

⎛ 12 1932 7200 7296 ⎞

k 4 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 − k2 + k3 ⎟ (61)
⎝ 13 2197 2197 2197 ⎠

⎛ 439 3680 845 ⎞

k 5 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + k 1 − 8k 2 + k3 − k4 ⎟ (62)
⎝ 2197 513 4104 ⎠

⎛ 1 8 3544 1859 11 ⎞
k 6 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 + 2k 2 − k3 + k 4 − k5 ⎟ (63)
⎝ 2 27 2565 4109 40 ⎠
A Finnish mathemathecian E.J. Nystron derived his own formular using the Runge-
Kutta method [8].
k1 = hf ( x n , y n ) (64)

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
k 2 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟ (65)
⎝ 4 4 ⎠
⎛ 2 1 ⎞
k 3 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 + 6k 2 ⎟ (66)
⎝ 3 25 ⎠
⎛ 3 1 ⎞
k 4 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 − 12k 2 + 15k 3 ⎟ (67)
⎝ 8 4 ⎠
⎛ ⎞
k 5 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + h(6k1 ) + 90k 2 − 50k 3 + 8k 4 ⎟
2 1
(68)
⎝ 3 81 ⎠
⎛ ⎞
k 5 = hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + h(6k1 ) + 36k 2 − 10k 3 + 8k 4 ⎟
4 1
(69)
⎝ 5 5 ⎠

Implementation of Euler method and Runge-Kutta method

The Euler and Runge-Kutta methods as previously deduced was used in this study to
solve differential equations.

17
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

Standard Euler method

From equation (8), we have the formula
yn +1 = yn + hf ( xn , yn ) (70)

Consider the differential equations in equations (71 and 86) of the initial value
problem below:

y ' = 3 x 2 y; y (0 ) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, Exact solution : y = e x

3
(71)
Solution:
y n +1 = y n + hf ( x n , y n ) (72)

where
f ( x n , y n ) = y ' = 3 x n2 y n ; y (0 ) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (73)

when n = 0

f ( x0 , y 0 ) = 3 x92 y 0 = 3(0 ) (1) = 0

2

y = y 0 + hf (x 0 , y 0 ) (74)

= 1 + (0.1)(0 ) = 1.0000 (75)

when n = 0

f ( x1 , y1 ) = 3x12 y1 = 3(0.1) (1) = 0.03

2

y 2 = y1 + hf (x1 , y1 ) (76)
= 1 + (0.1)(0.03) = 1.00300 (77)
when n = 0

f ( x 2 , y 2 ) = 3x 22 y1 = 3(0.1) (1.00300) = 0.012036

2

y 3 = y 2 + hf ( x 2 , y 2 ) (78)

= 1.00300 + (0.1)(0.12036 )
= 1.00300 + (0.1)(0.12036 ) (79)
y 4 = 1.04245, y5 = 1.09249, y 6 = 1.09249, y 6 = 1.17443, y 7 = 1.30127 (80)

y8 = 1.49256, y8 = 1.49256, y9 = 1.77913, y10 = 2.14182, y11 = 2.78437 (81)

Numerical illustration of exact solution for Example 1

The example below in equation (82) illustrates the application of exact solution for the
solution of differential equations
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

3
y = e x , y n = e xn , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3
(82)

If n = 0
3
y 0 = e x0 = e 0 = 1 (83)

when n = 0

y1 = e x1 = e (0.1) = e (0.001) = 1.00100

3 3
(84)
when n = 0

y 2 = e x2 = e (0.2 ) = e (0.008 ) = 1.00803

3 3
(85)

y 3 = 1.02730, y 4 = 1.06609, y 5 = 1.13315, y 6 = 1.24110, y 7 = 1.40917, ⎫

⎬ (86)
y8 = 1.66863, y 9 = 2.07301, y10 = 2.71828, y10 ⎭
Consider the differential equation of the initial value problem:
y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (87)

