Feeding growing and finishing

cattle for Better Returns

Beef Manual 7


Contents

3 Introduction
4 Growing and finishing phases
5 Matching cattle type to feeding system
6 Maximising dry matter intake
7 Improving feed efficiency
8 Feeding growing cattle
10 Creep feeding suckled calves
11 Transition management
12 Feeding finishing cattle
14 Water
15 Making the most of grass
16 Feeding for carcase quality
17 What is manure telling you?
18 Diet formulation – optimising
nutrient balance
19 Common feeds and their composition

The information in this book was compiled by: Mary Vickers,

AHDB Beef & Lamb and Karen Stewart, Scotland’s Rural
College (SRUC). AHDB Beef & Lamb are grateful to all those
who have commented and contributed to this production.
Introduction
Beef production systems are many and
varied but should be based on an
understanding of the available resources
and cattle type, with a clear aim to meet
market requirements and generate a profit.
This manual explains the different
requirements of the growing and finishing
stages of an animal’s life, providing
valuable guidance on rationing for these
separate phases.
Driving feed efficiency is crucial in all
Dr Mary Vickers
growing and finishing systems and the
AHDB Beef and Lamb
factors to focus on are discussed, along
Senior Scientist
with transition management and the
attention to detail that is required to
optimise cattle feed intake.
Beef production is all about producing what
the market wants and rationing factors that
affect carcase quality are explained.
This manual complements a number of
others which focus on managing forages
and feeds to improve returns from beef
cattle in a range of production systems.

3
Growing and finishing phases
Feeding management of beef cattle can be divided into the three phases of rearing,
growing and finishing. Each phase requires different ration specifications, according to
cattle type and target growth rates.

Weight Target weight

Large frame
Medium frame

Small frame
Height

Rearing Growing Finishing

The early A period of continuous A short sharp period
phase of growth, lasting up to 15 of maximum weight
growth up to months. Good frame gain to allow well- Hit market
weaning when growth is the aim in this grown animals to specification
the calf's diet period. maximum meat yield
includes milk. and optimise fat cover.

Late maturing cattle on an intensive system, e.g. bulls, where the cattle move directly from a
rearing to a finishing ration
Late maturing cattle on a semi-extensive ration, including a growing phase
Earlier maturing cattle are often smaller framed and require a longer growing phase to achieve
sufficient liveweight before a very short finishing period, if required at all

Figure 1. When to change the ration

The length of each phase of the production based on energy-dense diets which exploit
cycle varies with breed, frame size and target their potential for fast, lean growth.
market. Native breeds, or small-framed These systems can effectively miss out the
cattle, usually require a longer growing growing phase and the animal is transferred
period based on forages but shorter directly from its rearing phase to its
finishing period than larger continental finishing phase. Having an understanding
cattle. The latter are most efficient on of the type of cattle to be fed and the
rations containing high-quality feeds and target market will enable producers to plan
forage that facilitate fast growth rates. targets for the various stages of the
Similarly, bulls are better suited to systems production system.

4
Matching cattle type to feeding system
Choosing a feeding system will depend on and straw are more likely to operate an
the resources available on the farm, the intensive system, while farms in grassland
target market requirements and the type areas are likely to operate semi-intensive
of cattle being fed. or extensive systems. It is important to
recognise that variable and fixed costs per
A semi-intensive beef system usually
head are likely to increase with the number
involves a period at grass, a housed winter
of days the cattle are on the farm and that
period and a finishing period when the
feed-conversion efficiency reduces as
cattle are also often housed. Farms that
cattle grow older and heavier.
have a source of cereals or by-products

Table 1. Factors determining feeding system

Resources and target market
System type is determined to a large extent by available feed, land, buildings,
machinery, labour, finance, but also by the target market. Many processors have
Resources
stipulations regarding time spent grazing, slaughter ages and slaughter weights,
and market
so it pays to talk to buyers before deciding on a production system. Not all farms
drivers
are suited to finishing cattle and some may be better off targeting weaned calf or
store cattle production
Stock
Bulls tend to have higher growth rate potential than steers and heifers, with
greater lean tissue deposition. Heifers, in contrast, tend to deposit more fat at
Gender
younger ages than males, so they may need to be fed a growing ration for longer
before finishing than steers or bulls
Smaller breeds, e.g. native breeds, are usually early maturing and of small
frame size. They are well suited to forage-based systems targeting moderate
Type rates of gain. Continental breeds are usually larger framed and tend to require
higher feeding levels to achieve the required level of carcase finish and are most
efficiently finished in systems which exploit their potential for fast growth rates

