Rigved, Avesta, and Harappan or Saraswati-Sindhu Valley Civilization

By VR Patil (email:[email protected])

I. Brief Introduction to the Terms Used in the Title of Essay:

Rigved

Rigved is a collection of the ―Songs of Praise‖ composed in the archaic Sanskrit

language. Based on the content of the Rigvedic hymns it is generally agreed that all most all
Poems of Rigved were composed in the North-west part of the Indian Sub-continent. Since
there is no mention of Iron metal in any of the poems, it is said that the texts belong to the
Bronze Age.

Rigved consists of about 1028 hymns grouped into Ten Mandalas or Books. Out of
the Ten Mandalas, Mandala-2 to 7 is categorized as the Family Mandalas as these are
composed by the Poets belonging to Six Families of Rishis. The most striking feature about
these ancient Poems is after composition and compilation in the form of Ten Independent
Mandalas/books they were transmitted from one generation to other strictly in the oral form
only. Therefore, in a true sense they are regarded as Shruti means ―what is heard‖.

Avesta

The sacred scriptures of the ancient religion developed in old Persia (present-day Iran
and Afghanistan) have been credited to Zoroaster whose followers are known as
Zoroastrians. The language used for the composition of the documents is generally known
as Avestan language.

Similar to the division of Ten Rigvedic Mandalals into the Five Early and the Five
Late Mandalas; Avestan literature is also divided into Old and Young Avesta.

Yasna belongs to the class of Old Avesta, gets its name due to presence of Yasna
ritual that defines basic acts to be performed at the time of worship. Five Gathas (Yashts or
Songs of Praise) consisting of seventeen hymns attributed to Zoroaster are the Core Poems
of Yasna.

Vendidad and Vispered are considered as the two separate parts of Young Avesta.
In a stricter sense Yasna, Vendidad, and Vispered together form the Avesta.
 Vendidad contains 22 chapters (Fargard) and mainly deals with the code and practice
for the priestly community of the Zoroastrian religion.

Vispered is treated as the extension the Gathas as it is based on Yasna. The term
―Vispered‖ means ―All the Chiefs.

Harappan or Saraswati-Sindhu Valley Civilization

Harappan Civilization was discovered in the early part of twentieth century when
around 1922 excavation carried out at two different places in the North-west region of British
India revealed the remains of the ancient cities; Harappa on the bank of the river Ravi and
Mohenjodaro on the bank of the Sindhu/Indus. The Archaeologists and the Historians
believe that Harappan Civilization flourished between about 3300 B.C. and 1300 B.C. in
the region that is now covered by parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan and North-western India, and
was contemporaneous with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia Civilizations.

As compared to many Bronze Age Civilizations, the Harappan Civilization was

apparently more advanced in the era of 2500 B.C.E. especially in the areas like urban
planning, house construction (use of the baked bricks of standard sizes), metallurgy, weights
and measures etc. It had trade and commerce contacts with other contemporary civilizations.
Researchers have proposed three major periods of Harappan Civilization as;
Early Harappan Period---3500 to 2600 B.C.E.
Mature Harappan Period—2600 to 1900 B.C.E.
Late Harappan Period ----1900 to 1300 B.C.E.

Scholars have given three main reasons for the decline of Harappan Civilization.
1. Natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes.
2. Aryas Invasion Theory (AIT).
3. Drying up of the rivers like Ghaggar-Hakra due to disturb pattern of Monsoon.

History of civilization informs us that from hunter-gatherer stage to the present-day

Modern age, Man made progress with time in the form of three important phases namely;
―Stone Age‖, ―Bronze Age‖, and ―Iron Age‖. Actually, these three pre-historic ―Ages‖ have
been named after the type of Materials used by Man during that particular period, but they
also reflect his progressive nature.
II. Background of the Present Investigation:

Sir William Jones, the founder of the Royal Asiatic Society who had earlier studied
many European, Persian, Arabic, and Hebrew languages and upon posting in India during the
British regime as a Judge in Calcutta closely examined Indian Culture and Languages
including Sanskrit. While delivering a lecture on the third Foundation day of the Royal
Asiatic Society in the year 1786, he commented that there exists linguistic similarities
between the many Europeans, Indians and Iranian languages, and that became the starting
point for the Comparative Linguistic and Indo-European studies. It is also said that Sir
William Jones was the first person who proposed Invasion Theory in India.
In the nineteenth century, several Europeans took personal interests, learned Sanskrit
first, and then translated many ancient Sanskrit texts including Vedas and Upanishads into
their mother tongues. While translating any ancient text from one language to other,
―mindset‖ of a translator matters the most. Therefore, in the field of translated literature, we
see different versions of the translated ancient texts authored by several scholars. Same thing
holds true in case of Rigved as well. But the interpretation of the several archaic Sanskrit
terms present in it, has definitely created uncertainty about the true meanings of the Rigvedic
Hymns and also caused heated arguments/ friction among the Rigvedic experts on several
occasions.
A few centuries ago the ancient literature composed in the Indian Sub-continent
including Four Vedas, Upanishadas, Aranyakas, Brahmanas, etc were out of bound for most
of the common people of the country as well as the foreign origin persons/strangers. Hence
study of these Sanskrit based documents was mainly restricted to the persons belonging to
Upper Castes.
Earlier to the European Scholars like Max Muller, no one from India has ever said
that these scriptures were composed by the People who came from outside the country.
The Linguists who look at the Proto Indo-European (PIE) language as the common
source of All Indo-European Languages found in the world say that Rigved was composed
by the People of Eurasian origin who migrated to India anytime between 1700 to 1500 BCE.
But majority of the Archaeologists are of the opinion that there is continuity in the Material
Culture of the Harappan Civilization and the post Harappan period.
In the present essay, main focus is on the contents of Rigved so as to get better picture
of the Rigvedic characters like Indra, Saraswati, Yajna, Asva, Movements of the Priests
etc. Additionally, some Avestan features common with Rigved are covered.
III. Arbitrariness in portraying the “Aryas as the Intruders in Indus Valley”:

The champions of the Aryans Migration Theory (AMT) forcefully state that the
Aryas who composed Rigved came to the Indian Sub-continent from outside, brought their
Cultural Aspects (both Philosophical and Material Culture) with them. Their argument is
mainly based on the use of ancient Sanskrit Language to compose Rigved, and presence of
terms related to Horse and Chariot in the texts. As far as Sanskrit language is concerned,
many linguists go by the theory of Proto Indo-European (PIE) as the common parent
language of All Indo-European Languages existing in the world or extinct much earlier.

Although till date no direct evidence of a common ancient language is traced

anywhere in the world, but the linguistic experts who began their work as early as nineteenth
century arrived at a hypothetical language (PIE) using the Comparative Methods. Existence
of the similarities in the many commonly used words in these languages, some structural and
a few mythological features have helped the scholars in creating the theoretical framework
for an imaginary PIE Language as the only source of the several languages of the world.

As per PIE, Avestan Language that was once spoken in Iran is the Sister Language
of Vedic Sanskrit and both languages are believed to have originated from a common Indo-
Iranian language that was once spoken by the Aryas who lived in Central Asia a long back.
This thing brings ancient Indian and the Iranian cultures closer to each other. As per AMT,
the Indo-Aryans population, the speakers of ancient Indo-Iranian Language migrated from
Eurasian Steppes (present-day Russia and Kazakhstan) to Bactria Margiana Archaeological
Complex (BMAC) around 2000 BCE but after the invention of Horse Drawn Chariot. After
spending several years there, they split into two factions, one going to Iran, and other one
moving to Indus Valley around 1500 BCE forming independent but related cultures.
In this way the present-day scholars brand the Aryas of Rigved as the Intruders in
the Indus Valley so as to market their views on the History of Rigvedic Aryas with ease.

Therefore, it becomes necessary to study and find out what do the Rigvedic
Composers have to say about their Struggle, Movements, and Evolution of Vedic Philosophy.
Since Indra, Yajna, Asva are the most commonly discussed and debated terms of
Rigved, the main purpose of present investigation to probe the origin these three important
terms and to understand probable reason for separation of the Rigvedic and Avestan People.
A. Signs of the Priests lived in the Western Territory found in the Late Mandalas:

Majority of the Rigvedic scholars generally agree on the point that Mandala-5, 8, 9,
1, and 10 were composed after the completion of the Five Early Mandalas (Mandala-2, 3, 4,
6, and 7), and hence are known as the Five Late Mandalas of Rigved.
In this section we shall be discussing about the information available in the Two Late
Mandalas (Mandala-8 and 1) that clearly signals during the period of Composition of these
Two Mandalas, the Priests mostly lived in the Western Region of Rigvedic Territory [1].

1. Speciality of the hymns addressed to Adityas, Rv-8.18; Rv-8.47; and Rv-8.67:

In Mandala-8 there are three hymns dedicated to Adityas/the sons of Aditi [1].

Even though the hymn Rv-8.18 is believed to have dedicated to Adityas but the Poet
has demanded protection from the enemies, shelter, happiness, good health, longer life, and
peace from several other Deities including Goddess Aditi, Asvins, Agni, Surya, Vayu,
Maruts, etc. In the verses 1 to 7, the Composer has highlighted the issue of Shelter and the
Protection from the foes. Probably at that time, the Priests would have arrived in the area that
was not familiar to them but located on the west bank of river Sindhu. In the first 25 hymns
of Mandala-8 there are five references of river Sindhu. Also in the verse-16 the Poet has
hinted at searching for a suitable shelter in the mountain but where water is readily available.

Rv-8.18,16: ā śarma parvatānāmotāpāṃ vṛṇīmahe |

dyāvākṣāmāre asmad rapas kṛtam ||

# Fain would we have the sheltering aid of mountains and of water-floods:

Keep far from us iniquity, O Heaven and Earth.

The verses 13 to 15 intimate us that an unidentified mortal or human being residing in

that locality was trying to harm or cheat the Priests. It means to say that both the place and
the people where the Priests landed were unknown to them.
Through the verses 10 to 12 the Singer has requested the Adityas to drive away
diseases, bad thoughts, opponents, also take away sins, and provide shelter where man can
walk freely.
 In Mandala-8 there are two more hymns Rv-8.47; and Rv-8.67 dedicated to Adityas.
Content of the hymn Rv-8.47 indicates that as if the Poet wants to express deep
gratitude to the Adityas and other Deities especially Usha/Dawn/the daughter of Heaven
for providing proper shelter and giving faultless protection from the enemies.

The hymn Rv-8.67 is comparable to hymn Rv-8.18 in content as the Composer prays
to Adityas and Aditi to provide shelter and the need of protection from the evil characters.

In a nutshell, when the Rigvedic Priests move to a new place to live there, then as per
the old custom they request the Adityas to provide shelter and protection from the unknown
enemies. This is because the Adityas are the oldest gods fashioned by the pre-Rigvedic
Rishis, believed to be the joint custodians of the whole world and responsible for running
the show of world efficiently using the cosmic laws established a long ago. Hymns Rv-8.18,
and Rv-8.67 do convey that the members of the Priestly Community have gone to the
unfamiliar locations and hence demand proper shelter and protection from Adityas.

But the content of the hymn Rv-8.47 signals that the Priests are now settled at one
place and hence are thankful to the Deities for offering proper shelter and protection.

Additionally, the Early Mandalas hymns Rv-2,27; Rv-7.51, Rv-7.52 do depict that whenever
the Members of Priestly community got relocated to a new area, they appealed to Adityas to
guard and give proper shelter to them. Similar trend is noticed in some hymns of Mandala-5
dedicated to Visvedevas and Mitra-Varuna wherein the Composers expect Adityas like
Varuna, Mitra and Aryaman to take care of them as they moved to a new place.

Note: About hundred years ago, whenever the Hindus of India performed a long distance
journey on foot or on bullock carts to visit the Religious Places as a part of Pilgrimage, they
purposely prayed to the Gods for availability of proper shelter to take halts on the way to the
place of pilgrimage and protection from the wild animals and the thieves/looter too.

2. Indra uses Snow instead of Vajra to kill Arbuda:

The verse Rv-8.32,26 from Mandala-8 points out a very special situation that is not
at all mentioned in any of the Six Family Mandalas of Rigved (Mandala- 2 to 7).
Rv-8.32,26: ahan vṛtraṃ ṛcīṣama aurṇavābhamahīśuvam |
himenāvidhyadarbudam ||
# He, meet for praise, slew Vritra, slew Ahisuva, Urnavabha‘s son,
And pierced through Arbuda with frost.

Out of the several words figure in the above verse, the word Himen/हषमेन is the most

important one as it presents a circumstantial evidence for the real situation encountered by the
Priests. As per the Poet, here mythical God Indra does not use his regular but the most potent
weapon Vajra/Thunderbolt but applies a new thing, Himen to kill Arbuda (the word
Arbuda is also found in verses of the Earliest Mandala Rv-2,11,20 and Rv-2.14,4). Here
Himen may be interpreted as heavy Snow-fall /snowstorm (Griffith translated it as a frost).
Whatever be the actual intention of the Poet for using the said word, it definitely
communicates us that the Poet had reached the place where snow-fall was very common. It
means, at that time, the Priests were present in the mountainous region of the western part of
Rigvedic Territory where snow-fall or ice accumulation was experienced everywhere and
hence there was no water scarcity at all. Therefore, there were no foes like Vritra or Arbuda
who kidnaps the rain cloud or Ahisuva /dragon who blocks the flow of the rivers.

Although Shata Himah/ hundred winters, a generic phrase is found in Mandala-2

and 6 as well; the two out of the Five Early Mandalas but it is mainly used for demanding
longevity and sustenance in the harsh winters from the Deities, and does not demonstrate
residing in a snow bound region where the Priests lived at that particular time period. Some
variants of word Hima found in the Three Late Mandalas of Rigved are given as under.
Himen –Rv-1.116,8; 1.119,6; Rv-8.73,3

Himavyeva- Rv-1.34,1

Hima-vanta –Rv-10.121,4

Hima-Rv-10.37,10

From the above information it is crystal clear the Poets of the afore-stated verses
probably used the word Hima to point out the area where actual snowfall occurred and that
area has to be the mountainous region located to west of river Sindhu bordering modern
Afghanistan as in the All Five Late Mandalas; river Sindhu and river Rasa find their
mention. Except in Mandala-4, no reference of the names of western rivers like Sindhu,
Sarayu, and Rasa is available in the Other Four Early Mandalas of Rigved.
3. Reference of the Rigvedic Priests crossing the Rigvedic Territory:

Two verses from Mandala-1 first time hint at the Poet had crossed border of his land
and ventured into a new area called as Gandharva located in the North-west direction [1].

Rv-1.22,14: tayorid ghṛtavat payo viprā rihanti dhītibhiḥ |

ghandharvasya dhruve pade ||
# Their water rich with fatness, there in the Gandharva‟s steadfast place,
The singers taste through sacred songs. ($)

Rv-1.22,15: syonā pṛthivi bhavānṛkṣarā niveśanī |

yachā naḥ śarma saprathaḥ ||
# Thorn-less be thou, O Earth, spread wide before us for a dwelling-place:
Vouchsafe us shelter broad and sure.

The Verses Rv-1.22,14 intimates us that the Poet has physically crossed the boundary
of the Rigvedic Territory and reached the region known as Gandharva (high rise plateau?)
but located outside the country of the Priests to taste the fatty milk or water (ghṛtavat payo)
there. “Tasting of thick milk/water” requires a person to be physically present in that area
and the same has been explained by the Poet using the words dhruve pade /firm footings.

In the verse-15 the Composer first time talks about the exploration of the extension
of Earth/Prithvi, probably a region that was totally new to him where he took the shelter and
that locality was placed outside the boundary of his ancestors‘ country.

In another verse from Mandala-1; Rv-1.126,7; the Poet has highlighted that the
Gandhara region is famous for the thick hairy (Romasha) female sheep/Avika.

Rv-1.126,7: upopa me parā mṛśa mā me dabhrāṇi manyathāḥ |

sarvāhamasmi romaśā ghandhārīṇāmivāvikā ||
This type of description is not found in the Five Early Mandalas of Rigved despite
the fact that there is a reference of UrNa/wool in the verse Rv-4.22,2. It means to say that
during the composition of Mandala-8, the Rigvedic Priests did spend sometime in the
mountainous region located to west of river Sindhu, and then as depicted in the verses Rv-
1.22,14-15; they further moved to a new territory called as Gandharva/Gandhara (present-
day Afghanistan) where Soma plant was naturally grown in the large quantity.

$ -Griffith has translated phrase dhruve pade of the verse Rv-1.22,14 as a sacred song
which is not correct. It is most likely that his interpretation was based on the dhruva-
pada phrase frequently used by the Hindustani Classical Vocal Artists/Singers while
talking about their songs. Here meaning of dhruve pade term has to be taken as the feet
that are securely fixed/ established or rooted firmly.

Although above discussion is based on the verses taken from Mandala-8 and
Mandala-1 (the Two Late Mandalas of Rigved) but the Poets of Mandala-5 who belonged to
Atri clan have also avoided talking about the age-old fictional story of ―Indra killing
Vritra‟ in about 43 composed Hymns starting from Hymn-44 to 87 that are dedicated to
different Deities. Out of these 43 hymns, only in the hymn Rv-5.86 which is jointly
addressed to Indra and Agni, there is a passing reference of Indra as Vritraghna (see the
verse-Rv-5.86,3). Please note that Mandala-5 is the first among the Five Late Mandalas
wherein we find the names of several western rivers such as Sindhu, Rasa, Krumu, Kubha,
Sarayu, Anitabha in a single verse Rv-5.53,9. In other words, as there are no active
reference of Indra bringing rain in any of these 43 hymns by smiting Vritra or Ahi means
the Priests when moved to the western part of Sindhu/Indus Valley did not have to face
water scarcity at all as was experienced by them in the Saraswati Valley (Please refer to
verse Rv-5.43,11 that indirectly indicates drying up of river Saraswati. Here the Poet appeals
to Goddess Saraswati who now lives in heaven to come to Yajna site in a running state from
the mountain to listen to his praise song).

Some Notes on Gandharva/Gandhara Region

1. Except one reference found in the Mandala-3 verse Rv-3.38,6, all other references of
the term Gandharva/Gandhara belong to the Late Mandalas of Rigved.

2. Ancient Gandhara region extended from Swat and Peshawar Valleys of modern
Pakistan, to Kabul Valley of present-day Afghanistan and Karakoram Range was
its Northern boundary. In Young Avesta, Gandhara is mentioned Vaēkərəta as the
 seventh most beautiful place on earth, created by Ahura Mazda (in proper Avestan
language the region is identified as Gadāra). It is most likely that at the time of
composition of Rigved, the region was famous for the spices and aromatic herbs
including Soma plant, and the people of that region would have traded these items
with the people who lived in Sapta-Sindhu region. Probably that is why in the verse

Rv-3.38,6 the Singer has used ळायुकेऴान/Vayu-keshan term to depict Gandharvas as

the slim people (tall and thin like hair/slender) who move swiftly like wind from one
place to other to sale Soma and other goods to the residents of Sapta-Sindhu region
(see the hymns Rv-3.36; 37; and 38 addressed to Indra for presence of Soma).

3. In the verse Rv-1.163,2 the Poet has used Gandharva term to link the bridle of the
Asva (true horse) with the people of Gandhara region. It denotes that the
Gandharva people knew how to restrain or control Asva/the True Horse using rein,
and not the people originated from the Rigvedic region. It implies that the true horse
was unknown to the Rigvedic Aryas earlier, and introduced to them by the
outsiders/traders when they lived in North-west corner of the Indian Sub-continent.

4. Three verses belonging to three different hymns of Mandala-9 (Rv-9.83, 4; 9.85,12;

and 9.86,36) exhibit connection of word Gandharva with Soma plant.

5. The verse Rv-10.10,4 links Gandharva with water/ flood means there was no
paucity of water in Gandhara region, hence conditions were favourable for growth of
Soma.