Exact solution
y = ex + x +1 (88)
yn +1 = yn + hf ( xn , yn ) (89)
where
f (x n , y n ) = y ' = y n − x; y0 = 2 (90)

when n = 0
f ( x0 , y 0 ) = y 0 − x 0 = 2 − 0 = 2.00000

y1 = y 0 + hf ( x0 , y 0 ) = 2 + (0.1)(2.00000) = 2.20000 (91)

when n = 1
f ( x1 , y1 ) = y1 − x1 = 2.20000 − 0.1 = 2.10000
y 2 = y1 + hf ( x1 , y1 ) = 2.20000 + (0.1)(2.10000 ) = 2.41000 (92)
when n = 2
f ( x 2 , y 2 ) = y 2 − x 2 = 2.41000 − 0.2 = 2.21000
y 2 = y 2 + hf ( x 2 , y 2 ) = 2.41000 + (0.1)(2.21000 ) = 2.61000 (93)
y 3 = y 2 + hf (x 2 , y 2 ) = 2.20000 + (0.1)(2.10000) = 2.41000 (94)

y 4 = 2.86410, y 5 = 3.11051, y 6 = 3.37156, y 7 = 3.64872 (95)

19
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

y8 = 3.94360, y 9 = 4.25796, y10 = 4.59376, y11 = 4.95314 (96)

Numerical illustration of exact solution for Example 2

Example 2 below in equation (97) is solved by finding the exact solution for the
solution of differential equations
y = e x + x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (97)

y = e xn + x n + 1 (98)

when n = 0

y 0 = e xn + x0 + 1 = e 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.00000 (99)

when n = 1

y1 = e x1 + x1 + 1 = e (0.1) + 0.1 + 1 = 1.10517 + 1.1 = 2.20517 (100)

when n = 2

y 2 = e x2 + x 2 + 1 = e (0.2 ) + 0.2 + 1 = 1.2 + 1.22140 + 1.2 = 2.42140 (101)

y 3 = 2.64986, y 4 = 2.89182, y 5 = 3.14872, y 6 = 3.42212 (102)

y 7 = 371375, y8 = 4.02554, y 9 = 4.35960, y 7 = 4.71828 (103)

Modified Euler method

This is the second Euler’s method we are considering as deduced in equations (23-35)
and expressed as:
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
y n +1 = y n + hf ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟ (104)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
where
⎛ ⎞
k1 = f (x n , y n ), k 2 = f ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟
1 1
(105)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
y n +1 = y n + hk 2 (106)
Let us consider the same differential equations in equations (72 and 87):

y ' = 3 x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, Exact solution : y = e x

3
(107)
Solution
y n +1 = y n + hk 2 , f ( x n , y n ) = 3x n2 y n (108)
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

when n = 0

k1 = f (x 0 , y 0 ) = 3 x 02 y 0 = 3(0) (1) = 0.00000

2

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0 + (0.1). ⎟ = f (0.05,1)
1 1 1 1
k 2 = f ⎜ x0 + h, y 0 + hk1 ⎟ =
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2(0.1)(0.00000) ⎟⎠

k 2 = f (0.05,1) = 3(0.05) (1) = 0.00750

2

y n +1 = y n + hk 2 = 1 + (0.1)(0.00750) = 1 + 0.00075 = 1.00075 (109)

when n = 1

k1 = f ( x1 , y1 ) = 3x12 y1 = 3(0.1) (1.00075) = 0.03002

2

when n = 2

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
k 2 = f ⎜ x1 + h, y1 + hk1 ⎟ = f ⎜ 0.1 + (0.1), (1.00075)⎟ = f (0.15,1.00251)
1 1 1
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

k 2 = f (0.15,1.00251) = 3(0.15) (1.00251) = 0.06753

2

y 2 = y1 + hk 2 = 1.00075 + (0.1)(0.06753) = 1.00750 (110)

when n = 2

k1 = f (x 2 , y 2 ) = 3 x 22 y 2 = 3(0.2) (1.00750) = 0.12090

2

1 1
k 2 = f x2 + h, y2 + hk1 =
2 2
1 1
= f 0.2 + (0.1), (1.075) + =
2 2(0.1)(0.12090)
= f (0.15,1.00251)

k 2 = f (0.25,1.01355) = 3(0.25) (1.01255) = 0.76016

2

y 2 = y 2 + hk 2 = 1.00075 + (0.1)(0.76016 ) = 1.08352 (111)

y 4 = 1.12076, y 5 = 1.19050, y 6 1.30259, y 7 = 1.47661

y8 = 1.74410, y 9 = 2.15842, y10 = 2.81384, y11 = 3.88412

Numerical illustration of Exact solution for Example 1

Applying exact solution technique to show the solution of the problem in example 1

y = ex
3
(112)
3
y = e x , y n = e xn , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3
(113)