There is huge variation in the genetic potential of cattle within the same breed
Genetic
for growth and carcase traits. Breeding tools, such as estimated breeding values
potential
(EBV) for these characteristics, can provide information to inform feeding systems

Table 2. Summary of beef finishing systems

Age at slaughter (months)

12 18 24 30
Feed conversion ratio (FCR)
5–7 12 16 20
(kg DMI/kg LWG)

Expected lifetime feed costs Low/medium Medium Medium High

Expected lifetime fixed costs Low/medium Medium Medium High

5
Maximising dry matter intake
Maximising dry matter intake (DMI) is vital • Smooth surfaces are easier for the cattle
to optimise performance of growing and to eat from and keep clean. Avoid
finishing cattle and relies on: pitted, rough concrete feeding surfaces
Formulation of the ration • Clean feed troughs out regularly, at least
• Very wet or dry rations can reduce DMI, weekly, to avoid the build-up of old or
heated feeds
as can highly fibrous rations which fill up
the rumen and are slowly fermented. In • Allow access to feed all the time. Push
mixed rations containing forage, aim for up and feed regularly enough to ensure
a dry matter (DM) range of 40–55%. fresh feed is always available to the cattle
Minimise dust in dry rations by adding a
liquid feed such as molasses
• Allow sufficient feed space so that all
cattle can be fed at once if not feeding
Keeping feeds fresh and palatable ad-lib rations
• Some ingredients are more palatable Clean fresh water
than others. Poor storage of feeds
can predispose them to moulds, which
• Intake of water is positively correlated
to feed intake
not only reduce intake but can cause
health problems • Site water troughs to avoid feed or
bedding contamination, but where
• Consistency is also important, as it cattle can reach them easily
will take time for the rumen microbes
to adapt to any changes • Clean water troughs regularly,
at least weekly
Continuous access to a clean and
comfortable feeding area • See the BRP+ document Better cattle
housing design for guidelines on feed
• Do not let the feed barriers prevent
barrier width and water allowance for
cattle eating as much as they want
different classes of cattle
• Check barriers are high enough and
wide enough to allow easy access,
with no sharp edges

Figure 2. Look out for rub marks on cattle necks, which indicate the feed rail is too low.
A well-designed and managed feeding area is as important as what is fed

6
Improving feed efficiency
Feed is a major cost in all beef production Stress
systems and taking steps to improve • Manage transition between units
feed-use efficiency will improve margins. carefully to minimise stress and
Nutritional, genetic and management growth checks
factors all influence feed-use efficiency.
• Avoid mixing cattle of different size
Areas to consider: and age to minimise bullying and
spread of disease
Gender
• In general, bulls are more efficient • Ensure feed and water are fresh and
than steers, which are more efficient always available
than heifers • Ensure good air quality and ventilation
Liveweight and growth rate Nutrition
• Feed efficiency reduces as growth rate • Fibre in the diet is important for rumen
declines and as animals get heavier, health. Long fibre, e.g. straw, is
because an increasing proportion of important in intensive finishing rations
energy goes towards maintenance rather and a source of digestible fibre, such as
than production, compared with lighter, sugar beet pulp or soya hulls at 10% of
fast-growing cattle the ration, is also helpful
Genetic merit • Manage ration formulation and transition
• Breeding tools are being developed to carefully to avoid digestive upsets
enable cattle selection based on feed • Maximise intake by careful ration
efficiency and in doing so identify cattle presentation and avoiding dusty rations
which consume less feed yet achieve
the same rate of gain as other, less • Feed efficiency deteriorates with
increasing length of the finishing period,
efficient cattle
so avoid overly long finishing and
Animal health carefully select cattle for slaughter to
• Common problems like worm burdens avoid excessive fat deposition
and pneumonia reduce intake and
depress performance
• Minerals and vitamins should be
balanced to complement the diet
• Biosecurity is vital. Take measures to Feed management
avoid buying in disease problems
• Much feed can be wasted during
• Health planning with your vet will enable harvest, transport, storage and feedout.
a proactive approach to herd health Attention to detail during these stages
management – even subclinical is crucial
disorders can reduce performance
• See the Buyers' checklist for calves
and store cattle document