6. In the two verses Rv-10.123,4 and 7 the Composer has identified Soma as
Gandharva. This is due to presence of Soma on the mountains of Gandhara region.

7. In the hymn Rv-10,139, Gandharva word is present in the three consecutive verses;
and the verses 4 to 6 actually link Indra with Soma. Similar connection is also
noticed between these two characters in the verse Rv-8.77,5 (also see Rv-8.77,4).

8. History tells us that in the 6th century BCE, Gandhara region was conquered by the
Persian king Cyrus the Great the founder of Achaemenid Empire, in 327 BCE by
 Alexander the Great, and was also a part of the Maurya Empire at the time of
Ashoka the Great before becoming famous for Gandhara Art during the period of
Indo-Greek Kingdom. From 200 BCE to 300 AD, Gandhara region served as the
nodal region for the spread of Buddhism to Central and west Asia.

9. The Khyber Pass, the key land route in use since ancient time for trade and military
conquest connecting Pakistan and Afghanistan is located in Gandhara region.

In sum, some verses from Mandala-8 and 1 do manifest that the Rigvedic
Composers who had shifted to west of river Sindhu during the period of Mandala-5, surely
visited the mountainous region located in the western direction of river Sindhu where they
experienced snow-fall, and then crossed the boundary of their traditional home-land, and
spent some time in the new area known as Gandharva region (present-day Afghanistan).

B. God Indra –a Transition from the Supreme God to the Disputed God in Mandala-8:

In this section we shall try to get answers to the following questions;

1. How was God Indra perceived by the Poets of the Five Early Mandalas?
2. Why and when did God Indra become the Controversial Character?

Selected Verses of the Five Early Mandalas that Glorify Indra as the Sole Lord

The Composers of the All Five Early Mandalas in their “Songs of Praise” dedicated
to Indra have described Him as the Supreme Deity, and the Poet of the verse Rv-3.51,4 has
specifically termed the God as Eka Ishe/ the Lone Lord of the world. Following verses
selected from the Early Mandalas convey us the feelings of the Poets about God Indra [1].
In the verse Rv-2.12,7; the Poet has declared Indra as the Chief Controller of the
whole world who practically controls everything including Surya/the Sun, and Usha/Dawn.
Rv-2.12,7: yasyāśvāsaḥ pradiśi yasya ghāvo yasya ghrāmā yasya viśve rathāsaḥ |
yaḥ sūryaṃ ya uṣasaṃ jajāna yo apāṃ netā sa janāsa indraḥ ||
# He under whose supreme control is horses, all chariots, and the villages, and cattle;
He who gave being to the Sun and Morning, who leads the waters, He, O men, is Indra.
 The Poet of the verse Rv-4.18,4 has categorically stated that Indra‟s birth is a very
unique case, and no one like has been born earlier and would take birth in future.
Rv-4.18,4: kiṃ sa ṛdhak kṛṇavad yaṃ sahasram māso jabhāra śaradaś ca pūrvīḥ |
nahī nv asya pratimānam asty antar jāteṣūta ye janitvāḥ ||
# What strange act shall he do, he whom his Mother bore for a thousand months and many autumns?
No peer hath he among those born already, nor among those who shall be born hereafter.

Another verse from Mandala-4 depicts that Indra is God of all Gods, divine being
and has enough strength and power.
Rv-4.22,3: yo devo devatamo jāyamāno maho vājebhir mahadbhiś ca śuṣmaiḥ |
dadhāno vajram bāhvor uśantaṃ dyām amena rejayat pra bhūma ||
# God who of all the Gods was born divinest, endowed with ample strength and mighty powers,
And bearing in his arms the yearning thunder, with violent rush caused heaven and earth to tremble.

Two verses form Mandala-6 describe Indra is matchless, most active and born to
conquer the enemies.
Rv-6.38,5: evā jajñānaṃ sahase asāmi vāvṛdhānaṃ rādhase ca śrutāya |
mahāmughramavase vipra nūnamā vivāsema vṛtratūryeṣu ||
# Him, born for conquering might in full perfection, and waxen strong for bounty and for glory,
Great, Powerful, will we to-day, O singer, invite to aid us and to quell our foemen.

Rv-6.45,16: ya eka it tamu ṣṭuhi kṛṣṭīnāṃ vicarṣaṇiḥ |

patirjajñe vṛṣakratuḥ ||

# Praise him who, Matchless and Alone, was born the Lord of living men,
Most active, with heroic soul.

Mandala-7 Poet says that like Indra nobody will ever be born in the world.
Rv-7.32,23: na tvāvānanyo divyo na pārthivo na jāto na janiṣyate |
aśvāyanto maghavannindra vājino ghavyantastvā havāmahe ||

# None other like to thee, of earth or of the heavens, hath been or ever will be born.
Desiring horses, Indra Maghavan! and kine, as men of might we call on thee.
 Above exercise has been done to point out the fact that God Indra was the most
favourite God of the Poets of the Five Early Mandalas. In reality, the Poets were following
the path chosen by their ancestors, firmly believed in Indra as the most perfect god
fashioned by the pre-Rigvedic Rishis, and has been specifically created by their forefathers
as the unparallel and unchallenged God to solve all their problems. Therefore, since start, the
Composers of the Early Mandalas had very high expectation from God Indra.

Indra who was “For Sale” in Mandala-4, became “Not For Sale” in Mandala-8

The verses from Two Different Mandalas but belonging to two Separate Classes (the
Early and Late Mandalas) paint for us a contradictory wordy picture of Indra.

Please note that in the Mandala-4 hymns Rv-4.16 to 20, the Poet Vamadeva
Gotama (who is said to be from Angirasa Clan) has given proper account of birth of
mythical God Indra, provided details of the immediate acts performed by him to defeat
several enemies of the Priests. Surprisingly, the same Composer in the hymn Rv-4.24
addressed to Indra narrates the story of newly fashioned Indra is being ―put on sale‖.

Rv-4.24,9: bhūyasā vasnam acarat kanīyo 'vikrīto akāniṣam punar yan |

sa bhūyasā kanīyo nārirecīd dīnā dakṣā vi duhanti pra vāṇam ||

# He bid a small price for a thing of value: I was content, returning, still un-purchased.
He heightened not his insufficient offer. Simple and clever, both milk out the udder.

In the above verse the Singer says that as there is no suitable offer from anyone, and
hence Indra is still remained un-sold.

Rv-4.24,10: ka imaṃ daśabhir mamendraṃ krīṇāti dhenubhiḥ |

yadā vṛtrāṇi jaṅghanad athainam me punar dadat ||

# Who for ten milch-kine purchaseth from me this Indra who is mine?
When he hath slain the Vrtras let the buyer give him back to me.
 In the afore-mentioned verse, the Poet has rated Indra equal to Ten Mitch Cows but
further put a condition that after killing Vritra, the purchaser has to give Indra back to him.

It means to say that in the beginning when Indra was conceived by the pre-Rigvedic
Rishis after holding lengthy brain storming sessions for month‘s together (see the verse Rv-
4.18,4 for the reference of Sahastram Maso/thousand months and sharadachya purvih/
many sharada/autumns) but there were no takers for Him in the Vedic society. Same thing
has been indirectly explained by the Poet in the verse Rv-4.18,11 wherein he has commented
that the Old Gods of Vedic Philosophy turned their faces away from Indra, means at the
time of creation of Indra some People of the Rigvedic society were not at all interested in
freshly shaped character Indra, but had full trust in the Old Gods (Adityas).
In other words, through these two verses, the Composer has stated factuality of non-
acceptance of Indra by other people or communities who lived with the Priestly community.

Now take a close look at the Mandala-8 verse Rv-8.1,5 given below.

Rv-8.1,5: mahe cana tvāmadrivaḥ parā śulkāya deyām |

na sahasrāyanāyutāya vajrivo na śatāya śatāmagha ||
# O Caster of the Stone, I would not sell thee for a mighty price,
Not for a thousand, Thunderer! Nor ten thousand, nor a hundred, Lord of countless wealth!

In the afore-stated verse the Poet has made it crystal clear that he does not want to sell
Vajra bearer Indra at any cost, neither for hundred, nor for thousand nor for ten thousand.
He has also defined Indra as the most Invaluable God.

Next verse of the same hymn tells us how Indra is close to the Poet.
Rv-8.1,6: vasyānindrāsi me pituruta bhrāturabhuñjataḥ |
mātā came chadayathaḥ samā vaso vasutvanāya rādhase ||
# O Indra, thou art more to me than sire or niggard brother is.
Thou and my mother, O Good Lord, appear alike, to give me wealth abundantly.

In the above verse, the Singer has revealed mentality of his father and brother who are
ready to go anywhere to earn the wealth and willing to do anything forgetting their traditional
activities like Yajna rituals (ready to go anywhere means leaving other family members on
their fate), then identified Indra as like his mother who is always with him, and requested
the God to give him abundant wealth as unlike his father and brother, he (the Poet) wishes to
live in the company of the Supreme God only.
Now we shall take a serious look at the verses Rv-7.21,5 (from the class of Five Early
Mandalas) and Rv-10.99,3 (belonging to the Last Mandala of Rigved) as both verses tell us
about an uncommon but very special thing not normally discussed by the Several Poets.

Rv-7.21,5: na yātava indra jūjuvurno na vandanā śaviṣṭha vedyābhiḥ |

sa śardhadaryo viṣuṇasya jantormā śiśnadevā api ghurtaṃ naḥ ||
# No evil spirits have impelled us, Indra, nor fiends, O Mightiest God, with their devices.
Let our true God subdue the hostile rabble: let not the lewd approach our holy worship.

Rv-10.99,3: sa vājaṃ yātāpaduṣpadā yan svarṣātā pari ṣadatsaniṣyan |

anarvā yacchatadurasya vedo ghnañchiśnadevānabhi varpasā bhūt ||
# On most auspicious path he goes to battle he toiled to win heaven's light, full fain to gain it;
He seized the hundred-gated castle's treasure by craft, unchecked, and slew the lustful demons.

Note: Griffith Translation (indicated by symbol-#) of both verses do not provide correct

meaning of the word ―शऴश्नदे ळा /Shishna-Deva ”

Hymns Rv-7.21 and Rv-10.99 are addressed to Indra, wherein both Poets say that
Indra needs to kill the people who worship Phallus God/ Shisna-deva. In other words,
during the period of the composition of Rigved, the Priests did not like anyone worshipping
any other God in the physical form such as Idol/ Religious Image/figurine. It means to say
that since inception of Rigved till the time of the Composition of Mandala-10 (the Last
Mandala of Rigved), the Priests did not believe in Idol worship of any God in any form as
the contents of the verses Rv-7.21,5 and Rv-10.99,3 do indicate that they strongly opposed

and verbally attacked those (the Five Tribes ?) who worshipped “शऴश्नदे ळा /Shishna-Deva”.

Since the content of the hymn Rv-7.21 does exhibit that it was composed after the
victory of Bharatas in the ―War of Ten Kings‖, it can be said that the Rigvedic Priests
came in direct contact with the Phallus Worshippers who also lived in the east of river
Sindhu but after the war only. It also manifests that there were people belonging to other
tribes who too resided in the Eastern Part of Rigvedic Territory (on the bank of river
Saraswati or area adjoining river Yamuna as Bheda and his close friends were defeated on
the bank of Yamuna) but had beliefs and practices different from the Rigvedic Priests.

Note: The archaeologists have recovered Phallic Images at some sites of the Harappan
Civilization.

Now revisit the verse Rv-8.1,5; where the archaic Sanskrit word adrivaḥ means
possessor of Stones and is generally used as an epithet for Indra. For the ease of
understanding, if it is taken as a King is interested in carving an Image of Indra and hence
wants to get proper wordy picture of Indra from the Poet in exchange of wealth/precious
items for a Stone Carver‟s work, then it can be said that as the Rigvedic Priests had no
interest in making engraved image of their beloved God Indra on a stone, and hence were
not interested in selling the Vedic ideology to anyone. This is based on the fact that as per the
verses Rv-7.21,5 and Rv-10.99,3 the Priests did not like the Phallus worshippers.

In other words, through the verse Rv-8.1,5 probably the Poet wants to make it very
clear that “No Imagery of Indra Please”, which implies that he does not want to share his
knowledge with the commoners who lived to west side of river Sindhu. Please remember
that Mandala-8 contains maximum numbers of ―Dana-Stuti‖ in the Rigvedic Texts.

Special Observation

It is very interesting to know that the two special words used by the Poets found in the
two separate hymns of Rigved that were composed during the two different eras are still
being used in the languages that are originated from Sanskrit. These words are;

Rv-4.24,9 word -वळक्री/Vikri which means “Sale” (noun) or “to sell” (verb).
Rv-8.1,5 word -ऴुल्क/Shulka which stands for “Fee” (n) or “Price/Cost/Rate”.

Note: ऴुल्क/Shulka word is also present in the verse Rv-7.82,6.

 Some References of Mandala-8 do imply Conflict about God Indra

As discussed earlier, the Composers of All Six Family Mandalas had endless faith in
God Indra, and they never wanted to do away with their beloved God. But when the Priests
got relocated to west of river Sindhu during the period of composition of Mandala-5, the
availability of sufficient water in that region would have brought substantial change in
perspective of some as it was realised by them that Indra had no role in providing ample
water in that region. This must have divided the Priestly Community into two groups as the
Poets of some families kept glorifying Indra for contributing nothing. It is to be noted here
that out of All Ten Mandalas of Rigved, Mandala-8 is the only Mandala in which we find
the very first hymn dedicated to God Indra [1, 2].

Table-1 provides wordy picture of the feelings expressed by the Mandala-8 Poets on
Marvellous God Indra, His deeds, and the rise and fall in His relationship with Other Gods.

Table-1
Verse Number Description about Indra, his Great Acts and relation with his Friends
Rv-8.15,3; 11 Indra alone has killed many Vritras.
Rv-8.16,8 Indra is victorious even when alone.
Rv-8.21,13 By birth Indra is Brother less or Rival less and Friend less.
Rv-8.24,15 No one mightier than Indra has ever born.
Rv-8.36,4 Indra is the creator of Heaven and Earth. (How is it possible?)
Rv-8.62,2 Indra- companionless, unequal, and sole one.
Rv-8.70,5 Indra is bigger than hundred Heavens, hundred Earths and thousand Suns.
Rv-8.76,1 to 9 Indra takes the help of Maruts to destroy Vritra and other enemies.
Rv-8.88,4 Great warrior with excellent power and skill surpasses all created things.
Rv-8.96,7 Except Maruts all other old Gods desert Indra.
Rv-8.96,19 Indra, the aggressive Hero, the only Vritra slayer is alone now.
Rv-8.97,9 Neither Gods nor Mortals want to pay attention to Indra.
Rv-8.100,3 ―Who has seen Indra?‖ ―If He does not exist, then whom shall we worship?‖
(The most relevant questions asked by the Poet raise doubt about Indra).
Rv-8.100,5 Indra is resting on his back alone & his old friends started heckling Him.
Rv-8.52,7 Indra is considered as the Turiya/Fourth Aditya (why?).
 From the information placed in Table-1, it can be easily inferred that the Poets
belonging to Kanva and Angirasa clans (since the Poets from these two families are said to
have composed most of the hymns of Mandala-8) were the diehard fans of Indra. Therefore,
they did not like anyone targeting Indra. It seems that when some members from the
Rigvedic Community raised voice against unwarranted glorification of Indra at the time of
Yajna rite, then the hardcore Priests did not budge from their earlier stand but got engaged
with the opponents in a verbal fight.

The contents of some verses do manifest that during the period of Mandala-8, Indra
lost most of his close friends. It means to say that those unidentified persons took strong
objection to God Indra alone but had no problem with other Deities. That is why some Poets
say that since Indra alone is capable to kill Vritra, and needs no company. Only the Singer
of the hymn Rv-8.76 has states that Indra took the help of Maruts to kill the enemies.

The verse Rv-8.97,9 informs us that now both Gods and Mortals (Men) do not look
at Indra at all. The verse Rv-8.100,3 presents the worst scenario wherein the Composer has
pointed out that some persons did question the Poet about very existence of Indra. Taking a
clue from this point, the Poet in a self-addressed question has further added that ―If Indra
does not exist, then to whom shall we worship?‖

In the verse Rv-8.100,5 the Poet has mentioned that when Indra was taking rest
(hibernation?), then some old Gods who were His friends earlier, jeered at Him. It means
that once Indra was the Supreme God of all but now has become the subject of making fun.

But the Poet of the hymn Rv-8.96 has made it clear that with the help of Brihaspati,
the Rigvedic Priests could defend Indra and won the oral war with ease.

In the verse Rv-8.96,9 the Composer has identified the opponents of Indra as

अनायुधाशो अशुरा अदे ळा / anāyudhāso asurā adevā or Weapon-less Asuras who had no faith

in God Indra. Those Asuras or persons are none other than a section of the Rigvedic
Priests, most likely from the family of Bhrugu as at the time of the War of Ten Kings, the
Bhrugus are described to be friendly with the Druhyus (refer to the verse Rv-7.18,6). The
Poet through the verse Rv-8.96,16 tells us that similar situation did arise at Indra‘s birth.
 The Poet in the verses Rv-8.96,13 to 15 has cryptically described the story as ―a
black drop/ a seed of discord grew in size, became ten thousand/increase in numbers or
the opponents got multiplied like anything, then sank in river Amshumati as a black cloud
sinks in the water means the group of opponents of Indra disappeared somewhere. God
Indra could win the verbal war against the Adeva/Non-believers with the aid of Brihaspati‖.

On the basis of presence of various geographical features in Mandal-8 and the reason
for separation, it can be stated the split in the Rigvedic Community would have occurred in
the western part of Rigvedic Country where there was no paucity of water in that area.

The Hymns of Mandala-8 do convey us that Indra, the Ideal God of the Five Early
Mandalas actually became an Idle God at the time of composition this Mandala as there
was no water scarcity in the western locality of river Sindhu (was no need to kill Vritra).
Some Poets have used Shata-krata a very special adjective in their compositions for
Indra. Literally, the word Shata-krata means Hundred Powers or Hundred Resolves. But
in the practical sense Shata-krata may be taken the God Designed to Perfection (100%).
Mandala-wise data collected on the term Shata-krata is given below [2].

Shata-krata: 1(13), 2(2), 3(7), 4(1), 5(3), 6(2), 7(1), 8(36), 10(4),

From the above data it is evident that the Poets of Mandala-8 have used the
term about 36 times which is more than the total references found in other Mandalas.
Also no Singer from Mandala-9 (Soma Pavamana Mandala) has applied this term in
any song. In the single hymn Rv-8.36; Shata-krato /ऴतक्रतो word appears 6 times.

In other words, the Poets of Mandala-8 have treated Indra as the most perfect God
ever created by their ancestors and hence were not in a state of mind to forget Him.

Special Observations
1. In the first 25 hymns of Mandala-8 there are five references of river Sindhu. In the
verse Rv-8.20,25 river Sindhu and river Asikni (Chinab) do appear together.

2. The verse Rv-10.75,8 intimates us that the People who lived on the west side of river
Sindhu possessed ample wealth in the form of animals like Sheep, Oxen, and good
 quality wood to make Ratha, Gold etc. Probably that is why we find maximum
numbers of “Dana-stuti Yajnas” in Mandala-8 as in the western territory there
were many rich and noble persons to sponsor the ritual.

From the above discussion, it is crystal clear that although the hardliner Priests won
the ―War of the Words‖ against their opponents using the best possible word-power but
could not prevent the vertical split in the Community as they were for Indra but failed to
convince the people belonging to other group who were against Indra. However, they were
successful in retaining God Indra as the Supreme Being in the Vedic Philosophy.
In other words, “No Indra, No Yajna in Rigved”.

In short, in Mandal-8, there is conclusive evidence of breaking up of the Priestly

Community into two opposite factions because of undue glorification of God Indra.

