EEEg-3154 Introduction to Power Systems

ADDIS-ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BY M.A
2016

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Course Objectives
The course aims to introduce students to the fundamentals of power systems.
•The students will have a sound understanding of fundamentals of power systems
and modelling power system components for power transmission and
distribution.
•The students will be able to understand analytical methods for calculation of line
parameters.
•The students will have a sound understanding of performance analysis of
transmission lines, cable and overhead line insulators.

Pre-request Courses: EEEg-3131: Introduction to Electrical Machines;

Year/Semester: Third year/ SEM-II;
Status of Course: Compulsory;
Teaching Methods: Lecture supported by tutorial, assignment & lab. exercises;
Course Requirements: Ass(10%) Lab-R and PE-exam (20%) Tests(30%),Final Exam 40%
Attendance Requirements: 75% Lecture Attendance.

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1.FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Historical Development of Electric Power System
1.1.2 Source of Energy
1.1.3 Structure of a power system
1.2 AC and DC transmission
1.3 Single-phase and three-phase transmission
1.4 Complex power
1.5 Introduction to power transformers, CTs and PTs
1.6. Representation Of Power System Components
1.6.0 Single-phase solution of balanced three-phase networks
1.6.1 One-line diagram and impedance or reactance diagram
1.7. Per unit (p.u.) system
2. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
1.Resistance of transmission lines
2.Skin effect and proximity effect
3.Inductance of single-phase two-wire line,
4.composite conductor lines,
5.three-phase line with unsymmetrical spacing,
6.double circuit 3-phase lines & bundled conductors
7.Capacitance of a two-wire line,
8.Three-phase line with equilateral and Unsymmetrical spacing,
9.Effect of earth on transmission line capacitance 3
3. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINES
1.Sag and Tension Calculations
2.Effect of Wind and Ice
3.Stringing chart
4.Sag template
4. CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES
1 Classification of Lines
2 Representation of Transmission Lines
2.1 Short Lines
2.2 Medium Lines
2.3 Long Lines
3 Steady – State, Performance – Efficiency and Regulation
5. CORONA
1.Introduction
2.Disruptive Critical Voltage
3.Corona Loss
4.Line Design Based on Corona
5.Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona

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6. OVERHEAD LINE INSULATORS
1.Types of Insulators
2.Ratings of Insulators
3.Potential distribution over a string of insulators
4.Methods of equalizing potential

7. UNDERGROUND CABLES
1.Types of cables,
2. Capacitance of single core and three core cables
3. Insulation resistance of a cable
4. Power factor and heating of cables
Text Books:
üD.das Electrical Power Systems, New Age International publishers 2006.
üDP Kothari,IJ Nagrath Modern Power System Analysis 3rd Edition
Reference
üDr. George G. Karady, Dr. Keith E. Holbert, Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An
Interactive Computer-Based Approach, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2005.
üJ. D. Glover and M. S. Sarma, Power System Analysis and Design, Brooks/Cole, Third
Edition.
üAllen J. Wood and B.F. Wollenberg, Power Generation, Operation and Control, 2nd
Edition, John Wiley, 1996.
üC. L. Wadhwa, Electrical Power Systems, New Age International Publishers, 2004. 5
Chapter One

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 1. Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction to Power System

Power System is a network of high tension wires/cables by which the generated

Electrical power is transmitted and distributed throughout a region.
Power System consists of the following main components:
qGeneration System- Energy Conversion Methods
qTransmission System- Ultra-high, Extra-high, High and Medium Voltage levels
qDistribution System- Low voltage levels
qThe Load or Energy sink- Resistive, Capacitive and inductive Electrical
devices

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Power System main components
1.Generation System

Types of Energy Resources:

•Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, Atomic energy (Fossil fuel resources)
•Solar, Hydro, wind, hot water/spring, Biomass (Renewable energy
Resources)
Types of Energy Conversion Methods/Generation Systems:
•Diesel Generator, Gas Turbine, Steam Turbine, Steam Injected Gas Turbine,
Nuclear power (Conventional systems)
•PV System, Solar Thermal, Hydropower, Wind Power, Geothermal, Biomass
(Renewable conversion systems)

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 2. Transmission Systems:
This component of the power system transmits the bulk electrical energy
from generation stations where it is produced to the main load centres. The
transmission system is composed of:
• Step-up and Step-down substations
• Transmission lines
3.Distribution Systems
The distribution system gives out the energy from the medium voltage
substations to customers’ location. It is composed of:
• Medium Voltage (MV) lines (33kV, 15 kV)
• MV/LV transformer substations (33/15/ kV to 400/380/220 V)
• Distribution lines (33/15 kV, 380 V 3-phase and 220 v single phase)

4. Load or Energy Sink:

Load is the end equipment of the power system where the transmitted
electrical energy is converted to other forms of useful energy.

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Single line diagram of a Power System Structure

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Sources of Power System Generation are:

Ø Conventional Energy (Non-Renewable) and

Ø Non-Conventional Energy (Renewable) sources

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Solar Flat plate collector
Solar Photovoltaic
Array
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Photovoltaic Water
Pumping 24
 The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source.
 It has served humankind well for many centuries by propelling
ships and driving wind turbines to grind grain and pump water.
 Denmark was the first country to use wind for generation of
electricity.
 One of the most critical features of wind generation is the
variability of wind. Wind speeds vary with time of day, time of
year, height above ground, and location on the earth’s surface.
 Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce
electricity. The kinetic energy of the wind is converted to
electrical energy.

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Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the
carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. It is
derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from the
wood industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest,
household wastes etc.
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The term hydro-power is usually restricted to the generation of shaft
power from falling water. The power is then used for direct mechanical
purposes or, more frequently, for generating electricity.

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30
Aloto Langano (Ziway) Tendaho (Afar)
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A natural gas is a mixture of different gases the main ingredient is
Methane, a natural compound that is made from the decay of plant
and animal remains.
Ø Two ways to transport electricity
• Alternating current (AC)
• Direct current(DC)
Ø Two ways to increase the transported power.
• By increasing the current level (I), It needs larger
conductor cross-section.
• By increasing the voltage level (V),It needs more
insulation.

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AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

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 DC TRANSIMISION SYSTEM
Ø Only active power is transmitted through the line so that
• Current flows in one direction
• Conductor cross-section fully used
• Low transmission loss
Ø Requires DC-AC converters to control the voltage level
so that expensive.
Ø Switching of higher voltage DC more difficult

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Cont’d Advantages

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 Disadvantages
(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at
high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
A.C. transmission.
Ø Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.
Advantages
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers
with ease and efficiency.
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Fig. shows the single line diagram of high voltage d.c. transmission. 42
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Power in single phase and three phase systems

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Active Power and Reactive Power

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Cont…

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S  V I  co s( V   I )  j sin ( V   I ) 
 P  jQ
 V I* (Note: S is a complex number but not a phasor)

P = R eal P o w er (W , k W , M W )
Q = R eactiv e P o w er (v ar, k v ar, M v ar)
S = C o m p lex p o w er (V A , k V A , M V A )
P o w er F acto r (p f) = co s 
If cu rren t lead s v o ltag e th en p f is lead in g
If cu rren t lag s v o ltag e th en p f is lag g in g
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Relationships between real, reactive and complex power
P  S cos 
2
Q  S sin   S 1  pf

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

W hat are  (power factor angle), Q and S ?
  - cos  1 0.85   31.8 
100 kW
S   117.6 kVA
0. 85
Q  117.6 sin(  31.8  )   62.0 kVar