7
Feeding growing cattle
Ration guidelines Always match the amount of concentrates
Growing beef cattle means feeding to to the quality of the forage supplied. Good-
achieve steady continuous frame growth. quality forages will require less concentrate
supplementation than poor forages.
Growing animals have a relatively large
appetite relative to their liveweight (see Forage quality fuelling cattle growth
Table 3). They thrive on high levels of Grower rations are generally based on
good-quality forage, as long as there is fresh or conserved forages (grazing, grass
enough rumen degradable protein to fuel silage, wholecrop, straw and combinations
microbial activity in the rumen. of these). They can be supplemented at
High levels of starch are not recommended least once a day with dry or moist feeds to
in this period, as this can lead to unwanted add energy, protein, minerals and vitamins.
fat deposition, especially in small-to Grass silage is a common basal forage and
medium-framed, native-type cattle. Heifers, its quality will have a major impact on the
especially from small-framed breeds, need rate of supplementation required and cost
to be managed carefully to ensure they of production (see Table 4).
grow sufficient frame size before finishing, Analysing silage early will ensure rations are
to enable them to reach the target carcase formulated correctly, avoid cattle failing to
weight range. meet targets and wasting money on a higher
specification concentrate than is required.

Table 3. Ration guidelines for growing cattle

Nutrients in total ration DM Notes

~2–2.5% The lower end of this range relates to grass

Dry matter intake (DMI)
liveweight silage-based rations

Target daily liveweight

0.7–1.2 Dependent on cattle type, system and target market
gain (DLWG) (kg)

Metabolisable energy
10.5–11.5 Dependent on cattle type, system and target market
(MJ ME/kg DM)

Crude protein requirements will be determined by the

animal’s genetic potential for growth. Intensively fed bulls
Crude protein (CP) (%) 12–16
will require more CP than steers and heifers on a more
forage-based ration
Most growing diets contain forage which provides
Neutral detergent fibre
>40 digestible fibre. Avoid very mature herbage, which has
(NDF) (%)
poor digestibility and will limit performance
Limiting the starch and sugar content of the diet will avoid
Starch and sugar (%) <20 cattle becoming overfat or too light a weight, which will be
particularly important for smaller-framed cattle and heifers

This information is a guide only and advice from a professional nutritionist is recommended when
formulating rations.

8
More information on making grass silage are going out to grass the following spring,
and interpreting forage analysis results can it is advisable to reduce the amount of
be found in BRP Manual Making grass concentrates fed for six–eight weeks before
silage for Better Returns. turnout, with a period of four weeks when
no concentrates are fed, to precondition the
Achieving good rates of growth during the
cattle to a grazed grass diet.
growing phase is important to avoid large
amounts of feed being solely used to For guidance on feeding replacement
maintain the cattle and not increasing their heifers, see BRP Manual 11 Managing
value. Target growth rates will depend on replacement heifers for Better Returns.
the production system. Where the cattle
Table 4. Impact of silage quality on concentrate feed levels assuming 400 kg continental steer gaining
1 kg LW/day
Grass silage quality Concentrates required to meet target
Cost per kg gain (£)
(MJ ME/kg DM) (All 30% DM) performance (kg/head/day)

Poor (9.5) 5.5 1.52

Moderate (10.5) 4.2 1.36

Good (11) 3.0 1.23

Excellent (11.5) 1.5 1.11

Price assumptions: grass silage £35/tonne fresh weight, concentrates £200/tonne

Table 5. Example of growing cattle diets for a 400 kg LW continental cross steer growing at 1 kg/day

Grass silage/red Grass silage/

Grass silage-
clover silage-based wholecrop-based
based diet (kg)
ration (kg) ration (kg)
Grass silage (10.6 MJ ME/kg
16 10 9
DM, 12% CP)
Wholecrop barley
9
(10.4 MJ ME/kg DM, 9.5% CP)
Red clover (11 MJ ME/kg DM,
7
17% CP)
Barley 3.5 3.5 2.8

Rapeseed meal 0.3

Diet provides MJ ME/kg DM 11.6 11.6 11.4

(Total MJ ME/day) (93) (93) (94)

CP % in DM 13 13.5 13

Note: Where concentrates are not mixed with the forage, they should be fed at no more than 0.5 kg per
100 kg liveweight in one meal.