C. Analyzing References of river Saraswati for Physical and Geographical State:

No knowledgeable person who has read the Rigvedic Texts would deny that river
Saraswati is the most celebrated river of Rigved as there are three hymns specifically
dedicated to Saraswati and the said word appears more than 70 times in the Ten Mandalas
of Rigved. As the height of glorification, the Mandala-2 Poet in the verse Rv-2.41,16 has
praised the river as ―ámbitame nádītame dévitame sárasvati / the best Mother, the best
River, and the best Goddess‖. Except Mandala-4, river Saraswati makes her presence felt
in remaining Nine Mandalas. The most beautiful part of the story is Saraswati has been
identified as one of the three main Goddesses in the verse-8 or 9 of the Ten Apris hymns.

Some scholars who are the advocates of the Aryas Migration Theory (AMT) keep
repeating old story that river Saraswati described in the documents is not Ghaggar-Hakra
river that flows seasonally in the North-west part of the Indian Sub-continent (present-day
India and Pakistan) but actually river Helmand of modern Afghanistan that originates from
Hindu Kush mountains, discharges into lake Hamun located in the Southern part of
Afghanistan. Their argument is based on a single reference of river ―Harahvaiti” or
„Haraxvati‟ mentioned in the Young Avesta, and a word believed to share a common
origin with Sanskrit word Saraswati (in Avestan language, Sanskrit ―S‖ changes to ―H‖).
 It is strange but the fact that though the generations of Rigvedic Composers have
expressed their never ending faith and attachment to their beloved river using special words
in the composed Poems, but only a few of them could have spent some time on the bank of
river Saraswati.
Even though the generations of the Rigvedic Poets lived away from river Saraswati,
still some of them kept visiting the known places located on the bank of the river on some
special occasions and showered praise on her in the best possible way. Especially the hymns
from the Last Two Late Mandalas (Mandala-1, and 10) wherein the active references of
river Saraswati are found, do exhibit similar situation.
Note: The phrase ‗Active Reference‟ means only those verses have been taken into
consideration that gives proper account of conduction of Yajna on the bank of river
Saraswati. Casual references of river Saraswati are not included in the present discussion.

Table-3 and 4 give the true picture of river Saraswati covering both present and past
of the river. The Poets belonging to different eras have narrated the factual state of river.
Table-3: The Rain Dependency of river Saraswati

Verse Number Description in the particular Rigvedic Verse

Rv-6.49,7 Saraswati is denoted as pāvīravī /a child of lightning which denotes
presence of rainy season at the time of composition of verse as lightning
occurs only when the rain-clouds gather in the sky.
Rv-6.52,6 Swelling /pinvamānā of river Saraswati and other rivers of that area
credited to heavy rains brought by Parjanya on the instruction of Indra.
Rv-7.96,2 Purus reside on the two grassy banks of river Saraswati does manifest
that Puru people come to live on the riverside only when there is enough
water in Saraswati and that can happen only during rainy season.
Rv-1.164,52 and These two verses jointly reflect the availability of water in river
Rv-1.164,49 Saraswati due to presence of Suparna/celestial bird/rain-cloud who is
loaded with germ of waters/ water droplets. It means to say that as
indicated in the afore-stated verses of Mandala-6, and 7; the Two Early
Mandalas of Rigved; during the composition of Mandala-1 as well
there was no major change in the situation and river Saraswati was
totally dependent on rain for the supply of water.
 Table-4: The Pathetic Condition of river Saraswati

Verse Number Description about the factual condition of river Saraswati

Rv-6.61,14 The Poet has appealed to river Saraswati not to refuse her milk to the
people who reside on her banks; otherwise they would have no option but
to go to distant countries to live. In other words, from availability of water
point of view at the time of composition of the said verse, the condition of
river Saraswati was very bad. Therefore, the Singer has issued a stern
warning to the river to do something urgently to retain the residents on the
banks or else they would desert her and go somewhere.
Rv-7.95,2 The verse brings out the past story of river Saraswati. When the King
Nahusha was ruling the country from the town located on her bank, at
that time river Saraswati used to complete her full course starting at the
mountain and ending in the sea / ocean. It means that, once upon a time
during the pre-Rigvedic period river Saraswati used to flow constantly,
and had no water shortage. But as described in the verse Rv-7.96,2; after
the victory in the ―War of Ten Kings― when the Poet visited Purus‘ land,
then there he noticed scarcity of water probably due to scanty rainfall
(Vritra effect). It indicates Saraswati was a seasonal river.
In other words, in reality the two verses Rv-7.95,2 and Rv-7.96,2 depict a
contradictory picture but that needs to be understood in proper context.
Rv-5.43,11 The Poet has called Saraswati as the Goddess who now lives in heaven
which indirectly means the river had stopped flowing. The Poet has
requested Saraswati to visit the place of worship but as a river she needs
to come in running state from the mountain. It implies that at that time, the
river had gone dry and that is why the Poet has denoted her as the Goddess
who lives in Heaven and prays her to arrive on the Earth.
Rv-8.21,17 and These two verses jointly convey us that most of the people who lived
Rv-8.21,18 earlier on the bank of river Saraswati have moved away from her banks.
In these two verses the Poet has requested Indra to provide water through
the act of Parjanya so that king Chitra and other small kings would
continue to stay on the bank of river Saraswati, keep worshipping the
Gods by performing Yajnas regularly and give many gifts to the Priests.
 Additionally, presence of some independent but consecutive verses addressed to river
Saraswati in Mandala-1, and 10 (see verses Rv-1.3,10 to 12; and Rv-10.17,7 to 10) makes it
apparent that the Last two Mandalas were composed during the transition phase of Rigved.
It means to say that during that period, the people would have been on the move from first
West to East, then East to West, and finally shifted from the West of river Sindhu to Doab
region located to East of river Saraswati (Ganga-Yamuna basin), but on some occasions
kept visiting the places of their interest located on both sides as and when felt. As in some
verses of both Mandalas the Poets have used Ilaspade term that indicates the locality
(present-day Haryana) where once the ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests lived, and hence the
period of composition of these Two Mandalas is treated as the transition phase.

From the above information it is evident that at the time of composition of All Ten
Rigvedic Mandalas, river Saraswati was purely rain-fed and hence seasonal river and not
the perennial river as believed by some scholars. Of course, one reference Rv-7.95,2 do
indicate that during Nahusha‘s regime the river used to flow from mountain to ocean. But in
reality, king Nahusha is the character of past who ruled that region a long back during the
pre-Rigvedic period and was not existing at the outset of Rigvedic Composition. Please note
that the term Nahusha is absent in the Three Early Mandalas (Mandala-2, 3, and 4).
Additionally, the verse Rv-6.61,2 of the hymn Rv-6.61 dedicated to Saraswati does
describe that as if the river cuts the Hills and slays the Mountains with its water. But this is
applicable to any mountain origin river mostly at the start. Once a river enters the plains, its
riverbed becomes wider and same thing has been indirectly told by the Poet in the verse Rv-
6.61,13. Also the verse Rv-6.61,9 tells us about the past story of the east to west expansion
of kingdom of the Aryas probably occurred at the time of king Nahusha (here the Poet has
cleverly used daily movement of Surya to indicate the direction of growth of the realm).

Now it is necessary to know the Geographical location of river Saraswati. Since the
three hymns that are devoted to Saraswati belong to the Early Mandalas of Rigved, hence it
is necessary to scrutinize the Five Early Mandalas to find out along with Saraswati which
are the other rivers have been mentioned by the Composers in these Mandalas.
As the Mandala-4 Poet is conspicuously silent on the topic of river Saraswati, it has
been excluded from the present study.
Therefore, the Four Early Mandalas; Mandala-2, 3, 6, and 7 have been scanned for
the said purpose, and information collected is given in the Table-5.
 Table-5
Mandala Number Names of the Rigvedic Rivers found in the corresponding Mandala
2 Saraswati
3 Saraswati, Vipas, Sutudri, Apaya, Drsadvati
6 Saraswati, Hariyupiya, Yavyavati, Ganga
7 Saraswati, Parusni, Yamuna

General Observations on the above Data

1. River Saraswati is the common factor in the All Four Early Mandalas of Rigved.
2. Mandala-2 contains only river Saraswati. It can be said that during the composition
of Mandala-2, the Rigvedic Priests lived in the downstream area of river Saraswati.
3. Presence of the names of river Ganga in Mandala-6, and Yamuna in Mandala- 7
manifests that the Poets of these Two Mandalas did travel to east of river Saraswati.
4. Appearance of the names of the mid-region rivers like Vipas (Beas), Sutudri (Sutlej)
in Mandala-3, and Parusni (Ravi) in Mandala-7 signals that the Composers of these
Mandalas definitely spent some time in the present-day Punjab state of India.
5. Rivers named as Apaya and Drsadvati are believed to be the tributaries of river
Saraswati as all the three are seen together in the verse Rv-3.23,4. Existence of the
term Ilaspade in the same verse possibly indicates area currently known as Haryana.
6. The names of two rivers; Hariyupiya, Yavyavati are noticed in Mandala-6 only. It is
most likely that both rivers would have been located to east of river Saraswati.
7. Absence of the name of river Sindhu and any of her western tributaries makes us to
say that the Poets of afore-mentioned Mandalas did not visit west side of Rigvedic
Territory during their lifetime.

From the above observations, it is known that river Saraswati belongs to the eastern
part of Rigvedic Country and on her banks the Priestly Community resided since pre-
Rigvedic time. Then it is essential to find out relative geographical position of the most
celebrated river of Rigved with respective other rivers located to east of river Sindhu.

Surprisingly, two verses belonging to the hymn Rv-10.75 given below do provide
proper clue about the Relative Geographical Positions of several Rigvedic Rivers.
Rv-10.75,5: imaṃ me gaṅghe yamune sarasvati śutudri stemaṃ sacatā paruṣṇyā |
asiknyā marudvṛdhe vitastayārjīkīye śṛṇuhyāsuṣomayā ||

Rv-1075,6:tṛṣṭāmayā prathamaṃ yātave sajūḥ sasartvā rasayāśvetyā tyā |

tvaṃ sindho kubhayā ghomatīṃ krumummehatnvā sarathaṃ yābhirīyase ||

In the verse Rv-10.75,5 the Poet has given information about the rivers located in the
eastern part of Rigvedic Territory and in the verse Rv-10.75,6 he has talked about the rivers
of the western region of Rigvedic Territory (river Sindhu and her western tributaries). In
fact, in a nutshell, these two verses provide proper insight on the Geography of Whole
Rigvedic Territory where the several generations of the Rigvedic Priests lived, and also
demarcate the country into two distinct regions making river Sindhu as the border.

In reality, the Singer has started the verse Rv-10.75,5 with the remembrance of river
Ganga of the Far East Zone, then while moving in the west direction, one by one he has
placed other rivers flowing in the Eastern region of the country in a proper sequence. From
the information given in the verse Rv-10.75,5 now it is possible to determine the
geographical location of river Saraswati. As per the content of the verse, river Saraswati
lies between river Yamuna (placed to east) and river Sutudri/Sutlej (positioned to west).
Based on this input, now it is certain that river Saraswati is nothing but present day seasonal
river Ghaggar-Hakra that flows through two countries carved out of the British India. In
India the river is known as Ghaggar, and in Pakistan it is called as Hakra.

Summing up the discussion on the Physical and Geographical state of river

Saraswati, it can be easily concluded that since pre-Rigvedic time the river was dependent
on rains. It is most likely that due to frequent failure of Monsoon at that time, once regularly
flowing but rain-fed river Saraswati unfortunately turned into the seasonal river. Probably
the well known mythical story of ―Indra kills Vritra or Ahi to make the rivers of the
region to flow‖ is based on the factual condition of the eastern area adjacent to river
Saraswati. Also the circumstantial evidence available in Rigved leads to the confirmation of

present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River as the Rigvedic River Saraswati (सरस्वती नदी).

D.: Origin and Promotion of Rigvedic Yajna in the Eastern Part:

As per the Composers of the ancient texts of Rigved and Avestan Gatha, the
believers of both philosophies religiously performed a ritual commonly known as Yajna in
Rigved and Yasna in Avesta. But the two verses from Mandala-8 intimate us that Yajna
was devised after the birth of Indra. The sequence of the events derived from the two verses
Rv-8.89,5 and 6 is given below.

1. Appearance of Vritra/Real Drought

2. Creation of Indra
3. Formulation of Yajna

It means to say that there was no Yajna before the fashioning of Indra. The contents
of some Rigvedic Verses tell us that a long before the shaping of Indra, there were Seven
Adityas who used to manage the Universe by applying the Rta/Cosmic laws. Among the
Seven old Adityas, the Poets identify God Savitar as the Solar Deity of the ancient time
who is believed to be the celestial form of land-based God Agni. In other words, like
Adityas, Agni is also an old-time god who was worshipped by the ancestors of the Rigvedic
Priests since the pre-Indra period when Ila was the head of the ancient warrior tribe.
Two verses taken from Mandala-6 do indicate that Pure or Simple Agni worship of
the earlier time was up-graded to Yajna worship subsequently probably after closely
observing the wild-fires on several occasions [1].

# Rv-6.2,1: Thou, Agni, even as Mitra, hast a princely glory of thine own.

Thou, active Vasu, makest fame increase like full prosperity.

# Rv-6,2,2: For, verily, men pray to thee with sacrifices and with songs.
To thee the Friendly Courser, seen of all, comes speeding through the air.

In the verse Rv-6.2,1 the Poet tells us that Agni is like Mitra or friendly with many
settled people means, Simple Agni worship is quite common among the several tribes or the
people who lived at different locations/areas. But in the second verse the Singer makes it
clear that Agni is being worshipped by the Men of his region in the form of Yajna/sacrifice
with the composed songs. This can be seen as up-gradation of Pure Agni worship to Yajna.
 From the above discussion it is evident that Yajna or Sacrificial rite was the design
of the pre-Rigvedic People who believed in Indra and they are nothing but the ancient
Rishis who fashioned Indra as well.
In many verses of the Different Mandalas of Rigved; the Poets have pointed out
close association of ancient Bhrugus with the early Agni worship and its propagation from
one home to another (see the verses Rv-1.58,5; Rv-2,4,2; Rv-3.2,4; Rv-3.5,10; Rv-4.7,1; Rv-
4.7,4; Rv-8.43,13; Rv-10.46,2; Rv-10.46,9; Rv-10.92,10; Rv-10.122,5). Please note that most
of these verses belong to the hymns addressed to Agni.

In the following verse taken from the Last Mandala, the Composer has described that
how Yajna or sacrifice ceremony was evolved in the beginning.

Rv-10.92,10: te hi prajāyā abharanta vi śravo bṛhaspatirvṛṣabhaḥsomajāmayaḥ |

yajñairatharvā prathamo vi dhārayad devādakṣairbhṛghavaḥ saṃ cikitrire ||

# For these have spread abroad the fame of human kind, the Bull Brhaspati and Soma's brotherhood.
Atharvan first by sacrifices made men sure: through skill the Bhrgus were esteemed of all as Gods.

Interpretation of the second line: It was Artharva who first brought all the Gods together
on the occasion of Yajna and then other Bhrugus used their skills to promote the sacrifice. It
means to say that very idea of inviting various Gods at the time of Yajna came from Atharva.

Note: In the legends old Rishis Atharvan and Dadhichi are said to belong to Bhrugu clan.

Now the main point here is since Ahura Mazda is the Supreme God mentioned in
Avesta and He is also believed to be the only creator of the Universe, then how could
Atharva invite several Gods for the earliest Yajna being performed first time?
In other words, Yajna has its origin in the Vedic Culture only where since beginning
several Deities (Adityas, Aditi, Heaven, Earth etc.) already existed. In fact, the contents of the
verses Rv-8.89,5 and 6 do communicate us that after the birth of Indra only, Yajna was
formulated. Therefore, it is totally wrong to believe that Yajna has its birth outside India.
Once the Yajna procedure was finalised by the ancient Rishis, then they would have
experimented the same in presence of a king or a noble person. This particular thing has been
told by the Poet of the hymn Rv-10.63 that belongs to the Last Mandala of Rigved.
# Rv-10.63,1: May they who would assume kinship from far away, Vivasvan's generations,
dearly loved of men,
Even the Gods, who sit upon the sacred grass of Nahusa's son Yayati, bless and comfort us.

Please remember here that Nahusha and Yayati were the characters who lived in the
past and belonged to the clan of Ila (see hymn Rv-1.31); hence they were not present during
the composition of Mandala-2 / the Earliest Mandala of Rigved.
The Mandala-2 hymn Rv-2.7 gives proper evidence of the Rigvedic Yajna was

being performed for a King or a Noble person, as it provides two references of ―भारताग्ने/

Agni of Bharata”, first in the verse-1; and second time in the verse-5.

Rv-2.7,5: tvaṃ no asi bhāratāghne vaśābhirukṣabhiḥ |

aṣṭāpadībhirāhutaḥ ||

# Ours art thou, Agni Bharata, honoured by us with barren cows,

With bullocks and with kine in calf

Interpretation: A special Yajna performed for king Bharata, wherein the Bulls/ukshbhi,
Barren Cows/Vasha and eight footed cow Ashtapadi (a pregnant cow?) are sacrificed (?).

Please note that in the verse Rv-2.7,5 as well as in the complete hymn Rv-2.7; there is
no mention of Asva or Aja/Goat or Avi/Sheep. It is most likely that the animals for Yajna
would have been gifted by the king Bharata to the Priests, hence called as Bharata‟s Agni.

The verse Rv-1.164,43 [1] indicates animal sacrifice was a part of Yajna since start.
Rv-1.164,43: I saw from far away the smoke of fuel with spires that rose on high o'er that beneath it.
The Mighty Men have dressed the spotted bullock. These were the customs in the days afore time,

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that Yajna was first introduced by the
ancestors of Rigvedic Priests but after the creation of Indra when their locality was under
the influence of Vritra/real Drought. On the basis of the precarious state of river Saraswati
described in Table-4, it can be said that the Yajna must have been originated on the bank of
river Saraswati. Also since inception animal sacrifice was the integral part of Yajna.
E. “Sapta-Sindhu” region of Rigved and Avesta:

As mentioned in the introductory part, Vendidad is the Avestan Texts of a Younger

Period wherein the Poet has mentioned that Ahura Mazda, the Supreme Deity of Avesta has
specifically created sixteen different countries for the People who firmly believed in Him.
Among the 16 countries listed in Vendidad (Vidēvdād-1.19), fifteenth one has been termed
as Hapta-Hendu. Based on the systematic study of both ancient documents, the scholars
have equated Hapta-Hendu term with the Sapta-Sindhu phrase found in Rigved. It is
generally believed that the Old Iranians changed the ancient Vedic "S" into "H", and hence
the phrase Sapta-Sindhu of Rigved became Hapta-Hendu in Avesta.

Rigvedic word ―Sindhu‖ generically means a river, a sea/ocean, and river Sindhu proper.

Since in Avesta, Hapta-Hendu term denotes a Land or Area where the believers of
Ahura Mazda lived, and when same principle is applied to the phrase Sapta-Sindhu, it
automatically qualifies as a Region or Country where once the Rigvedic Aryas resided.

Many say that, the Sapta-Sindhu region of Rigved had river Saraswati as its eastern
border, and river Sindhu as the western boundary. The term also includes the Five Rigvedic
Rivers that flowed in between these two main rivers i.e. Sutudri, Vipas, Parusni, Asikni,
and Vitasta. But some see river Saraswati alone as the symbol of ―Sapta-Sindhu‖ of

Rigved. It means to say that at least in case of सप्त ससन्धू /Sapta sindhū land most of the

scholars are unanimous as it was located in the North-west part of the Indian Sub-
continent.