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 Real power supplied by the source is equal to the sum of the real powers
absorbed by the load and the real losses in the system
Reactive power must also be balanced: The balance is between the sum
of leading and the sum of lagging reactive power producing elements i.e.
≡ Generator_MVARs + System_gain + Shunt_capacitors =
MVAR_Demand + Reactive_losses + Shunt_reactors
The ‘System gain’ is an important source of reactive power in the above
power balance equation, which is generated by the capacitive nature of
the transmission network itself.
The total complex power delivered to the loads in parallel is the sum of
the complex powers delivered to each

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At every node (bus) in the system
Ø Sum of real power into node must equal zero
Ø Sum of reactive power into node must equal zero
This is a direct consequence of Kirchhoff’s current law, which
states that the total current into each node must equal zero.
Ø Conservation of power follows since S = VI*

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 I = V/Z=20-6.9 amps

S  V I *  10030  206.9  200036.9 VA

  36.9 pf = 0.8 lagging
SR  VR I *  4  20  6.9 206.9
2
PR  1600W  I R (Q R  0)
SL  VL I *  3 j  20  6.9 206.9
2
Q L  1200 var  I X (PL  0)
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Resistors only consume real power
2
PResistor  I Resistor R
Inductors only consume reactive power
2
Q Inductor  I Inductor XL
Capacitors only generate reactive power
2 1
Q Capacitor   I Capacitor XC XC 
C
2
VCapacitor
Q Capacitor   (Note-some define X C negative)
XC
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 First solve
basic circuit

40000  0  V
I   400  0  Amps
100  0  
V  40000  0   (5  j 40) 400  0 
 42000  j16000  44.9  20.8  kV
S  V I *  44.9k  20.8   400  0 
 17.98  20.8  MVA  16.8  j 6.4 MVA
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 Now add additional
reactive power load
and resolve

Z Load  70.7  pf  0.7 lagging

I  564   45  Amps
V  59.7 13.6  kV
S  33.7  58.6  MVA  17.6  j 28.8 MVA

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Assume we have 100 kVA load with pf=0.8 lagging,
and would like to correct the pf to 0.95 lagging
S  80  j 60 kVA   cos1 0.8  36.9
1
PF of 0.95 requires desired  cos 0.95  18.2
Snew  80  j (60  Qcap )
60 - Qcap
 tan18.2  60  Qcap  26.3 kvar
80
Qcap  33.7 kvar
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Ø Now-a days 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted
for generation and transmission of electric power as an
economical proposition.
Ø However, distribution of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-
wire a.c. system.
Ø The underground system is more expensive than the overhead
system. Therefore, in our country, Overhead system is mostly
adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.
Ø Single-phase loads may be connected to a three-phase system
in two ways. Either a load may be connected across two of the
live conductors, or a load can be connected from a live phase
conductor to the neutral conductor.

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A three-phase generator
consists of three single-
phase generators with
voltages of equal
amplitudes and phase
differences of 1200

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Each of three-phase
generators can be
connected to one of three
identical loads.
This way the system
would consist of three
single-phase circuits
differing in phase angle
by 1200.
The current flowing to
each load can be found as

I = V/Z
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Ø We can connect the negative (ground) ends of the three single-
phase generators and loads together, so they share the common
return line (neutral).

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 The current flowing through a neutral can be found as

IN  I A  IB  IC  I  I 1200  I  2400

 I cos( )  jI sin( )  I cos( 1200 )  jI sin( 1200 )  I cos(  2400 )  jI sin(  2400 )
 I cos( )  cos( 1200 )  cos(  2400 )  jI sin( )  sin( 1200 )  sin(  2400 )
 I cos( )  cos( )cos(1200 )  sin( )sin(1200 )  cos( )cos(2400 )  sin( )sin(2400 )
 jI sin( )  sin( )cos(1200 )  cos( )sin(1200 )  sin( )cos(2400 )  cos( )sin(2400 )

Which is:
 1 3 1 3 
I N  I cos( )  cos( )  sin( )  cos( )  sin( ) 
 2 2 2 2 
 1 3 1 3 
 jI sin( )  sin( )  cos( )  sin( )  cos( ) 
 2 2 2 2 
0
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 Balanced 3 Phase () Systems

Residential balanced 3 phase () system has

Ø three voltage sources with equal magnitude, but with an angle
shift of 120
Ø equal loads on each phase
Ø equal impedance on the lines connecting the generators to the
loads
Bulk power systems are almost exclusively 3
Single phase is used primarily only in low voltage, low power
settings, such as some commercial.