21
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

3
when n = 0 , y 0 = e x0 = e 0 = 1

when n = 1

y1 = e x1 = e (0.1) = e (0.001) = 1.00100

3 3
(114)
when n = 1

y1 = e x2 = e (0.2 ) = e (0.008 ) = 1.00803

3 3
(115)
y 3 = 1.02730, y 4 = 1.06609, y 5 = 1.13315, y 6 = 1.24110, y 7 = 1.40917,
y8 = 1.66863, y 9 = 2.07301, y10 = 2.71828
Consider the differential equation:
y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (116)
Solution
y n +1 = y n + hk 2 (117

⎛ ⎞
k1 = f (x n , y n ) = y n − x n , k 2 = f ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟
1 1
(118)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
when n = 0
k1 = f ( x 0 , y 0 ) = y 0 − x 0 = 2 − 0 = 2

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0 + (0.1),2 + ⎟ = f (0.05,2.1)
1 1 1 1
k 2 = f ⎜ x 0 + h, y 0 + hk1 ⎟ =
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2(0.1)(2) ⎟⎠ (119)
= y n − x n = 2.1 − 0.05 = 2.05

y n +1 = y 0 + hk 2 = 2 + (0.1)(2.05) = 2.20500 (120)

when n = 1
k1 = f (x1 , y1 ) = y1 − x1 = 20500 − 0.1 = 2.10500 (121)

1 1 1 1
k2 = f x1 + h, y1 + hk1 = f 0.1+ (0.1),2.20500
+ = f (0.15,2.3102)
2 2 2 2(0.1)(2.20500
) (122)
=yn xn =2.310250.15=2.16025

y 2 = y1 + hk 2 = 2.20500 + (0.1)(2.16025) = 2.42103 (123)

when n = 2
k1 = f ( x 2 , y 2 ) = y 2 − x 2 = 2.42103 − 0.2 = 2.22103 (124)

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
k2 = f ⎜ x2 + h, y2 + hk1 ⎟ = f ⎜⎜0.2 + (0.1),2.42103+ ⎟ = f (0.25,2.53208
)
1 1 1
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ) ⎟⎠
2(0.1)(2.22103 (125)
=yn−xn = 2.53208−0.25= 2.28208
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
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y 2 = y 0 + hk 2 = 2 + (0.1)(2.28208) = 2.62821 (126)

y 4 = 2.89091, y 5 3.15991, y 6 = 3.4320, y 7 = 3.72671,

y8 = 4.03960, y 9 = 4.37476, y10 = 5.12147

Numerical illustration of exact solution for Example 2

Using exact solution approach to show the solution of the problem in example 2.
y = e x + x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (127)

y = e xn + x n + 1 (128)

when n = 0

y 0 = e x0 + x0 + 1 = e (0 ) + 0 + 1 = 1 + 12.00000 (129)

when n = 1

y1 = e x1 + x1 + 1 = e (0 ).1 + 0.1 + 1 = 1.10517 + 1.1 = 2.20517 (130)

when n = 2

y 2 = e x2 + x 2 + 1 = e (0 ).2 + 0.2 + 1 = 1.22140 + 1.2 = 2.42140 (131)

y 3 = 2.64986, y 4 = 2.89182, y 5 = 3.14872 y 6 = 3.42212, y 7 = 3.71375,
y8 = 4.02554, y 9 = 4.35960, y10 = 4.71828

Runge-Kutta method
From equation (49), Heun’s method formula is thus given as:

y n +1 = y n +
1
(k1 + 3k 2 ) (132)
4
where:
⎛ ⎞
k1 = f (x n , y n ), k 2 = f ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟
2 2
(133)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
Consider the differential equation of the initial value problem.
y = 3 x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (134)
Exact solution

y = ex
3
(135)
Solution
f ( x n , y n ) = 3 x n2 y n (136)

23
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

when n = 0

k1 = f ( x 0 , y 0 ) = 3 x 02 y 0 = 3(0 ) (1) = 0
2
(137)