It is to be noted here that Younger Avesta has only one reference of Hapta-Hendu
term but in Rigved there are about eleven references of Sapta-Sindhu phrase placed in Six
Different Mandalas belonging to both classes; the Early and the Late Mandalas as well. It
means to say that use of higher frequency of the term Sapta-Sindhu in Rigved makes us to
say that the phrase has its origin in Rigvedic Culture and subsequently found its place in
Younger Avesta. Logically speaking, to coin a new term like Sapta-Sindhu, a person has to
be familiar with that area since a long time, and only Rigved and not Avesta informs us that
the generations of pre-Rigvedic Rishis like Bhrugus, Angirasas lived there.
 Additionally, out of the total eleven references traced in Rigved; Rv-8.24,27 and Rv-
1.35,8 are the two references belonging to the Two Different Late Mandalas definitely
convey that the said phrase is meant for the Land or Country where the Seven Rivers flow.

As discussed earlier, the process of division of the Priestly community would have
begun while composing the early hymns of Mandala-8, and got completed at the end of
Mandala-8 (please see the discussion on the split in Vedic Community and hymn Rv-8.96).

When Avestan Composer from a distance points out Hapta-Hendu as one out of the
sixteen lands of the Aryas, means at the time of composition of the said verse he knew that
some people who lived in the Sapta-Sindhu area had cultural similarity with him. As we
know from Rigved, only the Members belonging to Priestly Community kept oral record of
their family tree or ancestry, then it is clear that Avestan Poet has to be from the Family of
the Priests who opposed Indra. Therefore, he very well knew the past history of that place.

Rounding up the present investigation on the topic Arbitrariness in portraying the

“Aryas as the Intruders”, from the various points taken up for discussion it is evident that
the Rigvedic characters Indra and Yajna were created by the ancestors of pre-Rigvedic
Rishis after the effect of Vritras (a long duration real drought that occurred for several years
in the Sapta-Sindhu region) when the king Nahusha was ruling the territory from the town
located on the up-stream part of river Saraswati (present-day Haryana state of India).
When a new character Indra was fashioned to counter Vritra leading to a dispute
between the Ruling Class and the Ancient Rishis as the former did not like Indra replacing
old God Varuna from the number One Position. The quarrel would have forced the Rishis to
move to area located in the downstream part of river Saraswati (adjacent to Cholistan desert
of modern Pakistan where river is now known by the name Hakra). After sometime, here
the Yajna ritual was formulated which was nothing but a small scale duplication of wild-fire.
After living in the downstream region for about 40 to 50 years almost in isolation only in the
company of Bharata Tribe but after the completion of Mandala-2 composition due to water
problem, the Rigvedic Priests moved upwards in the direction of Sapta-Sindhu region where
they found that the Five Tribes of Nahusha (Anu, Druhyu, Puru, Turvasa and Yadu) were
ruling the five independent countries formed from the erstwhile kingdom of Nahusha. In
reality, the story of Rigved is nothing but ―the Struggle for Water‖ of the Rigvedic Priests.
IV. Decoding “Pitre Asura” of Rigved and “Angra Mainyu” of Avesta:

4. Who is Pitre Asura?

As pointed out earlier Rigved and Avesta; the ancient texts composed in the two
adjoining regions of Asia have many things common in them that include Fire worship,
Soma, similarities in the languages, old tradition of transferring the knowledge from one
generation to other exclusively in an oral form, and closely related philosophical features.

As discussed elsewhere in Rigved, God Indra is treated as the Ultimate God, and in
Avesta ―Ahura Mazda” is considered as the Supreme Being of that philosophy. The
common thing in both cultures is that the Highest Deities of the respective philosophies are
the most frequently invoked during the Yajna/Yasna ritual.
Avestan name Ahura Mazda literally means the ―Wise Lord‖ in Sanskrit and is
believed to have derived from two independent words found in Rigved and they are ―Asura

and Medha/ अशरु and मेधा”. Then it is necessary to know, what does the word Asura mean

in Rigved? Or who all have been called as the Asuras in Rigved?

In the Ten Mandalas of Rigved, there are more than seventy references of the term
Asura‖ that include its variants like asurya, asurah, asuratva, asuraghn etc
Scrutiny of All Ten Mandalas revealed the fact that the Rigvedic Composers have
called not only some Rigvedic Gods as Asuras but also some Enemies who create problems
for them. Information collected from the selected verses of the various hymns on the use of
term Asura is given below [1, 2].

Rigvedic Deities as “Asuras”

Indra: Rv-3.38,4; Rv-6.20,2; Rv-6.36.1; Rv-8.90,6: Rv-8.97,1; Rv-1.54,3; Rv-1.131,1;
Rv-1.174,1; Rv-10.54,4; Rv-10.55,4; Rv-10.99,2; Rv-10.99,12
Agni: Rv-3.29,11; Rv-4.2,5; Rv-7.2,3; Rv-7.6,1; Rv-7.30,3; Rv-5.10,2; Rv-5.12,1; Rv-5.15,1;
Rv-8.19.23
Indra-Agni: Rv-1.108,6
Yajna/Sacrifice: Rv-3.3,4; Rv-3.29,14; Rv-10.56,6
Varuna: Rv-2.27,10; Rv-2.28,7; Rv-5.83,6; Rv-8.42,1; Rv-1.24,14
Mitra: Rv-10.132,4
Mitra and Varuna: Rv-7.36,2; Rv-7.65,2; Rv-5.63,3; Rv-5.63,7; Rv-8.25,4; Rv-1.151,4
Rudra: Rv-2.1,6; Rv-5.42,11; Rv-1.122,1
Maruts: Rv-7.56,24; Rv-8.20,17; Rv-1.64,2
Savitar : Rv-4.53,1; Rv-5.49,2; Rv-1.35,10
Soma: Rv-10.11,6
Soma Pavamana: Rv-9.71,2; Rv-9.73,1; Rv-9.74,7; Rv-9.99,1
Asvins: Rv-5,41,3
Pushan: Rv-5.51,11
Ribhus: Rv-1.110,3
Surya: Rv-8.27,20-21; Rv-1.35,7
Soma-Rudra: Rv-6.74,1
Bhumi: Rv-1.164,4
Brahmanaspati: Rv-2.23,2
All Great Gods: Rv-3.55,1 to 22
Mitra, Varuna, and Savitar : Rv-3.56,8
Saraswati: Rv-7.96,1
Hari (Indra‘s Asvas): Rv-10.96,11

Human Beings as “Asuras”

King Bhavya: Rv-1.126,2
Poets from Angirasa clan: Rv-3.53,7; Rv-6.19,4; Rv-10.67,2
Opponents of Indra: Rv-8.96,9 (anāyudhāso asurā adevā/ the Weapon-less Asuras)

Other Enemies as “Asuras”

Vruka like enemies standing at the doors of Vritra: Rv-2.30,4
Svarbhanu: Rv-5.40,5; Rv-5.40,9
Enemy/Hostile Force: Rv-10.53,4
Namachi (an enemy of the Priests): Rv-10.131.4
Pipru Dasa: Rv-10.138,3
Ugra/Aggressive Characters: Rv-10.151,3

From the above information it can be said that the Rigvedic word ―Asura‖ is a
―Title‖ initially given by the pre-Rigvedic Rishis to some selected imaginary characters, and
 subsequently the Rigvedic Poets used the same for the natural forces, and some living beings
including the enemies that as per them possess very special skills/qualities, surpassing the
common men of that time. It is very similar to application of present-day titles /designations
like ―Guru‖, ―Pandit‖, ―Yogi‖, ―Ustaad‖, ―Calipha‖, ―Lord‖, ―Emperor‖, ―Superstar/
Superman‖, ―Sir‖ (a Knighted person) etc that are deliberately given to the special
personalities to honour or admire their mastery/authority or awarded in recognition for the
contributions made by them in the specific fields.

Some Vedic scholars have translated the Sanskrit term ―Asura‖ as ―Lord‖, ―Mighty‖,
―Great‖, and ―Vast‖ and on some special occasions, the same has been used to define some
characters as the ―Almighty‖ as well.
Based on the information available in the Rigvedic hymns, it won‘t be wrong if we
make a generalized statement that ―All most all Gods of Rigved do qualify as the Asuras,
but all Asuras are not the Gods/Deities”.

Most of these Rigvedic characters seem to be the ―Naturally Gifted Entities‖, or the
Self-made‖ and/or the ―Self-luminous‖ in their respective fields, and hence the Rigvedic
Priests have projected them in a dignified manner in the texts, whether they are their friends
or the foes.

But in Avesta, ―Ahura Mazda‖ is the only one Asura. The important characteristic
features of ―Ahura Mazda‖ described in the Avestan literature are as under.

 Only Supreme Being and without origin and end.

 Formless and beyond the imagination of all human beings.
 Knows everything means Omniscient.
 All powerful means Omnipotent.
 Present everywhere means Omnipresent.
 The Creator of Everything present in the World.
 The Source of all goodness and happiness.
 Upholder of Truth/Asha/Arta
 Kind, compassionate, merciful, loving, understanding and tolerant.
 Full of light and full of energy which is unchanging.
 Now coming to the main point of ―Pitre Asura‖, the Poet of the hymn Rv-10.124 has
used the phrase in the verse-3 only once but has sent a strong signal of existence of a New
Divine Being/Entity outside the Rigvedic Territory.

Rv-10.124,3: paśyannanyasyā atithiṃ vayāyā ṛtasya dhāma vi mimepurūṇi |

śaṃsāmi pitre asurāya śevamayajñiyādyajñiyaṃ bhāghamemi ||

# I, looking to the guest of other lineage, have founded many rules of Law and Order.
I bid farewell to the Great God, the Father, and, for neglect, obtain my share of worship.

Even though several scholars have termed the hymn Rv-10.124 addressed to various
Gods, but in reality it tells us the story of bringing back the three important Rigvedic Gods
namely; Agni, Varuna and Soma to Indra‘s fold who had earlier switched over from the
side of Rigvedic Priests to other tribe who‘s leading God is ―Pitre Asura”.
The Poet has composed the said verse in a such a way that as if ―God Agni is
narrating his experience of living with the people of other lineage who have enforced new
rules and regulations under the leadership of Pitre Asura since many years and after getting
fed up with the environment prevailed over there, finally decided to come back to Indra‘s
side‖. It means to say that there were some people who lived outside the Rigvedic Territory
and performed Agni worship but their Supreme God was not Indra but Pitre Asura.

The most striking observation is the use of the phrase ádevād deváḥ in the verse-2 of
the same hymn. It actually means God Agni has left the company of Adeva/Godless people
and come to the People who trust the Devah/several independent Gods like Indra.

Now recollect the verse Rv-8.96,9 wherein Mandala-8 Poet has used अनायुधाशो

अशुरा अदे ळा / anāyudhāso asurā adevā or Weapon-less Asuras who are Godless as well to

denote some undefined characters who had questioned the existence of Indra in the world.
In the verse-5, the Composer has pointed out that in the place of the Strangers; the
Asuras have lost their magic power which indirectly means the Gods who were designated
as the Asuras earlier have lost their special status in the country of other lineage. In other
words, in the land of Strangers, there is only one Asura who is known as Pitre Asura and
other Gods who are treated as his sub-ordinates have to report to Him. Indirectly, the
Singer of the hymn Rv-10.124 has termed Pitre Asura as the character having absolute
power to control the culture as other Gods were deprived of the special status of Asura.

Taking into consideration of the points discussed above as well as the characteristic
features of Ahura Mazda given earlier, it can be concluded that Pitre Asura mentioned in
the verse Rv-10.124,3 is nothing but the Earliest name of Ahura Mazda of Avestan
Literature. This conclusion is based on the logic that Father Asura has been portrayed as
the Supreme God and the Controller of the culture of other Lineage who lived outside the
Rigvedic Territory with whom the Rigvedic Priests had no direct contact earlier to this.
Now taking up the point of whether God Varuna of Rigved could be Ahura Mazda
of Avesta, it is not so as believed by some scholars. Both characters have different roles to
play in their respective philosophies. Please note that Varuna in Rigved is always identified
as the ―Son of Aditi‖ and also termed as the Senior Most member of the Seven Adityas.
Varuna is believed to be the controller of rivers, seas, lakes and other water reservoirs thus
makes Him as ―God of water management‖. Also Varuna is not denoted as the Creator but
the implementer of the ancient cosmic laws in true spirit, and hence can be termed as the
sustainer of the world.
On the contrary, as per the Avestan Texts, Ahura Mazda is the sole God who has no
origin. Additionally, Ahura Mazda has been specifically designated as the Creator of all
Living and Non-living things including Gods and Devils of the world. It means, no other god
can sit with Him. However, both Gods share some qualities as all knowing God who upholds
the Truth (rta/asha); has love and compassion for others, gives happiness to all etc.

It is strange but fact that the shadow of heated arguments between the two opposite
camps of the Poets is seen in the composition of some verses of Valakhilya hymns of
Mandala-8. Hymns Rv-8.49 to 59 are categorised as the Valakhilya hymns of Rigved and
generally called as the apocryphal hymns inserted subsequently in Mandala-8. Still a few
verses of these hymns convey us that how some Rigvedic Poets tried to pacify the opponents
of Indra by including some of their points lately in the texts.

1. Indra as the fourth Aditya:

Rv-8.52,7: kadā cana pra yuchasyubhe ni pāsi janmanī |

turīyāditya havanaṃ ta indriyamā tasthāvamṛtaṃ divi ||
# Never art thou neglectful thou guardest both races with thy care.
The call on Indra, fourth Aditya! Is thine own. Amrta is established in the heavens.

Explanation: No Composer from any of the Six Family Mandalas has ever termed Indra as
one of the Adityas, but Poet of the above verse purposely mentioned Indra as the Fourth
Aditya, probably behind the three most senior Adityas namely; Varuna, Mitra and
Aryaman just to show some consideration for the views of opponents of Indra.

2. First time Introduction of the Concept of ―One God” in Rigved:

Rv-8.58,2 :eka evāghnirbahudhā samiddha ekaḥ sūryo viśvamanu prabhūtaḥ |

ekaivoṣāḥ sarvamidaṃ vi bhātyekaṃ vā idaṃvi babhūva sarvam ||

# Kindled in many a spot, still One is Agni; Surya is One though high o‘er all he shineth.
Illumining this All, still One is Usa. That which is One hath into All developed.

Explanation: Even though most of the Singers have treated Indra as the Supreme God, but
in Rigved several Gods and Goddesses are worshipped independently. Hence Rigved is
always viewed as the ancient philosophy based on the Multiple Deities. Surprisingly, the
Poet of the verse Rv-8.58,2 has presented a new idea that is ―all the things have been born
from One‖. Please note that in the said verse the Poet has included names of only those
Deities who are physically seen in action daily and they are Agni, Surya, and Usha.

3. Indra and Varuna placed together as a combined front:

Rv-8.59,2; niṣṣidhvarīroṣadhīrāpa āstāmindrāvaruṇā mahimānamāśata |

yā sisratū rajasaḥ pāre adhvano yayoḥ śatrurnakirādeva ohate ||

# The waters and the plants, O Indra-Varuna, had efficacious vigour, and attained to might
Ye who have gone beyond the path of middle air, no godless man is worthy to be called your foe.

Explanation: Although there are some hymns in Mandala-4 and 7 jointly dedicated to
Indra-Varuna, yet the hymn Rv-8.59 is very special one as it was composed on the
backdrop of the split in the Rigvedic Community. Here the Singer has brought both gods
Indra and Varuna on a common platform and then started praising them together as if the
duo is responsible for whatever is possessed by the Priests and present in the world today.
Hence as per the Poet now there is no godless man (the opponent of Indra) who can be
called as the true enemy of Indra present there. It implies that all the Foes of Indra whether
the factual or fictional have already gone somewhere.
Discussion on the above three verses intimates us that the People who opposed Indra
must have argued with the Hardliner Priests on many points. This has the basis of
introduction of the concept of “Everything has been originated from One God” in the
verse Rv-8.58,2 which is unknown in the All Six Family Mandalas. Surprisingly, many
Avestan scholars say that same thing is the fundamental feature of Avesta.

In short, immediately after the separation from the Rigvedic Priests, the Opponents
of Rigvedic God Indra initially called their Supreme God as Pitre Asura/Father Asura who
was probably the combination of Three Senior Most Adityas; ―Varuna, Mitra and
Aryaman”; as the trio belongs to the oldest lot of Gods shaped during pre-Indra time
(hence Indra is placed as the fourth Aditya in the verse Rv-8.52,7) as many attributes of
these three divine characters are seen in the Avestan God ―Ahura Mazda”, but elevated
this Ultimate God to the status of the „Creator of Everything” so that in future no God
would supersede Him as happened earlier in case of Varuna . Maybe after several centuries,
at the time of Prophet Zoroaster, the archaic Sanskrit name ―Pitre Asura” first became
―Asura Medha‖ and later on as ―Ahura Mazda‖ in the local language of that period.

Drawing a Line Between the Devas/Gods and the Asuras/Demons

In Vendidad 1.19 the Avestan Poet has given proper indication about the residence of
the Vedic Aryas, but the Vedic Poets at the time of composition of Five Early Mandalas of
Rigved did not mention the whereabouts of the Avestan People as they did not exist at all.
Even the term ―Gatha‖; the identity of the oldest scripture of Avesta is absent in the Five
Early Mandalas. Some verses of the hymn Rv-8.96 of Mandala-8 hints at the verbal clash
between the believers and the non-believers of Indra. In the hymn Rv-10.124; the Rigvedic
Composer highlights presence of the People of Other Lineage (outside the Rigvedic
Territory) who too worships God Agni, Varuna and use Soma in Yajna rite, but their
Supreme God has been described as Pitre Asura/Father Asura; totally different from
Rigvedic Indra.
 It shows that, the ancestors of the Avestan People who purposely downgraded Indra
were originally from the Sapta-Sindhu region, but moved out of the Rigvedic Territory at
the end of Mandala-8.

In the hymn Rv-10.124 the Poet has spoken about the People of the Alien Tribe who
do not treat the several Gods of their culture as the Asuras and the said title is exclusively
reserved for their highest God only who is known as ―Pitre Asura/Father Asura‖ and Indra
has no place in the list of the Deities of that culture.

In all probabilities, after gaining experience, the Rigvedic Priests would have decided
to differentiate clearly between the Gods and the Enemies of the Rigvedic People. That is
why, only in the Last Mandala of Rigved, some Composers have purposely used the word
―Asura‖ to depict the Enemies of the Priests. Please note that Soma Pavamana in
Mandala-9 and Other Rigvedic Gods in Mandala-1 are termed as the ―Asuras‖ for
possessing special qualities. Following verses selected from Mandala-10 would clear the
doubts about the use of ―Asura‖ word in the different context than the Earlier Mandalas.

Rv-10.157,4: hatvāya devā asurān yadāyan devā devatvamabhiraks ṃamān ṃāh ṃ ||

# As when the Gods came, after they had slaughtered the Asuras,
keeping safe their Godlike nature.

Comment: This verse gives clear signal that the Gods have come back to their places after
killing the Asuras / the real Demons, as that was essential to safeguard their identity as the
Godheads.
In the verse Rv-10.170,2; God Surya is described as the killer of foes like Vritra,
Dasyu and Asuras.

Rv-10.170,2: vibhrāḍ bṛhat subhṛtaṃ vājasātamaṃ dharman divo dharuṇesatyamarpitam |

amitrahā vṛtrahā dasyuhantamaṃ jyotirjajñeasurahā sapatnahā ||

# Radiant, as high Truth, cherished, best at winning strength, Truth based upon the statute
that supports the heavens,
He rose, a light, that kills Vrtras and enemies, best slayer of the Dasyus, Asuras, and foes.
B. Who is “Angra Mainyu” of Avesta?