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Voltages and currents

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I a  I ab  I ca  138  20  1380
 239  50 amps
Ib  239  170 amps I c  2390 amps

*
S  3  Vab I ab  3  13.80kV  138 amps
 5.7 MVA
 5.37  j1.95 MVA
pf  cos 20   lagging
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 Introduction to power transformers, CTs & PTs

Ø Power transformers can be classified as

Step-up transformers to be connected between the
generator and the transmission line. They permit a
practical design voltage for generators, and at the same
time an efficient transmission line voltage.
Step-down transformers connected be t w e e n t he
transmission line and various electrical loads.
The transformer consists of two or more insulated
windings wrapped around an iron core. By definition, the
primary winding is the input winding, and the secondary
winding is the output winding

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 Instrument Transformers
Some other types of transformers are used in measuring
voltage, current, and power flow in the power system.
The majorities are potential transformers and current
transformers.
Potential transformers (PT) are single-phase transformers of
special design, which step down the voltage to be measured to
a safe value.
Current transformers (CT) step down the currents and have
insulation adequate to isolate metering equipment and
personnel from the line voltage.
One terminal of the secondary of both potential and current
transformers is usually grounded for safety.

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Example 1. A 100: 5 transformer is used in conjunction with a 5-amp ammeter:
If the latter reads 3.5 A, find the line current.
Solution. Here, the ratio 100 : 5 stands for the ratio of primary-to-secondary
currents i.e.
I1/I2=100/5
therefore, Primary (or line) current= 3.5 x(100/5)=70 A
Example 2. It is desired to measure a line current of the order of 2,000A to
2500A. If a standard 5-amp ammeter is to be used along with a current
transformer. what should be the turn ratio of the latter? By what factor
should the ammeter reading be multiplied to get the line current in each case?
Solution. I1/I2= 2000/5 = 400 or 2500/5 = 500.
Since I1/I2 =N2/N1 hence N2/N1 = 400 in the first case and 500 in the
second case. It means that N1 : N2:: 1: 400 or 1: 500.
Ratio or multiplication factor in the first case is 400 and in the second case
is 500.

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• These transformers are extremely accurate-ratio step-down transformers and are
used in conjunction with standard low-range voltmeters (usually 150-V) whose
deflection when divided by voltage transformation ratio gives the true voltage on
the high voltage side.
• For safety, the secondary should be completely insulated from the high-voltage
primary and should be in addition grounded for affording protection to the
operator.
• The following Fig. shows the connections of such a transformer

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230/132 kV Power Transformer

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Instrumentation Transformers: Gibe-I 400/230 kV Substation

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REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

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Cont…

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 1.6.1 One-line (single-line) diagrams
• Almost all modern power systems are three-phase
systems with the phases of equal amplitude and shifted
by 120˚. Since phases are similar, it is customary to
sketch power systems in a simple form with a single
line representing all three phases of the real system.
• Combined with a standard set of symbols for electrical
components, such one-line diagrams provide a compact
way to represent information

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Cont…

120
 One-line (single-line) diagrams
• Example 10.1: a power system containing two synchronous machines, two loads, two
busses, two transformers, and a transmission line to connect busses together