9
Creep feeding suckled calves
Timing will depend on calf age, growth
potential of calves and grass availability.
Normally, creep feeding would start six to
ten weeks prior to weaning. However, bulls
to be finished on ad-lib cereal diets should
start being creep fed earlier, at around 12
weeks before weaning. With very milky
cows, or in situations where it is tricky to
creep feed, starting four to six weeks
before weaning will still help reduce the
weaning check. As a rough guide allow
110–150 kg of creep feed per calf for a
6–12-week feeding period.
Ideally, creep feeds should include some
rumen-friendly feeds such as sugar beet
pulp, oats or soya hulls, which can help
minimise acidosis problems. Oats can be
fed whole to calves up to the age of around
eight months. Ensure creep feed contains
Creep feeding can have a number of supplementary vitamins and minerals to
benefits, including: optimise health and productivity. Crude
protein level is usually recommended at
• Heavier weaning weights, typically 25 kg around 14% as fed, but higher levels may
• Less stress at weaning due to familiarisation be justified for bull calves.
of the calves to a different feed
Table 6. Examples of simple creep mixes (kg/tonne)
• Reduced pneumonia incidence A B
after housing
• Faster growth rate post-weaning 375 kg barley 600 kg barley
• Can help maintain cow body condition 300 kg distiller grains
235 kg sugar
While creep feeding is important for calves beet pulp
moving onto intensive finishing systems, 300 kg sugar 140 kg soya
even cattle kept for later finishing or as beet pulp bean meal
replacements will benefit from a reduced
weaning growth check and lowered risk of 25 kg minerals 25 kg minerals
pneumonia after housing.
Note: The beet pulp can be gradually reduced by
Extra weight at weaning should be half in favour of more cereals nearer weaning time.
maintained through to turnout and eventual
sale, with savings in feed and other
finishing costs. Replacement heifers due to
calve at two years old may also benefit,
because they are more likely to meet the
growth targets required of them. Although
care should be taken to avoid them
becoming overfat.

10
Transition management
Transition management can reflect a If feeding from a trough, the ration should
number of different situations when cattle be fed in two meals per day, then three
diets change. For beef cattle it usually meals per day, increasing amounts fed until
occurs when cattle move between farms the cattle do not clear up. Then they can
or when their diets change, such as from be transferred to ad-lib hoppers if required.
a growing ration to a finishing ration. If not Fresh, clean straw should be provided in
managed well this can result in a period racks during the transition to ad-lib cereal
of reduced growth rate, as the rumen feeding when other forages are reduced,
adapts to the new diet and the cattle to to stimulate rumen function.
their new environment.
Bought-in cattle
Planning is the key to changing
successfully from one ration to another. Cattle, tired after a journey, should be
penned separately from other stock in a
In the case of changing to finishing rations, draught-free, well-bedded pen, with plenty
they generally contain less forage and of space and good access to palatable
more supplementary feeds than growing forage-based feed with long fibre and
rations, which leads to increased rumen clean water.
acidity and potential health problems.
The rumen microbial population has to After 12–18 hours’ rest:
change from being based on fibre-digesting
bacteria to supporting a large population of
• Check ear tags and weigh each animal
starch-digesting bacteria. • Health check in accordance with the
farm’s health plan
The finishing ration should be introduced
gradually to the growing ration so that the
• If necessary, treat and consider if
isolation is appropriate
high-energy feeds are fed in increasing
amounts each day over a period of at least • Vaccinate
one week, while the amount of forage Then group animals by weight and type.
available is reduced at the same time. Gradually introduce them to their new
ration before moving to new accommodation.

11
Feeding finishing cattle
Feeding finishing cattle relies on a short to achieve fast rates of growth. Steers can
period of maximum liveweight gain to meet be fed on similar rations but generally have
market specification. slightly reduced growth rates compared
with bulls.
Finishing cattle efficiently relies on maintaining
high DMIs and fast liveweight gains. • Keep group sizes small – no more
than 20
Bull beef • Avoid mixing batches which leads
Producers of bull beef should ensure they to fighting and riding
have identified a market for their cattle.
Bull beef production systems can be highly
• House bulls away from other stock,
particularly breeding stock
feed-efficient and rely on feeding the cattle

Table 7. Ration guidelines

Nutrients in total ration DM Notes
During finishing, appetite falls in relation to body
1.7–2%
Dry matter intake (DMI) weight, so intake should be encouraged through feed
liveweight
access, freshness and palatability

Liveweight gain decreases towards the end of the

finishing period. Pure continental bulls will be able
Target daily liveweight to achieve faster growth rates than this, up to 2 kg/
>1.3
gain (DLWG) (kg) day, while heifers may be better suited to slower rates
of gain to ensure the minimum carcase weight is
achieved without excessive levels of fat deposition