General definition of the Avestan term “Angra Mainyu” is given as the ―devil or
chaotic or destructive Spirit‖ which manifests anger or aggressive quality of a character.
In reality, the Oldest Avestan Documents the ―Gathas‖ do not provide full picture of
this Evil character but the Composers of the Younger Avestan Texts do talk about “Angra
Mainyu” in detail.
The Composers of Younger Avesta have illustrated an evil character Angra Mainyu
whose main task is to create problems for the People using his basic qualities like untruth,
arrogance and torture the people till death. In other words, he represents the dark side of life
that makes the People coward, lazy, emotionally unstable which ultimately leads to ignorance
and lacks of self-confidence in them. It means, his primary goal is to create disorder in the
society. As per the texts, he regularly takes the help of his close friends Daevas/Demons and
the Druj/ the Lie or Falsehood to enforce his ideas.
As per Avestan documents it is Ahura Mazda who strongly opposes Angra Mainyu,
the Destructive Spirit and sees that everything in the world would remain in order. It means
to say that Avesta portrays the world as the battlefield between good and bad powers and
Ahura Mazda is duty bound to protect his people from the devil‘s work. That is why in
Fargard-I of Vendidad the Poet has elaborated that Ahura Mazda has purposely created
sixteen perfect lands to safeguard the lives of his Followers from the acts of devil known as
Angra Mainyu. The Composers of the Later Avestan documents have presented Angra
Mainyu as Ahriman, the force behind anger, greed, envy, and other negative and harmful
emotions. These texts paint Ahriman as a devil character that brings chaos, or the breakdown
of order and structure of the world.
It is generally believed that Ahura Mazda, the Ultimate Being has created Spenta
Mainyu to counter the effect of the main adversary Angra Mainyu on the Avestan Society.
Some scholars have translated the term Spenta Mainyu as Holy Spirit. As there is no
mention of Angra Mainyu in Gathas but presence of Spenta Mainyu more than twelve
times in the Old Avesta (Gathas) gives rise a fresh question about the purpose of late
introduction of Angra Mainyu in the Avestan Literature, and hence makes us difficult to
understand a regular clash between the Good Spirit/ Spenta Mainyu and Bad Spirit/ Angra
Mainyu since old time. It means to say that well before the entry of Angra Mainyu in
Avestan Philosophy everything was in order, and after sometime when some untoward
incident or misfortunate thing occurred, and then it was believed that destructive spirit in the
form of Angra Mainyu has entered the world. Some see Spenta Mainyu as another form of
Ahura Mazda himself. According to Zoroastrian belief, the role of Spenta Mainyu is to
protect and maintain the basic elements of world like heaven, water, earth, plants, and the
children of the living beings yet to be born.
Thus through the Avestan Philosophy, Prophet Zoroaster/Zarathustra has tried to
impress upon the listeners (now the readers) that only good thoughts, good words, and good
deeds are essential for achieving happiness in life and our good actions would also help us in
keeping the disorder at bay.

Now going back to Rigved wherein since inception, Vritra has been defined as the
enemy of Vedic People, and Indra, the Supreme God of the scripture has been presented as
the saviour of the People. There is a very special feature of God Indra highlighted by some
Poets of Rigved that takes him closer to Avestan word ―Mainyu‖ and that word is
―Manyu‖.

Dictionary [3] meaning of the archaic Sanskrit word ―मन्यु/Manyu‖ is ―anger, wrath,

rage, fury, passion, spirit, mind, mood, zeal etc‖.

Before we proceed further there is a need to recollect the mythical background behind
the creation of Indra. As per the well known Rigvedic Myth, when Vritra takes water of the
world into his captivity, and when Old Gods failed to meet challenge posed by demon
Vritra, then only after several brain-storming sessions a new God Indra was fashioned by
the pre-Rigvedic Rishis. To defeat or slay dragon Vritra, Indra was purposely portrayed as
the Real Warrior God of the Vedic People and intentionally equipped him with the most
potent weapon Vajra/thunderbolt just to fulfil his task.
Early hymns of Mandala-2 dedicated to Indra (see hymns Rv-2.11 to 20) as well as
Early Hymns of Mandala-4 addressed to Indra (please refer to hymns Rv-4.16 to 25) depict
his speedy actions of killing of several enemies of the Rigvedic Priests like Vritras,
Arbuda, Dasas, Dasyus etc immediately after his birth or arrival in the world.
It means to say that by birth, Supreme God Indra has been described to be very crazy
for killing the Foes and hence eager to engage them into battles. This speciality of Indra has

been highlighted by many Rigvedic Poets using variants of the word ―मन्यु/Manyu‖ in some

verses of the hymns of the Early Mandalas of Rigved [2] mostly devoted to Indra as given
below.
Manyamanam: Rv-2.11,2; Rv-6.19,12
Manyo: Rv-4.17,2; Rv-6.17,9
Manyamanah: Rv-4.20.5; Rv-4.29,2; Rv-6.25,5; Rv-7.41,2

Manyum: Rv-4.17,10; Rv-6.25,2; Rv-7.18,16; Rv-7.36,4

Manyubhyah: Rv-7.18,16
Manyamanasya: Rv-3.32,4; Rv-7.22,8
Manyamanaa: Rv-3.62,1; Rv-4.18,5
Manyavah: Rv-4.31,6
Manyeh: Rv-6.30,2;
Manyat : Rv-4.17,1; Rv-4.17,4

In other words, since beginning of Rigvedic Composition, all Singers have presented
Indra as the most aggressive god of Rigved, and the Poets of the Five Early Mandalas
always projected Indra as the Angry Young God who is ever ready to take the revenge. In
fact, the Composer of Mandala-7 has credited victory in the ―War of Ten Kings‖ to Indra.

Now we need to take a fresh look at Mandala-8 story of Vertical Split caused in the
Priestly Community due to unjustifiable praising of Indra for contributing nothing for the
improvement in the living conditions prevailed over the west side of river Sindhu. It means
that as there was no paucity of water in that region, Indra was not required to kill Vritra
anymore and hence his main role as Manyu /battle frenzy was questioned by some rivals of
the Priests. In other words, due to changed circumstances, furious or fierce fighter Indra of
the Five Early Mandalas has become almost relaxed or silent Indra in the western area.
And in no time Indra became villain for a section of the Priests who raised doubts about his
inborn quality as a fighter that made Indra so famous in the Early Part of Vedic culture.

In all probabilities, Mainyu of Avesta is nothing but Manyu of Rigved (a special

quality of warrior God Indra) depicted as a villain to tease the strong believers of Indra.
As far as Avestan word ―Angra‖ is concerned, contents of the several Rigvedic
hymns composed by various Poets do convey that Indra was the most favourite God of the
Poets of Angirasa clan and their friends (Indra rescues cows of Angirasas). It is most likely
that the People who first revolted against character Indra then moved away from the
hardcore Rigvedic Priests used the word ―Angra‖ to humiliate the descendents of Angirasa.
 In fact, total rejection of Indra by the rival Priests did not stop the Rigvedic Poets
from glorifying the God, but instigated them to compose two hymns; Rv-10.83; and 84

exclusively dedicated to the character “मन्यु/Manyu” wherein the Poet has made it clear that

dilution in quality of Indra as Manyu (a true warrior) was not acceptable to them.
The most striking feature is one of the Poets of the Last Mandala in the verse Rv-

10.103,7 has called Indra as ―ऴतमन्यरु रन्रः/Shata-manyur Indra/ hundred times furious

Indra”. This is very similar to Shata-krata, an adjective often used by several Rigvedic
Poets for Indra. This shows their endless love for God Indra.

To summarize the discussion, since beginning most of the Rigvedic Poets were very

possessive about the aggressiveness (मन्यु/Manyu) of Indra, and at the same time they were

very aggressive about their possessiveness of Indra that was not liked by their opponents
who questioned Indra‟s very existence in the Vedic world during the period of composition
of Mandala-8. When the rivals left the Rigvedic Territory and settled in the locality
presently known as Iran and Afghanistan, they deliberately named the evil spirit/villain of
their newly formed culture as Angirasa Manyu (Manyu unnecessarily loved by the
Angirasas) that subsequently became as Angra Mainyu.

V. Explanation for “Absence of Material Culture of Harappan Civilization in Rigved”:

In early 1920s, when excavations carried out by the different teams of experts at a few
places in North-west region of British India led to discovery of the Harappan Civilization
of the Bronze Age period (also known as the Indus Valley Civilization) then archaeologists
realised that the Harappan Civilization was the most widespread of the three known ancient
civilizations; other two early civilizations being Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
The newly discovered civilization was named after the successful excavation of the
first site “Harappa” earlier situated on bank of river Ravi, now located in modern Pakistan.

The Harappan cities are known for their distinct town planning with wide streets, use
of baked brick for house construction, public and private wells, proper design of the drainage
systems, big non-residential buildings probably used to store food grains etc.
 It is strange but fact that the region where various sites of Harappan Civilization
have been unearthed during the excavation in the last 100 years, by and large same area has
also been covered by the Rigvedic Poets in their ―Songs of Praise‖. This has the basis of the
names of several rivers of the North-west part of the Indian Sub-continent found in many
Rigvedic Hymns. But the Poems of Rigved do not give information on the various aspects
of Material Culture of that period such as use of methods to make the bricks and ceramic
Pots, processing of metals to shape the objects, manufacturing of clothes from cotton and
wool, standardization of weights and measuring devices etc. Therefore, the champions of the
Aryas Migration Theory (AMT) say that the People who composed Rigved have entered the
Indus Valley after the collapse of Harappan Civilization who brought Horse and Chariot
Culture from Central Asia which is one of the most important features found in Rigvedic
Composition but their remains are not yet traced in the ruins of any Harappan Site.

To understand the reasons for ―Missing Material Culture in Rigved‖, we need to

know more about some Saints of Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra. Table-6 provides
information on the some persons contributed to Bhakti Movement (Bhagavat Dharma).
Table-6 (@)

Name of the Period Caste by birth Compositions/Abhangas

Marathi Saint AD
Dnyaneshwar 1275-1296 Priest/Brahmin Bhavartha Depict or Jnaneshvari and
Amritanuhhava (mostly as Owee).
Namdev 1270-1350 Tailor/Shimpi Around 800 authentic Abhangas.
Chokhamela 14th Untouchable/Mahar Very Few Abhangas.
century
Gora 1267-1317 Potter/Kumbhar More than 50 Abhangas.
Savata 1250-1295 Gardner/Mali More than 100 Abhangas.
Narahari 1195-1287 Goldsmith/Sonar About 63 Abhangas are available
Ekanath 1533-1599 Priest/Brahmin Bhavartha Ramayana, Abhangas,
Owees, and Bharuds.
Tukaram 1608-1651 Farmer/ Kunbi but About 4000 Poems/Abhangas that
owned Grocery shop appeal to the people from all walks.
Bahinabai 1628-1700 Priest/Brahmin About 470 Abhangas.
@- information sourced from Internet/books.
 Some say that the Bhakti Movement first began in South India around 8th century
AD at the time of Adi Shankarcharya and then got spread to North.
As far as Maharashtra is concerned Gnyaneshavar, the 13th century saint poet is
considered to be the founder of Bhakti Movement in the state. He was born in a Brahmin
family at Apegaon near Paithan in present-day Aurangabad district. It is said that saint
Gnyaneshavar once visited Pandharpur with his siblings and then spent a few years of his
life in a village called Alandi located near Pune.
Similarly, Namadev was born in a village of Hingoli District, but travelled all over
Maharashtra and spent some years in Punjab State as well. His Hindi compositions are also
found in the Guru Granth Sahib, the religious book of the Sikhs. Gnyaneshavar, Savata
Mali, Gora Kumbhar, Narahari Sonar, Chokhamela were the contemporary of Namdev.

The most striking observation here is almost all saints mentioned in the Table-6 were
the ardent devotees of Lord Viththala/Vithoba of Pandharpur (a town situated in Solapur
district of Maharashtra State), but born and brought up away from the temple town, moved
from place to place during their lifetime, still do not talk about Material Culture of that time
in their devotional songs/Abhangas. During 11 to 13th century AD Yadava clan was ruling
Maharashtra, North Karnataka and the parts of Madhya Pradesh. Many Marathi Saints came
from Marathawada region where Devagiri fort, the capital of Yadava was situated, yet they
are silent on the various aspects of Material Culture of that era in their Poems. Why?

Now we shall take a close look at the devotional songs composed by Savata Mali.

1, काांदा मुला भाजी अळघी | वळठाबाई माझी i

2. ऱशुण शमरची कोथांबबरी | अळघा झाऱा माझा षरर ||

3. मोट, नाडा, वळषीर, दोरी। अळघी व्यावऩऱी ऩांढरीi

In the first two lines of the Poem, the Saint Poet Savata says that he sees his God
Viththal/Hari in the vegetables like Onion (Kanda), Radish (Mula); Garlic (Lasun); Chilly
(Mirchi); and Coriander (Kothambiri) that are grown in his field.
In the third line, he makes the references of the olden days irrigation equipments like
Moat, Rope and bucket, and water well etc as a part of his Pandhari (Pandharpur, the
temple town of God Vithoba who is believed to be avatar of God Vishnu).
 It means to say that Saint Savata who was Gardener by caste visualises his God
Viththal in the things that are either cultivated in his land or the equipments used for the
farming work.

Similarly, Saint Tukaram who composed more than 4000 Abhangas/devotional

poems has purposely included commonly used items in his songs to explain the importance of
simple way to live day-to-day life. One such example of his composition is given below.

नाषीां ननममल जीळन । काय करीऱ शाबण ॥

Here the Marathi word शाबण/Saban means Soap employed to remove the sweat/dirt

from our body while taking bath. Literal meaning of above line is when life/character/mind of
a person is not clean or doubtful, then what is the use of applying soap to outer body?

Same thing holds true in case of the compositions of Samarth Ramdas Swami who
lived in 17th century AD during the period of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. An ardent
believer of Lord Rama and Hanuman wrote Dasabodh, Manache Shlok, Aarties of Gods
etc in a common man‘s language by quoting simple examples encountered during daily life.

In other words, most of the Marathi Saints of medieval period (13 to 17 century AD)
focused their attention on lauding God Viththal/Vithoba of Pahdaharpur and included the
objects/items in the devotional poems/Abhangas that were used by the people in day-to-day
life but did not bother to comment on the construction of temples, palaces, big houses, forts,
weapons, silk garments used by the rich and royal people of that period or the gold or silver
ornaments or utensils used by the people as well. In fact, they emphasised direct connection
with God through single minded devotion, salvation through good deeds, and simple living.
Although the devotional poems composed by them are now a few centuries old, still have
impact on the minds of the common people as well as do touch the hearts of the listeners.

It is noteworthy to mention here that many Scholars and Indologists while discussing
about Rigved often say that it is the ancient ―Religious Poetry‖ composed in archaic Sanskrit
language, then further state that the texts do not provide much information on some crucial
points like Social and Material Culture of that period. It means to say that on one side they
term the hymns of Rigved as the Praise Songs used to invoke the Deities, and on other side
they point out that the poems do not present correct picture of the worldly matter of that time.
 Therefore, it is necessary to revisit the Ten Mandalas of Rigved to find out
information if available in them that would reveal some new aspects of Material Culture.

Measuring finite and infinite distances

1. Example of the Realistic Measurement:

In the verse Rv-1.110,5 the Poet has first time compared measurement of agriculture
field using a rod or stick with the quantity of Soma drink.

Rv-1.110,5 The Rbhus, with a rod measured, as twere a field, the single sacrificial chalice, wide of mouth,
Lauded of all who saw, praying for what is best, desiring glorious fame among Immortal Gods.

Comments: The Ribhus (three brothers) measure and pour exact quantity of Soma juice in a
cup which is very similar to the measurement of field using correct size of stick or rod.

It means to say that in those days the People used to carry out length and breadth
(area) measurements of land as well as liquids using some standard devices. Presence of the
term ―Ribhus‖ in the verse makes it clear that since pre-Rigvedic time the Priests knew how
to measure the size of piece of land or to divide liquid into equal parts or quantity.

2. Examples of Infinite Distance Measurement:

In the three different verses taken from the Two Late Mandalas indicate imaginative
measurement of infinite distance using rays of two Solar Gods; Savitar, Surya/the Sun [1].

Rv-5.81,3: Even he, the God whose going-forth and majesty the other Deities have followed with their might,
He who hath measured the terrestrial regions out by his great power, he is the Courser Savitar.

Rv-5.85,5: I will declare this mighty deed of magic, of glorious Varuna the Lord Immortal,
Who standing in the firmament hath meted the earth out with the Sun as with a measure.

Rv-8.25,18 : He who hath measured with his ray the boundaries of heaven and earth,
And with his majesty hath filled the two worlds full,

Comments: As per the Poet of the verse Rv-5.81,3 it is God Savitar who moves like
courser and uses his special power to map out terrestrial and celestial regions.

The Composer of the verse Rv-5,85,5 says that God Varuna stands in the mid-region
and measures out Earth (distance between two ends of mother Earth) with the help of Surya.
 In the verse Rv-8.25,18, the Singer claims that using the rays of Surya, the duo
Mitra-Varuna are able to measure the limits or both ends of Earth and Heaven.

In this way the Rigvedic Poets use their lofty imagination to measure the infinite
distance which is otherwise impossible to think of. But in these three above mentioned verses
they use their inventiveness or creativity to show that measurement of such imaginary
distance is still possible with the aid of rays of Solar Deities like Savitar and Surya.

“Hats off to the Poets for using Sky-high Imagination”.

Ancient Method used to irrigate the Crop or Plants

Please take a serious look at the verse given below [1].

Rv-8.72,10: siñcanti namasāvatamuccācakraṃ parijmānam |

nīcīnabāramakṣitam ||

# With reverence they drain the fount that circles with its wheel above,

Exhaustless, with the mouth below.

Comments: The verse Rv-8.72,10 tells us altogether different story which is not found in
any of the Six Family Mandalas of Rigved. The Poet of the verse has clearly mentioned
that a chakra/wheel/pulley is placed or fixed above a water-well (uchcha-chakram) to
facilitate the people to draw the water from it using rope and bucket technique (see figure-1a,
b) for irrigation purpose. Probably at the time of pouring water from a bucket, as it is tilted to
one side hence the Poet says that its mouth faces downward.

Fig.-1a depicts an open well with a pulley fixed above to draw water using rope and bucket.

Figure-1 b: Open well

 In the next verse Rv-8.72,11 of the hymn; the Singer has used Pushkare word to
indicate Lotus plant that requires plenty of water and hence grows in a pond or lake.

It is most likely that the Priests of new generation would have seen regular use of
well water using rope and bucket (possibly shaped from leather or hide of animal) to irrigate
the plants on the west side of river Sindhu where water was available throughout the year.

Note: The archaeologists have reported unearthing many open wells at the different sites
of Harappan Civilization.

Similar description is also noticed in some verses of the hymn Rv-10.101 wherein the
Composer has compared the conduction of Yajna ritual with the Farming work.

In the verse Rv-10.101,3 the Poet in a nutshell gives information about complete
cycle of the farming activities starting from the preparation of field for cultivation purpose,
sowing the seeds, then cutting of the standing crop after ripening using a sickle/sharp tool.

Through the verse Rv-10.101,4 the Poet conveys that the idea of inviting Gods for
Yajna is to be seeded first in the mind and subsequently the hard work would give it a proper
shape which is very similar to description given in the earlier verse-3.

Verses Rv-10.101,5 to 7 intimate us that there is a need to fasten the bucket/

Dronahavam or Kosham to a cord to draw water from a well that has a pulley/chakram
made of stone/Ashma means everyone is needed to get fully engaged in the preparation of
Yajna rite.

The verses 8 to 12 give wordy picture of preparation of Soma Juice using a pair of
household stone-made tools (known as Pata-Varavanta in Marathi) and serving the same.

Figure-2a shows a pair of press-stones Figure-2b exhibits paste prepared on press-stones

 As per the traditional grinding technique, the Varavanta (a cylindrical stone) is held
in both hands and rocked over the ingredients placed on a Pata (a flat stone). The grinding
action caused due to sliding of Varavanta over Pata would make it possible to crush the
ingredients into a thick paste. Of course while pressing, water or milk like liquid needs to be
sprinkled over the ingredients kept on Pata to give fluidic consistency.