All devices are protected by oil circuit breakers (OCBs). We notice that the
diagram indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer,
and also the points in the system connected to the ground.
The ground connections are important since they affect the current flowing in
nonsymmetrical faults. These connection can be direct or through a resistor or
inductor (they help reducing the fault current that flows in unsymmetrical
faults, while having no impact on the steady-state operation of the system
since the current through them will be zero). Machine ratings, impedances,
and/or consumed (or supplied) powers are usually included in the diagrams.
121
1.6.2 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits

S1 ,base
I base 
VLN ,base
 
2
VLN ,base V
LN ,base
Z base  
I base S1 , base
122
 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits

• Where VLN,base is the line-to-neutral base voltage in the three-phase

circuit (same as the base phase voltage in a Y-connected circuit)
S1,base is the base apparent power of a single phase in the circuit.
• The base current and impedance in a per-unit system can also be
expressed in terms of the three-phase apparent power (which is 3
times the apparent power of a single phase) and line-to-line voltages
(which is 3 times the line-to-neutral voltage):
S3 ,base
I base 
3VLL ,base

 
2
VLL ,base V LL ,base
Z base  
3I base S3 ,base
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• In the per-unit system, all quantities are represented as a fraction
of the base value:
actualvalue
Quantityin per  unit
basevalueof quantity

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 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits

• If any two of the four base quantities are specified, the other base
values can be calculated. Usually, base apparent power and base
voltage are specified at a point in the circuit, and the other values
are calculated from them. The base voltage varies by the voltage
ratio of each transformer in the circuit but the base apparent power
stays the same through the circuit.
• The per-unit impedance may be transformed from one base to
another as
2
 Vold   S new 
Per  unit Z new  per  unit Z old    
 Vnew   Sold 

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Example. A power system consists of one synchronous generator
and one synchronous motor connected by two transformers and a
transmission line. Create a per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit
of this power system using a base apparent power of 100 MVA
and a base line voltage of the generator G1 of 13.8 kV. Given that:
G1 ratings: 100 MVA, 13.8 kV, R = 0.1 pu, Xs = 0.9 pu;
T1 ratings: 100 MVA, 13.8/110 kV, R = 0.01 pu, Xs = 0.05 pu;
T2 ratings: 50 MVA, 120/14.4 kV, R = 0.01 pu, Xs = 0.05 pu;
M ratings: 50 MVA, 13.8 kV, R = 0.1 pu, Xs = 1.1 pu;
L1 impedance: R = 15 , X = 75 .

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Per-Unit Example solution

To create a per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit, we need first

to calculate the impedances of each component in the power
system in per-unit to the system base. The system base apparent
power is Sbase = 100 MVA.
everywhere in the power system. The base voltage in the three
regions will vary as the voltage ratios of the transformers that
delineate the regions. These base voltages are:
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 Cont…

Vbase,1 13.8kVRegion 1
110
Vbase,2 Vbase,1 110kVRegion 2
13.8
14.4
Vbase,3 Vbase,2 13.2kVRegion 2
120

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Per-Unit Example solution

The corresponding base impedances in each region are:

The impedances of G1 and T1 are specified in per-unit on a base

of 13.8 kV and 100 MVA, which is the same as the system base
in Region 1. Therefore, the per-unit resistances and reactances of
these components on the system base are unchanged

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 Per-Unit Example solution

Ø There is a transmission line in Region 2 of the power system. The impedance

of the line is specified in ohms, and the base impedance in that region is 121
. Therefore, the per-unit resistance and reactance of the transmission line
are:
15
Rline, system   0.124 perunit
121
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X line, system   0.620 perunit
121
ØThe impedance of T2 is specified in per-unit on a base of 14.4 kV and 50 MVA
in Region 3. Therefore, the per-unit resistances and reactance of this component
on the system base are:
per  unitZnew  per  unitZgiven Vgiven Vnew   Snew Sgiven 
2

RT 2, pu  0.01 14.4 13.2  100 50   0.238 per unit

2

X T 2, pu  0.05 14.4 13.2  100 50   0.119 per unit

2

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Per-Unit Example solution

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