⎛ 2 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
k2 = f ⎜ x0 + h, y0 + hk1 ⎟ = f ⎜⎜0 + (0.1),1+ ⎟ (138)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3(0.1)(0) ⎟⎠

k1 = f (0.66667,1) = 3(0.66667 ) (1) = 0.01335

2
(139)

y1 = y0 + f (k1 +3k2 +3k2 ) =1+ (0 +3(0.01335

)) =1.00100
h 0.1
(140)
4 4
when n = 1

k1 = f ( x1 , y1 ) = 3 x12 y1 = 3(0.1) (1.00100 ) = 0.03003

2
(141)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0.1 + (0.1),1.00100+
2 2 2
k2 = f ⎜ x1 + h, y1 + hk1 ⎟ = ⎟ (142)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3(0.1)(0.03003) ⎟⎠

k1 = f (0.16667,1.00300 ) = 3(0.16667 ) (1.00300) = 0.08359

2
(143)

f (k1 + 3k2 ) = 1.00100+ (0.003003+ 3(0.08359))

h 0.1
y2 = y1 + (144)
4 4
y 3 = 1.00100 + 0.00702 = 1.00802 (145)

When n = 2

k1 = f (x 2 , y 2 ) = 3 x 22 y1 = 3(0.2 ) (1.00802 ) = 0.12096

2
(146)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0.2 + (0.1),1.00802+
2 2 2
k2 = f ⎜ x2 + h, y2 + hk1 ⎟ = ⎟
⎟ (147)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3(0.1)(0.12096) ⎠

k1 = f (0.26667,1.01608) = 3(0.26667 ) (1.01608) = 0.21677

2
(148)

f (k1 + 3k 2 ) = 1.00802+ (0.12096+ 3(0.21677))

h 0.1
y2 = y2 + (149)
4 4
y 3 = 1.00802 + 0.01928 = 1.02730 (150)

y 4 = 1.06587, y 5 = 1.09345 y 6 = 1.19691, y 7 = 1.35754,

y8 = 1.60456, y 9 = 1.98746, y10 = 2.59376, y11 = 3.58510

Numerical illustration of exact solution for Example 1

y = ex
3
(151)
3
y = e x , y n = e xn , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3
(152)
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
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when n = 0
3
y 0 = e x0 = e 0 = 1 (153)

when n = 1

y1 = e x1 = e (0.1) = e (0.001) = 1.00100

3 3
(154)
when n = 2

y1 = e x2 = e (0.2 ) = e (0.008 ) = 1.00803

3 3
(155)
y 3 = 1.02730, y 4 = 1.06609 y 5 = 1.13315, y 6 = 1.24110,
y 7 = 1.40917, y8 = 1.66863, y 9 = 2.07301, y10 = 2.71828
Consider the differential equation of the initial value problem:
y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (156)
Exact solution

y = ex + x +1
3
(158)
Solution:

y n +1 = y n +
h
(k 2 + 3k 2 ) (159)
4
⎛ ⎞
k1 = f (x n , y n ) y ' = y n − x n , k 2 = f ⎜ x n + h, y n + hk1 ⎟
2 2
(160)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
when n = 0
k1 = f ( x 0 , y 0 ) = y 0 − x 0 = 2 − 0 = 2 (161)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 2 ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0 + (0.1),2 +
2
k2 = f ⎜ x0 + h, y0 + hk1 ⎟ = ⎟ (162)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3(0.1)(2) ⎟⎠

k1 = f (0.06667,2.13333) = y n − x n = 2.13333 − 0.06667 = 2.06667 (163)

k1 = f (0.06667,2.13333) = y n − x n = 2.13333 − 0.06667 = 2.06667 (164)

when n = 1
k1 = f (x1 , y1 ) = y1 − x1 = 1.77000 − 0.1 = 1.67000 (165)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0.1 + (0.1),1.77000+
2 2 2
k2 = f ⎜ x1 + h, y1 + hk1 ⎟ = ⎟ (166)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3(0.1)(1.7700) ⎟⎠

k1 = f (1.16667,1.88133) = y n − x n = 1.88133 − 1.16667 = 2.71466 (167)

25
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

y1 = y1 +
h
(k1 + 3k 2 ) = 1.77000+ 0.1 (1.67000+ 3(1.71466)) = 1.9403 (168)
4 4
when n = 2
k1 = f (x 2 , y 2 ) = y 2 − x 2 = 1.94035 − 0.2 = 1.74035 (169)