Metabolisable energy Energy, particularly from starch, is vital to drive

>12
(MJ ME/kg DM) liveweight gain in finishing rations

Feeds rich in starch and sugars are common

components of finishing diets, but they need to be
Starch and sugar (%) >20
managed carefully to avoid digestive upsets. Cereals
in particular should be cracked and not finely ground

Crude protein levels are lower in finishing rations than

in growing rations but follow the same trend of slightly
higher levels required for continental bulls versus
Crude protein (%) 12–14
steers and heifers. Finishing Holstein bulls show no
growth rate response to increasing CP levels above
14% in the DM

Inclusion of long fibre is important for intensive

rations, where cattle will eat around 12% of DMI as
10–12 in straw. This equals around 1–1.5 kg/day for finishing
Long fibre (%)
intensive rations cattle and is best supplied in either separate racks
or mixed into the complete ration. Avoid relying on
bedding to supply adequate long fibre in the diet

Oil can be a useful rich energy source, but excessive

Oil (%) <6
oil in the ration can depress intake

12
Finishing heifers • Always offer a source of long fibre, e.g.
Heifers tend to deposit more of their straw in a rack to encourage rumination.
liveweight gain as fat. It is important they Intake is likely to be 1–1.5 kg/day
are fed to grow sufficient frame size before • Never let ad-lib feed hoppers run out so
they move to a finishing ration. Heifers are that animals gorge when they are refilled
well suited to forage-based systems and
may finish off grass. Alternatively, they can
• If not feeding cereals ad lib, feed in
small meals throughout the day. Avoid
be fed similar finishing rations to steers but meal sizes greater than 2.5 kg/head/day
may need a shorter feeding period to for dry cereals
achieve target fat cover.
• Consider including neutralising agents
Minimising acidosis problems such as limestone flour or sodium
Energy-dense finishing rations can increase bicarbonate in the ration
the risk of acidosis in finishing cattle. Tips • Consider grain moisture content, as moist
to avoid acidosis include: grains, which will need to be treated
• Do not grind cereals into fine particles – with a suitable preservation method,
tend to be easier to roll without shattering
crack the grain
• Ensure gradual adaptation to
high-concentrate diets

Table 8. Example of finishing cattle rations for steers and bulls

550 kg continental steer, 550 kg continental X dairy bull,

DLWG 1.3 kg DLWG 1.5 kg
Grass Grass silage & Maize
Basal forage/feed Cereals
silage maize silage silage
Grass silage
15 10 20
(10.6 MJ ME/kg DM, 12% CP)
Maize silage
10
(11.2 MJ ME/kg DM, 9% CP)
Barley 7.5 5.5 9.8 4.5
Beans 2
Rapeseed meal 0.5 1.2
Ad lib
Straw
(approx. 1.5 kg)
Diet provides MJ ME/ kg DM 12 11.9 12.1 12.1
(Total MJ ME/day) (132) (133) (130) (135)
13.6
CP % in DM 12 12 13.0
(concentrate only)

13
Water
Water is the most essential nutrient for Individual minerals are not often independent
cattle. A supply of clean, fresh water is and supplying a particular mineral in excess
essential to optimise DMI. Water troughs can influence the availability of other
should be inspected daily and cleaned out if minerals. For example, the presence of
contaminated with bedding, feed or manure. molybdenum (Mo) and sulphur (S) can
Water allowances for cattle are based on affect the availability of copper (Cu).
the amount of DM the animals eat. The Macro or major minerals such as calcium (Ca),
higher their DMI, the higher their water phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) are
requirements. Water is provided from the required by the animal in larger amounts
ration as well as drinking water, with cattle compared with trace minerals and are also
fed drier rations having to drink more than found in higher concentrations in the body.
those on wetter rations. However, it is vital The most economically important trace
that cattle always have access to clean,
minerals required by ruminants are copper
fresh water (see Table 9 ).
(Cu), selenium (Se), cobalt (Co), iodine (I),
Table 9. Water requirements of beef cattle zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn).
• A trace element deficiency should be
(litres water/kg DMI)