In the verse-10 of the hymn Rv-10.101 the Singer has poetically described how both
hands are engaged in pressing act and ten fingers are used to collect the crushed paste in a
wooden vessel. Probably after dilution with water or milk, the liquid would be filtered
through a woollen sieve so as to remove undesired solid things to obtain pure Soma juice.

In this way the Poet of the hymn Rv-10.101 has explained that it is not simple to
extract juice from Soma Stalk, as the latter has to pass through several steps to get converted
into the final product which is liked by many including Gods. The process of making juice is
laborious one and in many ways very similar to toil in the farms to obtain grains.

In other words, the new batch of Rigvedic Priests of the Late Mandalas were aware
of use of pulley-rope-bucket mechanism to draw water from the open wells, and its regular
use for agricultural purpose as well as hardship in making Soma juice using the press stones.

Mandala-7 References of Mud house and the Fort/Colony of Metal

1. In the verse Rv-7.89,1 from the hymn dedicated to Varuna, the Poet has mentioned that
there were Mrinmaya Griha/ Mud or clay houses where the people used to live. This is the
only direct reference found in All Ten Mandalas of Rigved. But the Poet says that he does
not want to stay in the mud house as he feels that it is some sort of punishment.
Rv-7.89,1: mo ṣu varuṇa mṛnmayaṃ ghṛhaṃ rājannahaṃ ghamam |
mṛḷā sukṣatra mṛḷaya ||

2. In the hymn Rv-7.95 addressed to Saraswati, the Composer has talked about presence of
colony or fort of Metal (rock-hard) possibly on her bank.
Rv-7.95,1:pra kṣodasā dhāyasā sasra eṣā sarasvatī dharuṇamāyasī pūḥ |
prabābadhānā rathyeva yāti viśvā apo mahinā sindhuranyāḥ |
Even though the Poet has used the phrase dharuṇamāyasī pūḥ to glorify the river
having the firm base/dharuṇam and her banks are as strong as metal/rocky, still the content
signals that there were some towns situated on her banks that had metal strong houses.
VI. Evaluating the Rigvedic Character “Asva” Using a Realistic Approach:

Majority of the archaeologists and historians who spent several years in studying the
different aspects of Harappan Civilization are of the opinion that the absence of any
terracotta seal depicting True Horse (Equus Caballus) and non- recovery of the proper bones
of the animal from any of the several excavated sites exhibiting evidence of the Mature
Phase of Civilization, the True Horse (Equus Caballus) would have been a very rare species
and probably was not known to the Common People who lived in that area during that period.

But some experts say that the True Horse would have entered the Indus Valley
during the Late Phase of Harappan Civilization, and this particular point makes the
proponents of the Aryans Migration Theory (AMT) very jubilant as for more than 50 years,
the supporters of AMT have been claiming that the Aryas were originally from the Eurasian
Steppes/Grassland, first migrated to Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)
around 2000 to 1700 BCE with their Horses and Chariots where they created a new
philosophical culture. As per their logic, here the migratory Aryas split in to two factions due
to some unknown reason, one group moved to Iran, and other camp when lived on the bank
of river Helmand of present-day Afghanistan composed early part of Rigved there, and after
landing in the North-west region of the Indian Sub-continent, the Aryas composed other
part of Rigved. The promoters of AMT say that anytime between 1600 to 1400 BCE when
the Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization or IVC) was passing through its
Decline Phase, the Aryas arrived in the Sindhu/ Indus Valley and introduced the Horse and
Chariot culture in India and hence so far no remains of Horse or Chariot used by them is
unearthed in any of the excavated site of the North-west part of the Indian Sub-continent.

It is to be borne in mind that the presence of numerous references of the terms ―Asva‖
and ―Ratha‖ in the All Ten Mandalas of Rigved has created more problems for the persons
who firmly believe in the ―Indigenous Aryans Theory‖ that the AMT backers.

Therefore, to understand the real intention of the various Rigvedic Poets in applying
the term ―Ashva/Asva‖ in the hymns, it has been decided to evaluate the subject in detail.

In the current section, we shall be focusing our attention on the Rigvedic word
―Asva‖, a well known but a disputed topic of Rigved that has still been considered by many
as the unsolved problem of Rigved.
 For systematic evaluation, the information collected on the word Asva has been
divided into four parts; 1-Fictional Aspects of Asva; 2-Factual Aspects of Asva drawn
Ratha; 3- Use of Special Words in the Hymns Rv-1.162, and Rv-1.163 Addressed to
“Asva”; and 4- Surprise Combination of the Demand for “Asva and Cow” [1, 2].

1. Fictional Aspects of Asva:

Rv-2.1 is the very first hymn of Rigved, in which the Poet has mentioned that God
Agni gives ―Asvas and Heroes” to the worshippers. It means, since inception of Rigved, we
find mythical references of the term ―Asva‖ that need to be taken with a grain of salt.

Some hymns dedicated to the Ribhus (see Appendix-A for details) inform us that
three brothers who lived during pre-Rigvedic time came out with an idea of Hari (two tawny
steeds/Asvas) for Indra, and Su-ratha for Asvins. Additionally, they also fashioned more
Asvas from the earlier imaginary Asva for other Deities. Table-7 gives details of mental
design of the Ribhus much before the start of Rigvedic Composition but after the design of
Yajna.

Table-7

Important Contributions of the Ribhus Reference Verse Number

Invention of Su-Ratha (Swift) for the easy Rv-4.33,8; Rv-1.20,3; Rv-1.161,6
movement of Asvins.

Design of Hari / Two Bay steeds for Indra Rv-3.60,2; Rv-4.33,10; and 4.37,4; Rv-1,20,2;
Rv-1.161,6

Creation of ―अश्वा॒दश्॑मतऺत/ Asva from Asva‖, Rv-1.161,7

means more Asvas to pull the Rathas of Other

Deities/to cater the needs of other Deities.

Please note that the Asvas and the Rathas mentioned in the hymns of Rigved for the
movements of Deities were shaped by the pre-Rigvedic Rishis through mental insight only.
As per the verse Rv-1.20,2 the main purpose of introduction of Asva drawn Ratha is to
bring the Deities to the place of Yajna/sacrifice.
 The Composer of the verse Rv-2.35,6 has voiced that the Asvas of the Deities are
born from the Agni of Yajna (aśvasyātra janimāsya ca svardruho riṣaḥ sampṛcaḥ pāhisūrīn |).

When some Rigvedic Poets have quoted that the Asvas and the Rathas (see verses
Rv-1.20,2 and 3; and Rv-1.161,6) used by the Vedic Deities are the mental products/ममनसव

of their ancestors, then there is no point in arguing about the same. It is a self-explanatory
thing and warrants no further discussion as the creation of both characters perfectly matches
with the method used by the ancient Sages for shaping almost All Vedic Deities.

2. Factual Aspects of Asva drawn Ratha:

As discussed above, all the references of Ashvas and Rathas pertaining to the Deities
of Rigved need to be treated as the fairy tales only. This is because since pre-Rigvedic time,
the forefathers of the Rigvedic Poets had developed the oral tradition of formulating mythical
stories such as birth of Adityas, Vritra, Indra etc using their lofty imaginations. But after
designing Yajna ritual when they felt the need to bring the Deities of their imagination
quickly to the site of the rite, some of them came out with an idea of a perfect conveyance
for the Deities. This thought has led to induction of Asva driven Ratha in the Vedic
Philosophy as the mode of swift transport for the Rigvedic Deities. Both characters are the
brain-children of the ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests.

As a matter of fact, the fabulous concept of Asva drawn Ratha has its origin in the
oxen drawn carts used by the people of that time. Two such realistic references traced in
Mandala-3 would make the things much clear.

1. Reference of the Bharatas Moving in Rathas mentioned in the Hymn Rv-3.33:

Based on the content of the hymn Rv-3.33, some scholars treat it as a dialogue
between the Composer and the two rivers namely, Vipas and Sutudri. Then we need to
believe that the incidence discussed in the hymn might have occurred near the confluence of
the two rivers (Beas and Sutlej) that join together in present-day Punjab state of India.

The gist of the story mentioned in the hymn Rv-3.33 (see verses Rv-3.33,9 to 13) is
once the Bharatas who were the patrons of the Rigvedic Priests wanted to cross the rivers
Vipas and Sutudri near their confluence, but the Poet Visvamitra noticed that both rivers
were flooded with water and hence advised against it. As per the content, Visvamitra
requested the rivers to recede so that the axles (probably made of wood, hence likely to get
damaged due to river water. Other possibility is, if the complete Ratha is made of wood, then
it would float on water and therefore, likely to get drifted away by the strong water current)
of Rathas of Bharatas would remain over the water level of both rivers and hence flood
water would not pose any problem while crossing the rivers. In fact, the Poet has described
Bharatas as the gavyavah/cattle seekers and not Asva aspirants.

2, Reference of the Priest travelling in Ratha described in the Hymn Rv-3.53:

Through the verses Rv-3.53,17 to 20 the Poet has narrated actual story of journey
from an unknown place being performed by him in a Ratha drawn by Gavou/Bulls. Here the
Singer appealed to Indra to take care of the Axel and Pin of his Ratha so that he would
reach his final destination without any problem. In the pertaining verses, the Poet has
described that various components of Ratha are manufactured from different types of wood.

Study of two distinct cases (example-1 and 2 explained above) wherein the Poets of
Mandala-3 have reported two real events of the use of Rathas by the men belonging to two
different classes (Bharatas/the warriors in the first case and the Poet himself/a person
belonging to Priestly class in the second case) but ―without mentioning Asva‖ manifests
that their real Rathas were drawn by the animals like Oxen and not by the True Horses as
believed by some experts. In both cases the related verses depict travel by Ratha (s), then the
Singers have talked about an Axel (Aksha) and a Pin (ANi) the two most critical components
of Ratha were manufactured from the locally available best quality wood, that are likely to
get decayed/damaged due to river water or wear and tear of these items can occur due to long
term use. Hence the events reported in both hymns are taken as the factual episodes.

From the above discussion, it is evident that during the pre-Rigvedic period, it
was next to impossible to perform a long distance journey from the “Eurasian Steppes”
to the “Indus Valley” on the wooden Rathas as the travellers required to cross many
rivers, valleys, mountains. Proper understanding of these two incidences is more than
enough to negate the claims made by the advocates of the Aryans Migration Theory.
3. Use of Special Words in the Hymns Rv-1.162, and Rv-1.163 Addressed to “Asva”:

The two Rigvedic hymns, Rv-1.162; and Rv-1.163 specifically addressed to Asva
actually provide contradictory picture of the character. On one side, some verses from the
hymn Rv-1.163 glorify Asva to the highest degree, treat him as God who has arrived on
Earth from nowhere (?), can move freely in any part of the world but still has bonding with
the Gods who live Heaven; whereas many verses from the hymn Rv-1.162 give detail
account of his systematic killing, slicing, cooking for Yajna/Sacrifice and then his departure
to the Heaven in the form of Atma/Spirit or the life breath after the completion of ritual.

But the most striking feature of the hymn Rv-1.163 is the special reference of
―Mounting of Asva by the Gods” in the verses Rv-1.163,2 and 9. Please bear in mind that
no Poet from the Six Family Mandalas has ever talked about this aspect, but the contents of
the many hymns of these Six Mandalas tell us that the Rigvedic Deities regularly travel in
―Asva drawn Rathas” to perform their duties as well as to attend the Yajna ceremony. As
discussed elsewhere both Asva and Ratha were mentally designed by the pre-Rigvedic
Rishis well before the commencement of the Rigvedic Compositions.

Please note that there is no direct reference of ―Asva mounted by Man‖ (any Tribe
leader/king or a Priest) in any of the Family Mandalas. Hence the first time appearance of
the phrase in the hymn devoted to Asva needs special attention.
Now we shall focus our attention on the following words found in the verse Rv-1.163,2.

1. अध्यनतष्ठत ्/adhyatiSThat means become situated or mounted [3]

2. रऴना/Rashana means a strap or bridle or rein or cord [3]

1. Use of अध्यनतष्ठत ्/adhyatiSThat word:

Please take a close at the verse Rv-1.163,2 given below.

Rv-1.163,2: yamena dattaṃ trita enamāyunaghindra eṇaṃ prathamo adhyatiṣṭhat |

ghandharvo asya raśanāmaghṛbhṇāt sūrādaśvaṃ vasavo nirataṣṭa ||

# This Steed which Yama gave hath Trita harnessed, and him, the first of all hath Indra mounted.
His bridle the Gandharva grasped. O Vasus, from out the Sun ye fashioned forth the Courser.
 The Composer in the verse Rv-1.163,2 claims that mythical God Indra was the first
to mount Asva. It implies that though the Adityas were fashioned prior to Indra but they did
not have luxury of travelling in Asva drawn Ratha as the specially designed vehicle made
its entry into the Vedic world after the formulation of Yajna. Earlier, All Senior Deities used
to walk on foot (refer to the verse Rv-1.185,2).

The said term is also present in the verse Rv-1.163,9 and has been used in the context
of ―the Gods who mounted Asva first, have arrived at the Yajna site to enjoy the meat of
True Horse first‖.

Rv-1.163,9: hiraṇyaśṛṅgho.ayo asya pādā manojavā avara indra āsīt |

devā idasya haviradyamāyan yo arvantaṃ prathamo adhyatiṣṭhat ||

# Horns made of gold hath he: his feet are iron: less fleet than he, though swift as thought, is Indra.
The Gods have come that they may taste the oblation of him who mounted first of all, the Courser.

In other words, the Poet firmly believes that it is not the human beings but the
Rigvedic Gods including Indra who mounted Asva/True Horse first and hence they must
taste the flesh of the sacrificed Asva/True Horse first. It also implies that the True Horse
was being sacrificed first time in the Vedic Culture. This is due to the fact that it was not at
all available there earlier and therefore, the Singer has used Prathamo word in both verses to
highlight the same.

Additionally, there are two independent references of अधधनतष्ठ/Adhi-Tishta word in

the verses Rv-3.35,4 and Rv-8.10,6.

Rv-3.35,4: brahmaṇā te brahmayujā yunajmi harī sakhāyā sadhamāda āśū |

sthiraṃ rathaṃ sukhamindrādhitiṣṭhan prajānan vidvānupa yāhi somam ||

In the hymn dedicated to Indra, the Composer speaks about mounting of stable
Ratha (Sthir Ratha) by Indra (रथां शुखशमन्राधधनतष्ठन).

Rv-8.10,6: yadantarikṣe patathaḥ purubhujā yad veme rodasī anu |

yadvā svadhābhiradhitiṣṭhatho rathamata ā yātamaśvinā ||

In the hymn addressed to Asvins, the Singer talks about mounting of Ratha by Asvins

(अशभरधधनतष्ठथो रथमत आ यातमश्श्ळना).

 From the above it is apparent the Composers have used अधधनतष्ठ/Aditishta word in

the verses Rv-3.35,4 and Rv-8.10,6 for indicating Mounting of Ratha and not Asva. Hence
the reference of mounting of Asva is present only in the hymn Rv-1.163 devoted to Asva.

2. Use of रऴना/Rashana:

Rashana is a Rein or bridle or harness of horse to control or hold back or curb.

Table-8 gives information on the use of word रऴना/Rashana and its variants in the
various Rigvedic hymns [1, 2].

Table-8

Rigvedic Verse Hymn dedicated to Context of application of the Original

word Number Deity/God Word in the related verse
Rashanaya Rv-4.1,9 Agni Like an extension cord.
Rv10.18,14 Death or other God To control Asva/steed (rein.)
Rv-10.70,10 Vanaspati/ As a cord or rope to bind the things (sticks)
Apri Sukta so as to bundle them together.
Rashana Rv-1.162,8 Asva Indicates bridle and other accessories used
to decorate and control the True Horse.
Rv-1.163,5 Asva Proper reins to direct the True Horse.
Rv-10.53,7 Agni Verse talks about orderly arranging the
Reins to bring the Gods in eight seater
Ratha
Rashanabhir Rv-9.87,1 Soma Pavamana Considers Soma juice as Asva/a courser
running in race being taken to sacred
Grass with reins.
Rv-10.4,6 Agni It describes how Ten fingers are engaged
by a Priest to control Agni/fire of Yajna.
Rv-10.79,7 Agni Depicts shining or glittering reins of Agni
Rashanam Rv-1.163,2 Asva Applied as a rein or bridle of True Horse.
Rv-2.28,5 Varuna As a bonding agent or a tying rope.
Rv-5,1,3 Agni A line of the words spoken by the
Speakers/Priests.
 Based on the information given in Table-8, it can be said that the Rigvedic Poets have

used the archaic Sanskrit word रऴना/Rashana in the different contexts like cord, rope, the

fingers used to control the features like Soma and fire or a bridle used to control any
domesticated animal like ox/bull or donkey or horse or camel that were engaged either in the
field work or for pulling the carts/wagons etc.

There are three references belonging to the two hymns dedicated to Asva which

definitely manifest use of the term रऴना/Rashana as a bridle for the True Horse and they are

: Rv-1.162,8; Rv-1.163,2; Rv-1.163,5.

Out of these three references, verse Rv-1.162,8; gives detail description of the bridle
used to control or restrain the True Horse that was being sacrificed in a specially arranged
Yajna ceremony. Original Sanskrit verse and Griffith translation are as under.

Rv-1.162,8: yad vājino dāma sundānamarvato yā śīrṣaṇyā raśanā rajjurasya |

yad vā ghāsya prabhṛtamāsye tṛṇaṃ sarvā tā te api deveṣvastu ||

# May the fleet Courser's halter and his heel-ropes, the head-stall and the girths and cords about him.
And the grass put within his mouth to bait him,-among the Gods, too, let all these be with thee.

Here रऴना रज्ज/ु raśanā rajju means the cords used to curb the horse.

Please note that the presence of words; Chaga- a species of Goat found in the western

mountainous region, and HariNa/ ह॑र ण

ा॒ - Deer/Antelope in the two hymns addressed to Asva

makes us to believe that these hymns were composed in the western part of river Sindhu.

Also the existence of word Gandharva along with term रऴना/Rashana in the verse Rv-

1.163,2 signals that the people of Gandhara region knew how to employ the bridle to the
True Horse so as keep it under control.

Sum and substance of the discussion on the hymns Rv-1.162, and Rv-1.163 is based
on the understanding of the two special words; Adhyatishat and Rashana found in them.
Absence of any reference of mounting of any animal either by God or Man in All Family
Mandalas makes it clear that this aspect was unknown to the Rigvedic Priests of that time.
But the Poet of these hymns has described that the Gods mounted the Asvas first, and not
the Men, means that when he saw newly arrived True Horse mounted by a Rider with the
application of proper bridle on its head portion as the representation of the Mythical Asva of
the imagination of his forefathers, then he decided to give credit of Mounting of Asva to the
Rigvedic Gods and not to any human being. This is because the Composer believed that the
newcomer Asva is as good as the Asva imagined by the Ribhus and agreed by his ancestors.

Please bear in mind that to mount highly mobile animal like the True Horse, proper
bridle is needed to control its movements and the verse Rv-1.162,8 provides description on
the Rashana/headgear of the True Horse in the best possible manner. Moreover, the verse
Rv-1.163,2 links the bridle with Gandharva (the people lived in North-west region of the
Indus Valley), wherein we also find the reference of mounting of Asva by Indra.

In essence, the True Horse was not known to the Rigvedic Poets of the Family
Mandalas of Rigved as it arrived very late, probably brought by the Traders through the
western border of the Rigvedic Territory at the time of Composition of Mandala-1.

4. Surprise Combination of the Demand for “Asva and Cow”:

It is very interesting to know that, on one hand the Rigvedic Singers in their ―Songs
of Praise‖ have used Bull/Vrisha or Vrishna/Vrishabha/Vrishana to describe the inherent
aggressive quality of Many Gods, water flow of the rivers, Hari of Indra, Rathas of the
Deities etc but on the other hand, they always asked for Cows and Asvas from some Deities.
One can understand the Poets placing regular demand for the ―Cows‖ to the Deities as the
latter give milk that has many applications including processing it further for making

Grita/Ghee used in Yajna. But the combination of गामश्ळां /Gam-asvam/Cow with Asva (the

True Horse as believed by the Vedic Scholars) definitely poses serious doubt about the
intention of the Rigvedic Poets in using the word Asva in a combination with Cow.