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
f ⎜⎜ 0.2 + (0.1),1.94035+
2 2 2
k2 = f ⎜ x2 + h, y2 + hk1 ⎟ = ⎟ (170)
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3(0.1)(1.74035) ⎟⎠

k1 = f (0.26667,2.05637 ) = y n − x n = 2.05637 − 0.26667 = 2.78970 (171)

y2 = y2 +
h
(k1 + 3k 2 ) = 1.94035+ 0.1 (1.74035+ 3(1.71466)) = 2.1180 (172)
4 4
y 4 = 2.80399 y 5 = 2.49891, y 6 = 2.70380, y 7 = 2.91970,
y8 = 3.14777, y 9 = 23.38929, y10 = 3.64567, y11 = 3.92094

Numerical illustration of exact solution for Example 2

y = ex + x +1
3
(173)

y = e xn + x n + 1 (174)

when n = 0

y 0 = e x0 + x0 + 1 = e 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2.0000 (175)

when n = 1

y 0 = e x1 + x1 + 1 = e (0.1) + 0.1 + 1 = 1.10517 + 1.1 = 2.20517 (176)

when n = 1

y 2 = e x2 + x 2 + 1 = e (0.2 ) + 0.2 + 1 = 1.22140 + 1.2 = 2.42140 (177)

y 3 = 2.64986, y 4 = 2.89182 y 5 = 3.14872, y 6 = 3.42212, y 7 = 3.71375, (178)

y8 = 4.02554, y 9 = 4.35960, y10 = 4.71828 (179)

Analysis of Euler and Runge-Kutta methods

The Euler and Runge-Kutta methods were compared by a rigorous analysis in order to
demonstrate the efficiency of the methods to other techniques. The effect of the steps on the
accuracy of the techniques was also examined.
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

The results obtained by solving some differential equations as considered in this paper
were analyzed based on the theory of comparison. This help towards bringing out the result
clearly for easy analysis and understanding of the established concept.

Results and Discussion

Standard Euler method

Table 1 showed that the results improved greatly when the standard Euler’s method
was used. The tables below show the summary of all the results for the methods in
consideration.
In comparing the two methods, we can see clearly that the Euler method is more
preferable than the Runge-Kutta, especially when many values of xn are required. If only a
few values of xn are needed, then the Runge-Kutta techniques is preferred to Euler method
because it gives slightly better results

Table 1. Solution for y ' = 3x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

N H f(xn, yn) yn+1 Exact solution Error
0 0.1 0 1.00000 1 0
1 0.1 0.03 1.00300 1.00100 0.002
2 0.1 0.12036 1.01504 1.00803 0.00701
3 0.1 0.27406 1.04245 1.02730 0.01515
4 0.1 0.50038 1.09245 1.06609 0.02636
5 0.1 0.81938 1.17443 1.13315 0.04128
6 0.1 1.26838 1.30127 1.24110 0.06017
7 0.1 1.91287 1.49256 1.40917 0.08339
8 0.1 2.86572 1.77913 1.66863 0.1105
9 0.1 3.62692 2.14182 2.07301 0.06881
10 0.1 6.42546 2.78437 2.71828 0.06609

27
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

Figure 1. Graph of Approximate solution of standard Euler compare to exact solution

Table 2. Solution for y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

N H f(xn, yn) yn+1 Exact number Error
0 0.1 2.00000 2.20000 2.0000 0.2
1 0.1 2.10000 2.41000 2.20517 0.20483
2 0.1 2.21000 2.61000 2.42140 0.1886
3 0.1 2.33100 2.86410 2.64986 0.21424
4 0.1 2.46410 3.11051 2.89182 0.21869
5 0.1 2.61051 3.37156 3.14872 0.22284
6 0.1 2.77156 3.64872 3.42212 0.2266
7 0.1 2.94872 3.94360 3.71375 0.22985
8 0.1 3.14360 4.25796 4.02554 0.23242
9 0.1 3.35796 4.59376 4.35960 0.23416
10 0.1 3.56376 4.95314 4.71828 0.23486

Figure 2. Graph of Approximate solution of standard Euler compared to exact solution

 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
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Modified Euler Method