Ambient temperature °C confirmed by independent testing and

advice before buying and feeding
Cattle <16°C 16–20°C >20°C supplements
Calves (up to six
7.0 8.0 9.0 • Diagnosis of a deficiency should be
weeks old) confirmed by monitoring the response
All other cattle to supplementation
• Increased levels in tissue or blood may
5.4 6.1 7.0
(not lactating cows)
not always be related to cost-effective
For example, during the summer (at improvements in performance
16–20°C), a 400 kg steer might eat 2% of • Over-supplementation could waste
its liveweight, i.e. 8 kg DM/day as grazed money and make matters worse due to
grass. With a water requirement of 6.1 litres imbalance or undesirable interactions in
of water/kg DM, this gives a daily requirement the animal
of 49 litres/day. Assuming grazed grass has
a DM content of 20%, the amount of drinking • It is advisable to consult a nutritionist or
vet about the required type and level of
water required would be a minimum of
17 litres of water (49–32 litres (from grass) supplementation within a herd
water/day). • Supplementary mineral requirements vary,
but particular attention should be paid
Vitamins and minerals to cattle on intensive systems as cereals
Cattle need at least 15 different minerals tend to be low in specific micronutrients
to support good health and productivity.
The amount of vitamins and minerals
recommended for inclusion in the diet
depends on a variety of factors, including
environment, production level, breed,
liveweight and animal status. An important
factor to consider is mineral interactions.

14
Making the most of grass
Grazing Finishing cattle on grass
Grazed grass is often the cheapest feed if High levels of grass quality and quantity
managed well. The use of modern grass must be maintained to finish cattle at
varieties along with appropriate types of grass. Later-maturing continental breeds of
clover in the sward can bring big yield cattle can be difficult to finish off grass and
benefits, as well as reducing nitrogen may need supplementary feeding during
fertiliser requirements. Target growth rates late summer/autumn to reach an
at grass depend on type of stock, pastures acceptable weight and level of fat cover.
and length of grazing season, but growth However, heifers and earlier-maturing
rates of 0.8–1.0 kg per day across the native-type cattle are more suited to
whole grazing season are achievable. forage-based finishing.
Controlling sward height is key to Finishers can be kept out on a full ad-lib
maintaining pasture quality for grazing finishing ration as long as the ground is dry
cattle. Sward height at turnout is crucial for enough to avoid poaching and there is a
determining grass utilisation throughout the dry area to lie down. Moving troughs and
season. Aim to stock fields more heavily feed trailers regularly will help to minimise
during the spring, then reduce stocking poaching. It is advisable to offer straw as a
rate later in the season to keep control of source of long fibre, as on wet days cattle
sward height and grass quality. Electric
may consume a high proportion of their
fences can be used to shut off areas that
can either be grazed later in the season or total intake as concentrates and suffer
cut for silage or hay. problems with acidosis.

Sward heights are allowed to increase as Feeding rates of 0.5 kg concentrate per
the season progresses as grass growth 100 kg liveweight are recommended for
falls and to provide a buffer to ensure feed grazing animals near finishing. Therefore, a
quantity is maintained, especially as the 500 kg animal would require about 2.5 kg/
animals grow and intakes increase. head per day. However, where grass supply
is poor, higher feeding rates may be required
More information on managing grazing can to achieve finishing targets. Suitable
be found in BRP Manual Planning grazing
concentrate feeds should be high in
strategies for Better Returns.
energy, at least 30% starch and sugar, with
Good grazing management can reduce 12–14% CP in the DM. When high levels of
cost of production through extra grass supplementary feeding are required, it is
availability, higher stocking rates, improved likely that the cattle are better suited to
growth rates and a longer grazing season, being housed and finished inside.
all increasing weight gain at pasture.

Table 10. Target sward heights for growing and finishing cattle

Rotational pre-grazing Rotational post-

Period Continuous (cm)
height (cm) grazing height (cm)