As discussed elsewhere, during the pre-Rigvedic era, the Ribhus introduced many
novel ideas and one among them was “Dhenu /Milch cow” that actually represents
capability to fulfil the requirements of the devotees with the purity of mind and the
consistency of the thoughts and actions in the Vedic Philosophy (see Appendix “A”).

One of the Late Mandala Poets in the hymn dedicated to Indra has identified the God
as Dhenu, and then demanded ―Cow and Asva‖ from him [1].
 Indra first projected as Dhenu, then Requested for providing more Cows and Asvas

Rv-8.14,3: dhenuṣ ṭa indra sūnṛtā yajamānāya sunvate |

gāmaśvaṃ pipyuṣī duhe ||

# To worshippers who press the juice thy goodness, Indra, is a cow

Yielding in plenty kine and steeds.
In the above verse, Indra has been initially defined as Dhenu/Milch Cow, and then
the Poet cleverly expressed his desire to have many Cows and Ashvas.

For the time being, we need to consider an imaginary Dhenu giving milk as well as a
male calf (later on becomes a bull) or a female calf (on maturity becomes a cow), but how
can dhenu/cow provide Asva/the True Horse (as accepted by the experts) to the worshipper?

After reviewing the combined demand of Ga/Cow and Asva/True Horse (?)
seriously in the context of Dhenu and then arriving at the correct interpretation of the
Rigvedic word Asva, the term is understood as ―an Ox fit for Race‖. This is because, the
Rigvedic Priests are not known as the Farmers or Cultivators but there are some references in
the texts that indicate they used to participate in the races of Rathas. In all probabilities, the
Poets wanted to have the well trained race-quality Oxen in their possession to win the
bullock-cart races and hence they frequently demanded Asva/Ox from the Deities.

Now take a serious look at the verse Rv-4.57,1 given below.

Rv-4.57,1: kṣetrasya patinā vayaṃ hiteneva jayāmasi |

gām aśvam poṣayitnv ā sa no mṛḷātīdṛśe ||

# We through the Master of the Field, even as through a friend, obtain

What nourisheth our kine and steeds. in such may he be good to us.

In the hymn dedicated to Kshetrapati/the Master of the field, the Singer requests the
God as a well-wisher to look after his Gamasvam/ Cows and Asvas. Since ancient time, the
Indian farmers have been using Oxen/Bulls for agricultural activities and not the True
Horse.
 In fact, several seals unearthed from the sites of Harappan Civilization do indicate
images of both hump and hump-less bulls and so far no seal depicting image of the True
Horse has been recovered.

Whether framed in the form of archaic Sanskrit words of the hymns of Rigved
as Vrisha/Vrishabha/Vrishna/Vrishana or engraved on the seals of the Harappan
Civilization, in true sense, the “Bull” represents Strength and Power of the Rigvedic
Characters and the Ruling Class of that time respectively.

To summarise the discussion on the present section, since the Asvas and Rathas of
Rigvedic Deities are credited to the Ribhus who designed them using their mental insight,
hence all the references of Asva drawn Rathas of the Deities need to be treated as the lofty
imaginations of the Rigvedic Poets.

The verses of the hymns Rv-3.33 do manifest that the Rathas used by the Bharatas
were made of wood and hence the Poet advised the King not to cross the rivers Vipas and
Sutudri as both were carrying flood water in them. Additionally, the verses from the hymn
Rv-3.53 do indicate that the Priest was travelling in the all wood-made Ratha. The most
striking feature of both factual incidences is the absence of Asva word in them. Hence it
would be appropriate to say that in both cases Rathas were drawn by Oxen or Bulls.
Presence of the words Adhya-Tishat and Rashana in the hymns addressed to
―Ashva‖ clearly signals arrival of the True Horse on the canvas of Rigved. It is most likely
that a trader from the western region would have ridden the Horse and first time visited the
Rigvedic Territory during the period of Mandala-1.
Frequent demand of Asvas along with Cows surely creates confusion about the
character Asva as both belong to different categories. Also Dhenu/ cow can be mother of a
Bull or an Ox but not the True Horse. Therefore, only possibility is since inception of
Rigved, the word Asva stands for the strong and well-trained Ox who is fit for race
competition.

Logically speaking, since pre-Rigvedic time, if the True Horses were

present in the Vedic World, then there was no need for the Ribhus to
―Mentally Design” the Asvas for the Rigvedic Deities.
VII: Some Important Points Reflected in the Late Mandalas Need Special Attention:

Some Poets of Mandala-1 and 10; the Last Two among the Five Late
Mandalas have provided vital information on some special events either occurred during the
pre-Rigvedic Time or took placed at the time of Composition of the Five Late Mandalas
of Rigved. Some selected features or incidences reported by the Poets of Mandala-1, and 10
have been specially covered as under.

1. The Earliest “Song of Praise” was Composed by “Ayu”; Rv-1.96,2:

In the verse Rv-1.96,2, the Composer has revealed the name of the ancient Poet who
composed first Song at the time of Yajna.

Rv-1.96,2: sa pūrvayā nividā kavyatāyorimāḥ prajā ajanayan manūnām |

vivasvatā cakṣasā dyāmapaśca devā a. dh. d. ||

# At Ayu's ancient call he by his wisdom gave all this progeny of men their being,
And, by refulgent light, heaven and the waters. The Gods possessed the wealth. bestowing Agni.

As per the description given in the above verse, it is the ancient Rishi Ayu, who
introduced the innovative method of invoking Gods by composing the ―Poems of
Glorification‖ in the name of God on the occasion of Yajna and same thing was continued
by the children of Manu/the Priests subsequently.

In the verse-3 of the same hymn, the Poet has disclosed that the People of the ―clan of
the Aryas” were invited to join Yajna ceremony so as to make it a grand and successful
event.

Rv-1.96,3:tamīḷata prathamaṃ yajñasādhaṃ viśa ārīrāhutaṃ ṛñjasānam |

ūrjaḥ putraṃ bharataṃ sṛpradānuṃ devā aghnindhārayan draviṇodām ||

The Singer of the above verse has purposely taken the name of Bharata (who is
termed as Child of Ila, implies that he too belonged to ILA‟s clan as like the Five Tribes of
Nahusha), was the Leader of his Warrior Tribe at the time of Composition of Mandala-2. It
means to say that during the early phase of Yajna, king Bharata provided necessary logistic
support/draviṇodām (Sonsored the events) to promote the ritual on a large scale.

In other words, due to patronage of the “kings of Bharata Clan” only, the Priests
could continue Yajna ritual during the composition of the Five Early Mandalas.
 2. Yajna was regularly practised by the Children of Manu and Progeny of Nahusa:

As discussed in above part, at the time of composition of the Five Early Mandalas,
five different Kings of Bharata Clan actively supported Yajna ritual devised by the Ancient
Rishis, and their names are Bharata-Mandala-2; Devavata-Mandala-3; Srnjaya-Mandala-4;
Divodasa-Mandala-6; and Sudasa-Mandala-7.

But with the exception a few active references of Bharatas and Sudasa found in
some verses of Mandala-5, in other Late Mandalas, the kings of Bharata clan are
portrayed as the characters that lived in the past. It means that Bharatas who were the victor
in the ―War of Ten Kings‖ got vanished from the scene of Rigved after some time, and their
place was taken by the ―Five Tribes of Nahusha‖. In Mandala-5 verses (please refer to Rv-
5.12,6; Rv-5.32,11; Rv-5.35,2), the Poets belonging to Atri Family have reported that now
the People of Nahusha have gone closer to the Rigvedic Priests, and started performing
Yajna. Same thing has been reiterated by the Poet of Last Mandala in the verse Rv-10.80,6.

Rv-10.80,6: aghniṃ viśa īḷate mānuṣīryā aghniṃ manuṣo nahuṣo vijātāḥ |

aghnirghāndharvīṃ pathyāṃ ṛtasyāghnerghavyūtirghṛta ā niṣattā ||

# Races of human birth pay Agni worship, men who have sprung from Nahusa' line adore him.
Established in holy oil is Agni's pasture, on the Gandharva path of Law and Order.

In above verse, the Composer has highlighted that the Children of ancient Manu
(manuṣo means the Priests) and the Men originated from Nahusha (nahuṣo means the Five
Tribes of Nahusha) do worship God Agni regularly. At the same time, presence of
Gandharva term in the verse probably indicates Agni worship has now crossed the boundary
of the Rigvedic Territory and reached to the People who lived beyond Gandhara region.

Notes:
1. As per the verse Rv-2.34,12 the Dashgavas/Angirasas conducted First Yajna/Sacrifice.

2.Mandala-9 Poet in the verse Rv-9.63,5 has hinted at the name and fame of God Indra
along with Soma Pavamana crossed the waters/rivers and reached to the places unknown to

the Priests, and hence he termed it as वळश्ळमायमम/Visvam-Arya means Indra and Soma; the

speciality of the Rigvedic Aryas have now become world-known figures.

Rv-9.63,5: indraṃ vardhanto apturaḥ kṛṇvanto viśvamāryam |

apaghnanto arāvṇaḥ ||
 From the above, it is evident that although Yajna was originated in the eastern part of
Rigvedic Country and initially supported by the Bharatas only, has lately been accepted by
many including the Five Tribes of Nahusha, and the Rigvedic Culture has even gone beyond
Gandhara region; the North-west part of Rigvedic Territory.

3. Yajna is hosted by the People of Nahusha:

Following verse from Mandala-1 brings out two realistic things.

Rv-1.100,16: rohicchyāvā sumadaṃśurlalāmīrdyukṣā rāya ṛjrāśvasya |

vṛṣaṇvantaṃ bibhratī dhūrṣu rathaṃ mandrā ciketa nāhuṣīṣu vikṣu ||

# The red and tawny mare, blaze-marked, high standing, celestial who, to bring Rjrasva riches,
Drew at the pole the chariot yoked with stallions, joyous, among the hosts of men was noted.

First line of the verse Rv-1.100,16 depicts Indra brings gifts for Rjrasva. But in the second
line of the above verse, the Singer has brought out two factual aspects.

a. Ratha is pulled by Bull/ vṛṣaṇvantaṃ and not by Asva.

b. The Tribes of Nahusha are the host of Yajna.

4. Ila-spade/ इलशऩदे Region as the birth-place of Agni:

The verse Rv-1.128,1 belongs to hymn dedicated to Agni tells us pre-Rigvedic story
of the birth of Pure Agni Worship in Ila-spade (present-day Haryana state of India) region.

Rv-1.128,1: ayaṃ jāyata manuṣo dharīmaṇi hotā yajiṣṭha uśijāmanuvratamaghniḥ svamanu

vratam viśvaśruṣṭiḥ sakhīyate rayiriva śravasyate |
adabdho hotā ni ṣadadiḷas pade parivīta iḷas pade ||
# By Manu's law was born this Agni, Priest most skilled, born for the holy work of those who yearn
therefore, yea, born for his own holy work.

Note : In the verse Rv-1,128,7 of the hymn there is mention of मानुवाणाशमला / mānuṣāṇām-iḷā

phrase which indicates that the tribe leader Ila who lived in ancient period, was associated
with Pure Agni worship. The verse Rv-7.16,8 describes Ghrita/Ghee addition to Simple
Agni worship was due to Ila (probably after her death that area is called as Ila-spade).
 5. Presence of अश्ळघ्न / Asvaghna word in the verse Rv-10.61,21:

First time appearance of Asvaghna, name of a person in the verse Rv-10.61,21

manifests that the new word अश्ळघ्न /Asvaghna, Horse-Killer was coined by the Priests only

after the real incidence of sacrifice of the True Horse reported in the hymns Rv-1.162-163.
Please note that since inception of Rigved God Indra is termed as Vritraghna/Vritra Killer.

In other words, earlier to the incidence Horse Sacrifice mentioned in Mandala-1; the
second to Last Mandalas as there is no reference of presence of ―True Horse” in the Vedic
world, therefore the question of killing of True Horse does not arise at all.

VIII. Indra in Mitanni-Hittite Treaty and Avestan Literature-- a Comparison:

From the cuneiform inscription of Mitanni-Hittite treaty found at the place called
Boghazkeui located in present-day Turkey, it is crystal clear that the Mitanni‟s who
established their kingdom in a part of present-day Iraq and Syria and ruled there from 1500
to 1300 BCE were originally from the region where the Early Vedic Culture was developed
as the inscription has reference of Four Rigvedic Gods namely; Mitra (Mi-it-ra-aš-ši-il);
Varuna (A-ru-na-aš-ši-il); Indra (In-da-ra) and Nasatya (Na-ša-at-ti-ya-an-na).
It means that the Mitannis were not averse of God Indra, the Supreme God of
Rigvedic People who was created after the appearance of Vritra/Drought in the area
adjoining river Saraswati, but before the formulation of Yajna.

On the contrary, Avestan literature depicts Indra as Insignificant Demon. Also in

Avesta in there is no place for some of the Rigvedic Gods who are treated as Indra‟s close
friends namely; Vishnu, Maruts, Brahmanaspati/Brihaspati. Therefore, it is evident that
along with Indra, his associates were also boycotted by the followers of Ahura Mazda.
The most striking difference in Avestan Texts, and Mitanni/Kassite documents is
that, in the former, there is no place for Rigvedic God “Maruts”, but in the Kassite
documents translated from Akkadian language does indicate presence of ―Maruttash”
word (Rigvedic God Maruts found along with Shuriash, the term used for God Surya ) as
the name of a Kassite King. Therefore, it can be concluded that the ancestors of Mitanni
were originally from the Indian Sub-continent, who followed the Rigvedic Traditions.
IX: No Substance in the Theory that paints “Mesopotamia Origin of the Aryas”:

A few decades ago some scholars came with a new idea that the Rigvedic Aryas
migrated to the Indus Valley from Mesopotamia region. But the theory is baseless as the
following points clearly contradict the claim made by them.

1. Application of the Base-60 Numerical System in Mesopotamia:

Mesopotamia is name of the ancient region that was situated in the west Asia within
the Tigris-Euphrates river system. In fact, in Greek, the word Mesopotamia means
"between rivers‖. It is considered as the home of three independent but inter-related
civilizations such as Sumer, Assyria and Babylonia. It is said that many important
inventions including the concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, map-making
and writing occurred in the region that left its mark on the History of the World.
The Historians say that it was the people of Sumer who during 3rd millennium BC
developed the base-60 numerical system in ancient Mesopotamia. It is also known as
sexagesimal system. Then the Babylon who ruled a central-southern part of Mesopotamia
from 1900 to 1600 BCE adopted the base-60 numerical system from Sumer, extensively used
it for their astronomical observations, as well as their calculations (aided by their invention of
the abacus), and used a sexagesimal (base-60) positional numeral system.

But the Rigvedic People were familiar with base-10 (decimal) numerical system.

2. Use of Cuneiform script in Mesopotamia for Writing:

Cuneiform writing system has its origin in Mesopotamia, and its invention is
credited to the Sumerian People of the period 3500 to 3000 BCE. The modern name has its
root in the Latin word cuneus for 'wedge' owing to the wedge-shaped style of writing. Hence
it generally accepted by all that the Sumerians were the first to create a form of written
language that actually transformed the spoken words into a frozen state.
However, the Rigvedic people did not use any script to write down their philosophy.

From the above discussion it is apparent that Rigvedic Priests had nothing to do with
the People of Mesopotamia as they used distinct decimal numerical system and chose oral
method to transfer the knowledge from one generation to other.
X. Some Mesmerizing Observations and the Notes made by the Rigvedic Poets:

Most of the Rigvedic scholars do not bother to know the intents of the Poets from the
contents of Rigvedic Verses, but often use the texts as the carriers to convey personal views.
In the present section, we are going to discuss the verses that depict critical
observations made by the Poets of Mandala-2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 5, 8, 1, and 10.

Agni arrives in the World in Three Distinct Ways

Rv-2.1,1:Thou, Agni, shining in thy glory through the days, art brought to life from out the waters, from the
stone:
From out the forest trees and herbs that grow on ground, thou, Sovran Lord of men art generated pure.

Comments: In the above verse, the Poet has explained the three most common ways of
experiencing Agni on the land; 1- Out of waters means rise of Savitar/Solar Deity in the
morning from ocean, 2- From the rubbing action of the stones, and 3- From the Forest-
fires/wood. These three examples manifest Agni as the natural source of Heat and Light. At
the same time, the verse also conveys that Agni can be created artificially using friction.

Adityas govern the Whole World

Rv-2.27,4: Upholding that which moves and that which moves not, Adityas, Gods, protectors of all being,
Provident, guarding well the world of spirits, true to eternal Law, the debt-exactors.

Comments: The Poet has brought out very old belief of the pre-Rigvedic Rishis who created
Seven Adityas to rule the world known to them. This includes controlling both mobile and
stationary things present in the world as per rta/cosmic laws as well as protecting all of them.
It means to say that the World has its Governing Body comprising of Seven Adityas in
place, and all the things present in the world are controlled by the Set Procedure/rta.

In a way, the content of the verse enlightens us about the presence of Democratic
System ruled by a team of the Gods led by Varuna since beginning and not the Dictatorship
(One God Rule) in the Vedic World.
 The Priests want to stay on the Bank of river Saraswati
Rv-2.41,17: In thee, Sarasvati, divine, all generations have their stay.
Be, glad with Sunahotra's sons: O Goddess grant us progeny.

Comments: Through this verse the Poet has expressed his desire to continue his association
with river Saraswati and also pointed out that since many generations, the People of Priestly
Community have been living on her banks and hence appealed her to give him offspring.
This verse informs us that the Poet desperately wants progeny to maintain continuity
in the age-old relationship between river Saraswati and his family. It also implies that the
generations of the Priests were born and brought up on her banks; hence all those experts who
call the Aryas as the outsiders need to rethink about their perception.

Newborn Agni carefully handled using Ten Fingers

Rv-3.29,13: Mortals have brought to life the God Immortal, the Conqueror with mighty jaws, unfailing.
The sisters ten, unwedded and united, together grasp the Babe, the new-born Infant.

Comments: Here the Poet in his distinct style has treated the newly created Agni as an infant
who needs proper attention from the Mortals or else freshly born fire/baby would get
extinguished. The Poet has smartly described Ten Fingers of the two hands as the Ten
unwedded but united Sisters to handle a newborn child with proper care/personal touch.

Vipas and Sutudri request the Poet not to humiliate them using improper words
Rv-3.33,8: Never forget this word of thine, O singer, which future generations shall re-echo.

In hymns, O bard, show us thy loving kindness. Humble us not mid men. To thee be honour!

Comments: The Poet has composed above verse in such a way that as if Vipas and Sutudri
the two rivers are requesting him not to use abusive language about them, as the Poets of
future generation would learn this and continue the same trend.
In other words, the Poet has stated that no Poet should use derogatory words in the
―Poems of Praise‖ despite being in a difficult situation. In adverse condition as well he needs
to keep his head cool and show the respect through the chosen words. That is why like many
Gods, the Poets of many Mandalas have called their enemies as ―Asuras‖. Only in some
verses of Mandala-10, we find the All Gods became Gods and All Demons as Asuras.
 Surya Daily Moves in the Mid-region without any Support
Rv-4.14,5: How is it that, unbound and unsupported, he falleth not although directed downward?
By what self-power moves he? Who hath seen it? He guards the vault of heaven, a close-set pillar?

Comments: Although the verse belongs to the hymn addressed to Agni, but in reality the
Poet has curiously talked about daily movement of Surya/the Sun in the mid-region. The
Poet says that Surya is free to move yet not supported by anyone. Though he always looks
downward, still does not fall on Earth. It is not known whether he is self-powered or any
power that is not visible is behind his motion. Additionally, as a pillar, he guards the vault of
Heaven.
It means God Surya without taking anyone‘s help daily keeps moving from one place
to other, illuminates whole word, and still gives support to Heaven.