The performance of the modified Euler method is presented in Table 3 and 4 and
graphically depicted in Figure 3 and 4.
Table 3. Solution for y ' = 3x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
N H f(xn, yn) yn+1 Exact number Error
0 0.1 0.00000 1.00075 2.0000 0.99925
1 0.1 0.03002 1.00750 2.20517 1.19767
2 0.1 0.12090 1.08352 2.42140 1.33788
3 0.1 0.29255 1.12076 2.64986 1.5291
4 0.1 0.53769 1.19050 2.89182 1.70132
5 0.1 0.89288 1.30259 3.14872 1.84613
6 0.1 1.40680 1.47661 3.42212 1.94551
7 0.1 2.17062 1.74410 3.71375 1.96965
8 0.1 3.34867 2.15842 4.02554 1.86712
9 0.1 5.24496 2.81384 4.35960 1.54576
10 0.1 8.44151 3.88412 4.71828 0.83416

Figure 3. Graph of Approximate solution of Modified Euler compared to exact

Table 4. Solution for y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

N H f(xn, yn) yn+1 Exact number Error
0 0.1 2 2.20500 1 1.205
1 0.1 2.10500 2.42103 1.00100 1.42003
2 0.1 2.22103 2.62821 1.00803 1.62018
3 0.1 2.34924 2.89091 1.02730 1.86361
4 0.1 2.49091 3.15991 1.06609 2.09382
5 0.1 2.65991 3.43420 1.13315 2.30105
6 0.1 2.83420 3.72671 1.24110 2.48561
7 0.1 3.02679 4.03960 1.40917 2.63043
8 0.1 3.23960 4.37476 1.66863 2.70613
9 0.1 3.47476 4.73461 2.07301 2.6616
10 0.1 3.73461 5.12147 2.71828 2.40319

29
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

Figure 4. Graph of Approximate solution of Modified Euler compared to exact solution

Runge-Kutta method
The performances of the Runge-Kutta method are presented in Table 5 and 6 and
graphically depicted in Figure 5 and 6.

Table 5. Solution for y ' = 3x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

N H f(xn, yn) yn+1 Exact number Error
0 0.1 0 1.00100 1 0.001
1 0.1 0.3003 1.00802 1.00100 0.00702
2 0.1 0.12096 1.02730 1.00803 0.01927
3 0.1 0.27737 1.06587 1.02730 0.03857
4 0.1 0.55162 1.09345 1.06609 0.02736
5 0.1 0.82009 1.19691 1.13315 0.06376
6 0.1 1.29266 1.35754 1.24110 0.11644
7 0.1 1.99558 1.60456 1.40917 0.19539
8 0.1 3.08076 1.98746 1.66863 0.31883
9 0.1 4.82953 2.59376 2.07301 0.52075
10 0.1 7.78129 3.58510 2.71828 0.86682
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
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Figure 5. Graph of Approximate solution of Runge-kutta compared to exact solution

Table 6. Solution for y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

N H f(xn, yn) yn+1 Exact number Error
0 0.1 1 1.7700 2.0000 0.23
1 0.1 1.67000 1.94035 2.20517 0.26482
2 0.1 1.74035 2.11809 2.42140 0.30331
3 0.1 1.81809 2.80399 2.64986 0.15413
4 0.1 1.90399 2.49891 2.89182 0.39291
5 0.1 1.99891 2.70380 3.14872 0.44492
6 0.1 2.10380 2.91970 3.42212 0.50242
7 0.1 2.21970 3.14777 3.71375 0.56598
8 0.1 2.34777 3.38929 4.02554 0.63625
9 0.1 2.48929 3.645667 4.35960 0.71393
10 0.1 2.64567 3.92094 4.71828 0.79734

Figure 6. Graph of approximate solution of Runge-kutta compared to exact solution

31
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

Methods comparison
The performances of the methods for specific scenario are presented in Table 7 to 10
and graphically represented in Figure 7 to 10.

Table 7. Solution for y ' = 3x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

Runge-Kutta Standard Euler Modified Euler Exact Solution
1.001 1 1.00075 1
1.00802 1.003 1.0075 1.001
1.0273 1.01504 1.08352 1.00803
1.06587 1.04245 1.12076 1.0273
1.09345 1.09245 1.1905 1.06609
1.19691 1.17443 1.30259 1.13315
1.35754 1.30127 1.47661 1.2411
1.60456 1.49256 1.7441 1.40917
1.98746 1.77913 2.15842 1.66863
2.59376 2.14182 2.81384 2.07301
3.5851 2.78437 3.88412 2.71828

Figure 7. Comparison of Exact Solution, Standard Euler, Modified Euler and Runge-Kutta
methods
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