Turnout–May 10–12 5–6 5–6

June–July 10–14 6–7 6–7

Aug–Sept 10–15 7–8 7–8

15
Feeding for carcase quality
Increasingly, farmers need to produce beef wholecrop wheat and maize silage. Some
to meet defined market specifications and in markets require carcases with white fat,
doing so maximise sale values (see Table 11). such as bulls for export.
Many aspects of feeding management are Toughness
related to carcase quality.
Age at slaughter can have a significant effect
Fat cover on meat quality as well as feed efficiency.
Fat deposition occurs as the cattle age and Older cattle generally produce tougher
gain weight. Compared with lean tissue, it meat. To avoid undesirable toughness, it is
takes four times more energy to deposit recommended that heifers and steers are
1 kg of fat tissue. It is therefore important finished under 30 months of age, while
to assess the cover regularly on finishing young bulls should be less than 16 months
cattle to avoid excessive fat, which is of age.
costly to produce and will be trimmed off Shelf life
by the processor.
In general, grass-fed beef has a longer shelf
Faster finishing will mean cattle move life than concentrate-fed beef due to its
through fat classes faster. Animals finished higher concentration of antioxidants.
at 1.2 kg/day DLWG can take six weeks to go Feeding supplementary vitamin E with
from 4L to 4H, whereas animals finishing at concentrate-based finishing diets can
+1.5 kg/day can take three weeks. extend shelf life and protect flavour.
Fat colour Abattoir feedback
Diet is a major factor determining fat colour. Always look at how cattle are classified to
In particular, carotenoid pigments in green see if adjustments need to be made to the
forage can cause a yellow colouration. ration or selection of cattle pre-slaughter.
Cattle fed cereal-based diets have whiter Information about health conditions can also
fat than forage-fed cattle. The yellowing indicate issues with the ration, for example
effect on fat colour from different forages liver abscesses can be caused by acidosis
can be ranked in decreasing order as follows: in the rumen.
grazed grass, grass silage/concentrates,

Table 11. Typical target market requirements for different types of animal

Target age Carcase Classification

Main market Gender
(months) weight (kg) Conformation Fat

Butchers 16–24 Heifers, steers 240–320 R or better 4L (poss. 4H)

16–30 Heifers, steers 270–400 O+ or better 3 or 4L

Supermarket
12–16 Young bulls 280–380 O+ or better 3 or 4L

Heifers,
Manufacturing beef 12–30 260+ -O or better 3 or leaner
steers, bulls

16
What is the manure telling you?
Looking at the manure is a useful indicator of how well the rumen is functioning and how
well an animal is digesting its diet.
What the manure looks like Possible dietary causes (not disease)
High protein (total or soluble); pasture
Loose manure
Insufficient fibre in ration
Spoiled, mouldy feed or silage
Diarrhoea
Ruminal acidosis

Foamy manure or mucin casts (pieces of gut Ruminal acidosis

lining that indicate gut damage) Increased hindgut fermentation
Not enough long fibre/forage
Cattle fed a total mixed ration (TMR) may be
Large particles, undigested feed
sorting feed
Ruminal acidosis
Cattle are sorting feed; feeding slowly
Dominant cattle in the group eating more
Manure variable in a feeding group
concentrate
Spoiled, mouldy feed or silage
Diet is too low in protein, potential risk of the
Very dry manure rumen stopping working
Reduced water intake
Source: Adapted from US Dairy Forage Research Centre, Wisconsin

If the rumen is working well, there should be:

• Few feed particles over 1.5 cm long in the manure
• Little recognisable feed in the manure
• 80% of cattle not sleeping, eating or drinking should be ruminating

Other observations/measurements to evaluate successful ration formulation:

Observe cattle. Do they look well? Consider performance, coat and evidence
Cattle
of other health problems. Are all cattle coming forward to eat?
Check feeding area. Is feed within easy reach all the time? Is it free of mould
Feed
and not too dusty? Are cattle sorting out or refusing to eat certain feeds?
Feed trough Check the feeding area is clean, smooth and free of old feed and manure
Clamp/feed Check feed storage areas for evidence of feed spoilage and accurate weighing
storage of feeds
Water Check fresh water is clean, available and not contaminated with feed/ bedding/faeces

Housing Check housing is comfortable, clean, well ventilated and not overcrowded
Ensure employees have good stockmanship skills and watch how cattle respond
Employees
to them

17
Diet formulation – optimising nutrient balance
Fibres Starch Sugars
Carbohydrate fermentation

Straw Cracked cereals Molasses

Low D-value silage Crimped cereals
Soya hulls Biscuit blend
Palm kernel Potatoes
High D-value silage Rolled cereals
Sugar beet pulp Ground cereals
Slow Fast
Protein degradation

Digestible undegradable protein (DUP) Effective rumen degradable protein (ERDP)

Prairie meal (maize gluten feed) Distillers grains Rapeseed meal
Soyabean meal Beans Pot ale syrup
Lupins Peas Feed grade urea

