16 API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 573

restricted or by the use of improper tube lengths when indi-

vidual tube replacements are made.
c. Bulging. Bulging is generally an indication of overheating.
Continuing under the same temperature and stress conditions
will eventually lead to creep and stress rupture. The amount
of bulging varies with the specific metal and the type of dam-
age, creep or overstress. If the bulge is attributed to overstress
(short-term overheating), and the temperature and stress have
been returned to normal, typically the life of the tube has not
been reduced. Creep life will be reduced, if the bulge is the
result of creep damage (long-term overheating). Bulging is
considered more serious than sagging or bowing.

6.1.4 Metallurgical Changes

Steels subjected to high temperatures and stress for long
periods can undergo metallurgical change. This change results
in various conditions, including carburization, decarburiza-
Figure 11—General Metal Loss and Pitting of Tubes tion, spheroidization and grain growth. All of these conditions
After Exposure to Moisture and Corrosive Deposits lead to a general reduction in mechanical strength or a change
During Idle Periods in ductility, which may eventually result in failure of the mate-
rial. Some materials, including 5Cr-1/2Mo, may be suscepti-
either temperature or stress. High-temperature overload is a ble to precipitation hardening when concentrations of residual
rapid strain rate associated with short exposures to an extreme elements such as phosphorus, tin and antimony are above cer-
condition of very high temperature, or stress. With stress rup- tain threshold levels and exposed to heater operating tempera-
ture, the metal is overstressed for the coincident temperature. tures for a sufficient time period. The result may be temper
Stress is usually associated with tube “hoop stress” due to the embrittlement with a loss of elongation and notch ductility as
operating pressure; however, stress can also be longitudinal these elements precipitate to the grain boundaries after about
stress from inadequate tube supports or inappropriate design/ a year at temperatures from 572°F (300°C) to 1112°F
construction, which causes a localized high stress. Creep and (600°C). Accordingly, the tube materials have ductile-to-brit-
stress rupture are described in API IRE Chapter II. tle transition temperatures as high as 300°F (149°C) and brit-
The metal temperature plays a major role in the type and tle cracking has been experienced. See API IRE Chapter II for
severity of the deterioration of the heater tubes. The metal a detailed description of these forms of deterioration.
temperature of individual tubes or along the length of any Type 410 stainless steel can be susceptible to alpha-prime
specific radiant tube of a given heater can vary considerably. embrittlement or “885°F embrittlement”, depending on the
The principal causes of abnormal variation in metal tempera- trace elements present in the composition. Alpha-prime signifi-
ture are internal fouling of the tubes which insulates the tube cantly reduces the toughness of the metal when at temperatures
wall from the process and improper or poor firing conditions below 200°F (93°C). Brittle fracture can result from impact
in the heater. Some potential signs of creep in tubes are: loads during downtime so extra caution during handling is pru-
dent. At operating temperatures, the material has acceptable
a. Sagging. Excessive sagging is usually because of a toughness.
decrease in the structural strength of the tube caused by over-
heating. It may also be caused by improper spacing of
6.1.5 Erosion
hangers, uneven metal temperatures, or failure of one or more
tube supports or hangers. Figure 12 shows some roof tubes The velocity of flow through a heating coil may cause
exhibiting excessive sagging due to the failure of tube hangers. severe erosion in heater tubes and fittings if the velocity is
b. Bowing. Excessive bowing is generally caused by uneven critical or if direct impingement occurs. Often, the metal loss
metal temperatures, which may be due to flame impingement is aggravated by the corrosive nature of the process. Erosion
or coke accumulation inside the tube. Heating on one side of in heater tubes is usually the result of velocity. Erosion in
the tube causes greater thermal expansion on the hotter side heater fittings usually results from a combination of impinge-
and bowing toward the heat source. Bowing may also be ment and velocity. If the charge rate on a heater is materially
caused by binding of the tube in the tube sheets or improper increased, the increased velocity may cause metal loss from
suspension of the tube so that longitudinal expansion is erosion and corrosion.