Table 6. Solution for y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

Runge-Kutta Standard Euler Modified Euler Exact Solution
1.77 2.2 2.205 1
1.94035 2.41 2.42103 1.001
2.11809 2.61 2.62821 1.00803
2.80399 2.8641 2.89091 1.0273
2.49891 3.11051 3.15991 1.06609
2.7038 3.37156 3.4342 1.13315
2.9197 3.64872 3.72671 1.2411
3.14777 3.9436 4.0396 1.40917
3.38929 4.25796 4.37476 1.66863
3.645667 4.59376 4.73461 2.07301
3.92094 4.95314 5.12147 2.71828

Figure 8. Comparison of Exact Solution, Standard Euler, Modified Euler and Runge-Kutta
methods
Table 9. Absolute Errors for y ' = 3x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
Runge-Kutta Standard Euler Modified Euler
0.001 0 0.99925
0.00702 0.002 1.19767
0.01927 0.00701 1.33788
0.03857 0.01515 1.5291
0.02736 0.02636 1.70132
0.06376 0.04128 1.84613
0.11644 0.06017 1.94551
0.19539 0.08339 1.96965
0.31883 0.1105 1.86712
0.52075 0.06881 1.54576
0.86682 0.06609 0.83416

33
 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

Figure 9. Graph of Absolute Errors for Standard Euler, Modified Euler and Runge-Kutta
methods for y ' = 3x 2 y; y (0) = 1, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

Table 10. Absolute error for y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

Runge-Kutta Standard Euler Modified Euler
0.23 0.2 1.205
0.26482 0.20483 1.42003
0.30331 0.1886 1.62018
0.15413 0.21424 1.86361
0.39291 0.21869 2.09382
0.44492 0.22284 2.30105
0.50242 0.2266 2.48561
0.56598 0.22985 2.63043
0.63625 0.23242 2.70613
0.71393 0.23416 2.6616
0.79734 0.23486 2.40319

Figure 10. Graph of absolute errors for Standard Euler, Modified Euler and Runge-Kutta
methods for y ' = y − x; y (0 ) = 2, h = 0.1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
ISSN 1583-0233 p. 10-37

This research work has been carried out in order to compute direct solution of
numerical method for order four of ordinary differential equations without reducing it to the
system of first order differential equation through the application of both Euler and Runge-
Kutta methods. These methods sufficiently reduce computational efforts as well as provide
the accuracy needed in each result. It was analyzed from figures (1-10) and the percentage
errors as (0.991% and 4.902% from Tables 1 and 2 for standard Euler method), (33.360% and
46.477% from Tables 3 and 4 for Modified Euler method) and (4.322% and 9.948% from
Tables 5 and 6 for Runge-kutta method) which became necessary for a reasonable conclusion
to be made.
Generally, the aim of a good numerical differentiation is that such methods should
give better approximations to the true differentials. By the examples above, it shows that the
two methods produced better degrees of accuracy for ordinary differential equations of all
orders. But comparing the percentage errors, we discovered that Standard Euler method is
more accurate than Modified Euler [3, 10, 11] and Runge-Kutta methods for the examples
illustrated.
The exact solutions for both Euler and Runge-Kutta methods, whose values have the
same order of accuracy with the derived solutions, were not only formulated, also tested for
simplicity, efficiency and accuracy. We can conclude from the derivations above that the
Standard Euler’s method has a higher degree of accuracy than the Modified Euler’s method,
conclusion also supported by other studies [3, 10-15]. It is remarkable therefore to note that
all the examples illustrated are differential equations of order four and orders which are less
than four. This, to a large extent, reduces the effect that global error could have on the
accuracy of the methods as obtained in tables (9 and 10) as well as the corresponding graphs
in figures (9 and 10) respectively.
The methods were also examined to solve both linear and non-linear problems of the
fourth order differential equations. Hence by percentage error, standard Euler method is
ranked more accurate than Runge-kutta method with (0.991% and 4.902%), (4.322% and
9.948%) for the results in tables (1 and 2), (5 and 6) respectively.

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 Comparison of Euler and Range-Kutta methods in solving ordinary differential equations of order two and four
David I. LANLEGE, Rotimi KEHINDE, Dolapo A. SOBANKE, Abdulrahman ABDULGANIYU, Umar M. GARBA

References

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 Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue 32, January-June 2018
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