Formulating cattle rations revolves around • Effective rumen degradable protein

understanding how feeds behave in the (ERDP), which is the protein supply
rumen. Rumen function relies on the available from the rumen microbes.
millions of microbes contained within it to The majority of protein supplied to
ferment plant material and build microbial growing and finishing beef cattle
protein, which is then used by the animal to comes from this source
meet their own energy and protein needs. Also consider fibre. As well as providing a
The most important macronutrients to source of energy in ruminant diets, fibre is
consider for beef cattle nutrition are energy required for efficient rumen function.
(mainly from carbohydrates) and protein. Fibre has a physical effect in the rumen,
These nutrients can be present in feeds in stimulating rumination and chewing, and
different forms that make them available to is often referred to as the scratch factor.
the animal at different rates. A balanced Forage-based rations will usually provide
release of carbohydrate and rumen sufficient structural fibre for good rumen
degradable protein is required to fuel function. Intensive cereal-based rations that
fermentation in the rumen and optimise are fed ad lib will require supplementary
cattle performance. long structural fibre. The best type of
Crude protein provides a simple definition forage for this is straw, as it is rougher and
of protein content and is directly small amounts will help maintain rumen
proportional to the amount of nitrogen in function compared with softer silage or hay.
the feed. It can be further subdivided into: Many feeds provide digestible fibre, such as
• Digestible undegradable protein (DUP), sugar beet pulp and high D-value silage. This
which is the digestible protein available provides a rumen-friendly source of energy.
from feed which escapes rumen
degradation. This is a minor source of
protein in beef cattle diets and of most
importance in rapidly growing young cattle

18
Common feeds and their composition
There are a variety of feeds available. This be fed. Protein levels on feed labels are
table provides an overview of some of the often referred to on a fresh weight basis
more common ones. and moist co-produce often referred to in
the dry matter, so it is important to check
In order to compare feeds, it is important to
the information you are given when
consider differences in dry matter content.
calculating the protein levels of a ration.
For example, when feeding crimped barley
Seek advice from a nutritionist if in doubt.
at 70% DM, compared with feeding dry
barley at 86% DM, 25% more will need to
Table 12. Common feeds and their composition

Energy Crude protein

Feed DM %
(MJ ME/kg DM) (CP % in DM)
Grass silage (good) 32 11.5 16
Grass silage (moderate) 28 10.5 12
Maize silage 25–35 10.8–11.7 8–9
Wholecrop barley (cracked) 30–45 10.3 11.6
Hay 85 9.5 9
Straw 85 6 4
Maize grain 86 14.3 8.5
Triticale 86 13.4 12
Potatoes 20.5 13.5 11
Barley 86 13.2 12.1
Biscuit blends 88 15 9.5
Molasses (cane) 75 12.6 6
Sugar beet pulp 89 12.5 10
Oats 86 12.2 11
Wheatfeed 89 11.5 17.3
Citrus pulp 89 12.5 7
Soya hulls 89 11.9 12.2
Palm kernel 89 12.3 18
Wheat distillers 89 13.5 32
Soya bean meal 88 13.8 52
Rapeseed meal 88 12.1 38.5
Beans 86 13.8 29
Pot ale syrup 45 14 37
Urea 99.5 0 287

19
Beef BRP Manuals
Manual 1 Choosing bulls to breed for Better Returns
Manual 2 Marketing prime beef cattle for Better Returns
Manual 3 Improving cattle handling for Better Returns
Manual 4 Beef production from the dairy herd
Manual 5 Feeding suckler cows and calves for Better Returns
Manual 6 Improve beef housing for Better Returns
Manual 7 Feeding growing and finishing cattle for Better Returns
Manual 8 Optimising suckler herd fertility for Better Returns
Manual 9 Controlling worms and liver fluke in cattle for Better Returns
Manual 10 Better Returns from pure dairy-bred male calves
Manual 11 Managing replacement heifers for Better Returns
Manual 12 Better Returns from calf rearing

See the AHDB website ahdb.org.uk for the full list of Better Returns Programme
publications for beef and sheep producers.

Produced for you by: While the Agriculture and Horticulture

Development Board seeks to ensure
Better Returns Programme that the information contained within
AHDB Beef & Lamb this document is accurate at the time
of printing, no warranty is given in
Stoneleigh Park respect thereof and, to the maximum
Kenilworth extent permitted by law, the Agriculture
Warwickshire and Horticulture Development Board
CV8 2TL accepts no liability for loss, damage
or injury howsoever caused (including
T 024 7647 8834 that caused by negligence) or suffered
E [email protected] directly or indirectly in relation to
information and opinions contained
W ahdb.org.uk
in or omitted from this document.
@AHDB_BeefLamb
© Agriculture and Horticulture
If you no longer wish to receive this Development Board 2019.
information, please email us on All rights reserved.
[email protected]

60006 0522