Who is He? Who created Heaven and Earth?

Rv-4.56, 3: Sure in the worlds he was a skilful Craftsman, he who produced these Twain the Earth and
Heaven.

Wise, with his power he brought both realms, together spacious and deep, well-fashioned, unsupported.

Comments: In a mystically composed verse, the Poet has asked a question but addressed the
same to one and all that ―who has created Earth and Heaven?‖ The Poet has further said that
both shaped realms are wide, spacious and without any support.
The most striking observation here is the undefined craftsman is He; a masculine
character, unlike Aditi the mother of Adityas who is always termed as the Goddess (feminine
entity). This particular aspect reflects the creation of Heaven and Earth as an unanswered
question of Rigved but takes the unknown masculine character He closer to the Avestan
Supreme God Ahura Mazda who is believed to be creator of everything found in the world.

Expansion of Aryas‟ Kingdom from East to West

Rv-6.61,9: She hath spread us beyond all foes, beyond her Sisters, Holy One,
As Surya spreadeth out the days.
Comments: Above verse belongs to the hymn dedicated to river Saraswati wherein the Poet
has cryptically elaborated that it is due to her blessings, in the past they (the Aryas) could
expand their kingdom from east to west direction very similar to daily movement of Surya.
In other words, when the Powerful Ruler belonging Arya clan (king Nahusha) was
living on the bank of river Saraswati, at that time the Aryas realm got expanded beyond the
region of seven sisters but after defeating the enemies. The Poet has cleverly used Surya‘s
daily journey from east to west to indicate direction of growth of the kingdom.

Water from Land joins the Ocean

Rv-7,49,2:Waters which come from heaven, or those that wander dug from the earth or flowing free by nature,
Bright, purifying, speeding to the Ocean, here let those Waters. Goddesses, protect me.

Comments: Water that fall from the sky (rain), flows freely on the surface of land or even
that flows in the channels dug up or naturally present finally goes to Ocean. It means that the
Poet is fully aware of the water from surface reaches the sea.
Some scholars say that the Rigvedic Poets did not know sea at all.

Eastern Region Rivers are with and without water

Rv-7.50,4: The steep declivities, the valleys, and the heights, the channels full of water, and the waterless
May those who swell with water, gracious Goddesses, never afflict us with the Sipada disease, may all the rivers
keep us free from Simida.

Comments: In the above verse the Poet has pointed out inequality in shapes and sizes of the
Eastern Region Rivers including variation in their slopes, depths, widths as well.
Additionally, he has explained that some channels are full of water, and some go waterless.
Then he has requested rivers that carry water with them to keep the people who dwell on their
banks away from the diseases like Sipada and Simpada

It means that the Poet has seen many rivers, and also noticed that some carry water
(like river Yamuna?) and some go dry (like river Saraswati?). It indirectly indicates there was
water problem in some localities. Out of many rivers, he has specifically called those rivers
as the Goddesses who regularly provide milk to the people residing on their banks, but
appealed to the Rivers to protect the subject from the diseases. It also means that despite
having water, the people were facing serious health problems in the eastern territory of
Rigved as they were probably suffering from water born diseases.

Woman shows more Faith in God than Man

Rv-5.61,6: Yea, many a woman is more firm and better than the man who turns,
Away from Gods, and offers not.
Rv-5.61,7: She who discerns the weak and worn, the man who thirsts and is in want
She sets her mind upon the Gods.
Rv-5.61,8: And yet full many a one, un-praised, mean niggard, is entitled man,
Only in were gild is he such.

Comments: Through above three composed verses, the Poet has tried to answer a relevant
question, ―out of a married man and his wife/woman, who is more religious?‖ The Poet,
based on his experience has given reply that as far as worshipping of Gods is concerned,
woman is better placed as she is more dedicated person. As per the Poet, it is woman who
pays attention to the needs of her husband including preparing food, giving water, his other
wants (physical), and still finds time to focus her mind on God. Whereas, the poet finds man
as a niggard (PaNi), ungenerous (wants more in return) and has superficial interest in God.
It means that in addition to completing her responsibilities as a wife, married woman
makes herself available for praying to God too without expecting much from God.

Savitar, Surya, and Mitra placed Together

Rv-5.81,4: To the three spheres of light thou goest, Savitar, and with the rays of Surya thou combinest thee.
Around, on both sides thou encompassest the night: yea, thou, O God, art Mitra through thy righteous laws.

Comments: In the above verse, the Poet has brought together three Rigvedic Deities Savitar,
Surya and Mitra on a common platform. In the legends composed later on, these three
characters are treated as a single entity and are seen in the form of Surya/the Sun only.

Rivers join the Sea

Rv-8.6,35: As rivers swell the ocean, so our hymns of praise make Indra strong,

Eternal, of resistless wrath.

Comments: In the above verse, the Singer has explained that as the rivers increase water
level of Sea, similarly his Praise Songs would make Indra very strong.

Maruts are beautifully described as the Wind-storm

Rv-8.20,4: Islands are bursting forth and misery is stayed: the heaven and earth are joined in one.

Decked with bright rings, ye spread the broad expanses out, when ye Self-luminous, stirred ourselves.

Comments: The Poet in the above verse has properly described Maruts as wind-storm; a
rapidly rotating airy column formed above the land surface and is extended up in the sky.
That is why the Poet has illustrated as if Maruts have connected both Heaven and Earth
(Rodasi) together. The Poet has further mentioned that Maruts are self-luminous, physically
seen in the form of bright rings (shubra khadyo/brilliant white revolving wind), make loud
noise, and have destructive power.

The description given above closely matches with the whirlwind or tornado or
thunderstorm or twister experienced in the various parts of the world.

The Poet feels better after relocating to west of river Sindhu

Rv-8.48,11: Our maladies have lost their strength and vanished: they feared, and passed away
into the darkness.
Soma hath risen in us, exceeding mighty, and we are come where men prolong
existence.

Comments: In the above verse, the Poet has compared his experience of the place where he
lived in the past with the present location. He has made it clear that his bad days are over as
he is almost free from the diseases he had in the past. Now he has arrived in a place where
there is a guarantee of longer life.

When the content of above verse is compared with the verse of Rv-7.50,4 discussed
earlier; then it can be said that situation described in Mandala-7 verse represents eastern part
of Rigvedic Territory marked by presence of river Saraswati, Parusni and Yamuna.
However, Mandala-8 was mostly composed on the west side of river Sindhu; hence the Poet
expects a longer life after shifting to new location.

Early Morning Actions of Some Rigvedic Deities

Rv-1.157,1: Agni is wakened: Surya riseth from the earth. Mighty, refulgent Dawn hath shone with all her
light.

The Asvins have equipped their chariot for the course. God Savitar hath moved the folk in sundry ways.

Comments: In the above verse, the Poet has identified some Rigvedic Deities begin their
routine work early in the morning, and they are Surya, Savitar, Asvins, Usha.

Yearly Movement of the World

Rv-1.164,2: Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven names the
single Courser draws it.
Three-naved the wheel is, sound and un-decaying, whereon are resting all these
worlds of being.

Comments: The Poet of the ―Riddle Hymn‖ in the verse-2 has cryptically described how the
world moves forward in a year (progress of a kaal-chakra/wheel of time).
The terms used by the Poet in the verse-2 are re-interpreted as follows.

All Seven : Seven Adityas (who rule the world as per the established laws/rta)

Single wheeled Ratha: Yearly motion of the World (that includes Heaven and Earth)

Single Asva: Surya/the Sun (Asva stands for Power, Source of Energy of the World)

Three Naves: Three main seasons experienced in a year in the Indian Sub-continent

In short, Seven Adityas direct the movement of the world using the “Sun as
Asva/the Prime Mover or source of Power”.
 In other words, the Poet of the hymn Rv-1.164 firmly believes that it is the
Sun who is mainly responsible for the running the show of the world. In the verse, Surya is
treated as Asva/ a driving force that causes seasonal changes in the world.

Note: In the verse Rv-1.164,2; the term Asva does not stand for animal like Ox or Horse.

Surya as the “Rain-maker”

Rv-1.164,7: Let him who knoweth presently declare it, this lovely Bird's securely founded station.
Forth from his head the Cows draw milk, and, wearing his vesture, with their foot have drunk the water.

Comments: The Composer in the verse-7 tells the fact that let the knowledgeable person or
the wise man declare that He (Surya/the Sun) is behind this act. The Cows (Ga) derive milk
from him practically means; rain-clouds get water from his head means his thoughts. The
Cows/clouds have drunk the water from His Feet, means rain-clouds are formed due to
vaporization of ocean water that occurs when the rays of Sun (heat) fall on the earth.

Continuation of Life-cycle due to Rain Water

Rv-1.164,51: Uniform, with the passing days, this water mounts and falls again.
The tempest-clouds give life to earth, and fires re-animate the heaven.

Comments: The verse-51 hints at natural rain-cycle. Due to heat of the Sun, water from
ocean first goes up in the sky in the form of vapour, then turns into clouds that carry water
from one place to another, and then water from the rain-clouds falls once again on the Earth
in the form of rain-drops (Parjanya) which ultimately causes progress of life to the Earth.

The contents of the verse-7 and 51 prove beyond doubt that the Poet is aware of the
true reason for the Rain-fall in the Rigvedic Territory. He also understands there is no
substance in the well-known Rigvedic Myth of Vritra takes water of the whole world in his
captivity, causing hardship to the People who reside on the bank of river Saraswati, and then
comes Indra to kill Vritra who is said to have rescued the rain-clouds, making the rains
possible everywhere.
 Surya as “That One”

Rv-1.164,46: They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.

Comments: In the verse-46; the Poet has made it crystal clear that the God is One. He has
further explained that although Vipra/wise/BrahmaNa calls Him by different names such as
Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, Yama etc but clearly identified ―One God‖ as Surya/the Sun.

Everything finally comes to the Ground-state

Rv-10.,60,11: The wind blows downward from on high; downward the Sun-God sends his heat,

Downward the milch-cow pours her milk: so downward go thy pain and grief.

Comments: In the above verse the Singer has explained the natural phenomena such as
blowing of wind from a higher place to lower region (mountain/hill to plains), falling of Sun-
rays from the sky on the land, and descending of cow‘s milk in a vessel kept on the ground,
and then he said that similarly, intensity of pain or grief would decrease with time.
In other words, a thing that reaches the top is likely to come down after some time.
By giving such examples the Poet has tried to console the people that the pain/agony caused
due to sudden death of a family member would come down slowly, and is a natural process.

Maruts Unite to become a Single Force

Rv-10.78,4: Like spokes of car-wheels in one nave united, ever victorious like heavenly Heroes.

Comments: Rigvedic Poets believed that Maruts are multiple entities. However, as per the
Poet of the verse Rv-10.78,4; when they come together in the form of a combined front to
become victor, then they appear very similar to a nave of wheel of Ratha that holds together
many spokes.
In other words, when many like-minded people join hands together and stand united,
then they are bound to become a powerful group.

“He”, the Unknown Creator but named as “Vishvakarma”

Rv-10.82,3 (to 7): Ye will not find him who produced these creatures: another thing hath risen up among
you.
Enwrapt in misty cloud, with lips that stammer, hymn-chanters wander and are discontented.
Comments: The Poet in the above verse taken from the hymn addressed to Vishvakarma
has purposely raised the curiosity among the listeners by asking a question about the Creator.
He also said that despite asking many persons no one would find the answer to a question,
who is He? Alternatively, who is the producer of the various creatures present in the world?
It means to say that the Poet has no answer to the question came up in his mind.
Note: It is most likely that some parts of late hymns of Mandala-1 and some hymns of
Mandala-10 would have been composed by the Poets when they participated in a
competition as in both Mandalas we find some references of Myths of Creation.

Some Plants have Fruits and Others go Fruitless

Rv-10.97,15: Let fruitful Plants, and fruitless, those that blossom, and the blossomless,
Urged onward by Brhaspati, release us from our pain and grief.
Comments: In the above verse, the Poet has used some natural occurrences such as some
plants produce fruits and some go fruitless. Similarly, some plants bear flowers and some do
not. Considering these things, the Poet has requested Brihaspati, his source of inspiration to
give him some relief from the burden of composition of Poems for some time as he may not
be in a position to compose the best ―Song of Praise‖ on the regular basis.

Two Identical Characters do not produce Identical Result

Rv-10.117,9: The hands are both alike: their labour differs. The yield of sister milch-kine is unequal.

Twins even differ in their strength and vigour: even two kinsmen, differ in their bounty.

Comments: This is one of the few occasions wherein any Composer of Rigved has chosen
commonly seen things as the topic his composition. The Poet has given some examples that
are found in day-to-day life and they are; our two hands although look alike but do not give
same output; two milk giving cows who happened to be the sisters do not yield same quantity
of milk; twin brothers/princes differ in strength and vigour, and similarly two blood relatives
would not be equally generous or under identical situation both would respond differently.
In this way, by giving simple examples, the Poet has properly explained that even
though two persons may be from same family, but they would not posses same capabilities as
the behaviour of each person is different/unique.
 Night Brings Life to a Standstill

Rv-10.127,5: The villagers have sought their homes, and all that walks and all that flies,
Even the falcons fain for prey.

Comments:
Above verse is from the hymn addressed to Night in which the Singer has mentioned
that as soon as the Night arrives in the world, with the signs of darkness, every living thing
that walks or flies wants to go back to its place of living, and hence life comes to almost a
standstill. It means Night causes interruption in normal activities of the movable things.

Poet knows the Internal Organs of the Human Body

10.163,3: From viscera and all within, forth from the rectum, from the heart,
From kidneys, liver, and from spleen, I drive thy malady away.

Comments: Out of the thousands of verses of Rigved, this is the only verse wherein we find
names of several internal organs of human body. Surprisingly, the Poet has properly named
the internal organs like kidneys, liver, spleen that are invisible to any person. One can
understand Hridaya/ heart as the heartbeats are experienced by one and all, and even the

organ like anus/rectum that opens out of the human body or आन्रा / intestine though not

visible but has already been mentioned in Mandala-4 verse Rv-4.18,13.

It means to say that it is impossible to know the names of internal organs of human
body unless the body is systematically cut-open to observe the organs minutely and then all
are given different names for proper identification. This is definitely not a onetime exercise
as no one would remember numerous internal organs after seeing once. In other words, a long
back, a systematic study of anatomy of human body would have been done by the group of
Priests who would have named the internal and external organs of the human body. As a part
of curriculum, same thing would have been taught to the next generations of the Priests.

Here the fundamental question is,

Was human sacrifice being practiced during the Rigvedic Period?
Straightforward answer to afore-mentioned question is ―Yes‖. This is based on the reference
available in the verse Rv-1.84,13 wherein the Poet has mentioned that ancient Rishi
Dadhych or Dadhichi had offered the bones/Asthi of his arms to make Vajra of Indra.

Rv-1.84,13 With bones of Dadhyac for his arms, Indra, resistless in attack,
Struck nine-and-ninety Vrtras dead.

A new question crops up, how can a Rishi give his bones without offering his body?

In all probabilities, on some special occasions, the Priests would have permitted
human sacrifice in Yajna. Their knowledge of the internal organs of human body as well as
reported incidence of Dadhichi sacrificing his bones for creating Vajra for Indra make us to
say that Human sacrifice did take place during the Rigvedic Period.

Contents of above verses surely indicate that the Rigvedic Poets were the learned
people of that time and also very keen observers of the surroundings. The most striking
observation is that they treated their enemies whether fictional or factual with great respect,
also included a few in the category of ―Asura‖, and did not use foul language about them.
Although in the composed ―Poems of Praise‖ most of the Poets have interwoven
several myths with some real things that definitely creates major problem for the present-day
translators but they followed the norms set by their ancestors.
It is evident that Composers of the verses Rv-4.56,3 and Rv-10.82,3-7 did not provide
correct answer the questions (who is He?, and who is the creator of all Creatures?) raised
by them, still they are entitled for the special praise as both took calculated risk to stir the
minds of the fellow Poets as majority of the Poets did not touch the subject in their Poems.
The Composer of the verse Rv-8.36,4 has exceeded the limit of imagination set by his
forefathers when he said that God Indra is the Creator of Heaven and Earth which is very
unfamiliar thing in the entire Rigvedic literature. This is because these two characters are
considered as the Universal Parents of the Rigvedic Deities.

The most outstanding Poet is the person who composed hymn Rv-1.164 as he cleverly
used Numbers in the Song to indicate the Days, Months, Seasons in a Year, and has clearly
identified God Surya as Rain-Maker, Time-Keeper, and the Prime Mover of the World.
XI. Final Comments:

Main intention of the Rigvedic Poets was to laud the Deities of their choice through
Yajna rite, and hence Rigvedic Texts mostly revolve around the Praising of various Deities
of their imagination. Still the Composers of Rigved have covered many other aspects of life
in the Songs of Praise and the present investigation has brought out some of them as follows.

 Since pre-Rigvedic time, the Priestly Community People lived on the bank of river
Saraswati that is currently known as Ghaggar river,
 During the period of composition of the Five Early Mandalas, Rigvedic Priests
mostly lived in the eastern part of Rigvedic Territory on the banks of rivers like
Saraswati, Sutudri, Vipas, Parusni, Yamuna, Ganga etc. The Five Different
Kings of Bharata clan provided necessary support for conduction of Yajna.
 Drying up of river Saraswati mostly due to frequent failure of Monsoon was the main
reason for creation of new warrior God Indra.
 Yajna was designed in the eastern part of Rigvedic Territory after the fashioning of
Indra which was a small scale replication of a wild-fire.
 Main purpose of mental shaping of Asva drawn Ratha was to bring the Deities to the
site of Yajna ritual. The Ribhus used mental insight to design Asvas for the quick
movement of Ratha, whereas the Bhrugus contributed by fashioning Indra‘s Ratha.
 The People of that time including the Kings and the Priests used Oxen drawn
Wagons or Bullock Carts for performing journey as well as participating in the race
competitions. Real Rathas were made from different types of locally available wood.
 After the ―War of Ten Kings‖ when the Priests physically noticed the pathetic
condition of river Saraswati in the upstream region too (Puru‘s Land), then they
decided to relocate west of river Sindhu with the tribes of Anu, Turvasa, and Yadu.
 During the period of composition of the second part of Mandala-5, the members of
the Priestly Community moved to west of river Sindhu. At that time, the Leaders of
the Five Tribes of Nahusha had accepted Indra as the Supreme God, and started
participating in Yajnas performed by the Priests.
 The Composer of Mandala-8 has left enough hints to draw the conclusion that the
Priests visited Snow-laden Mountains located on the western border of Rigvedic
Territory.
  Unwarranted glorification of Indra in the western region where there was no scarcity
of water had led to vertical split in the Priestly Community at the time of Mandala-8.
 The character Indra ran into trouble twice, first at the time of his birth (hinted in the
verses Rv-4.18,11), and during the period of Mandala-8 (see Rv-8.96,16).
 Mandala-1 Poet has indirectly pointed out that the Priests entered the new area
located outside the western boundary of the Rigvedic Territory.
 True Horse (equus caballus) arrived lately in the Vedic world probably at the time of
Mandala-1. It was most likely brought by a Horse Rider/ Trader through Gandhara
Region.
 Pitre Asura of the verse Rv-10.124,2 is nothing but the earliest name of Ahura
Mazda of Avesta. The Supreme God of Avesta actually carried the traits of three
Adityas namely; Varuna , Mitra and Aryaman although Varuna‘s characteristic
features dominated other two Adityas.
 Angra Mainyu of Avesta is another form of Indra but closely associated with the
furious or war frenzy qualities of Indra of Rigved inculcated by the Rishis since
birth. In Avestan philosophy Angra Mainyu is described as an evil character and in
Younger Avesta, Indra is designated as a minor demon.
 Rigvedic Priests had no direct relationship with the People of Mesopotamia.
 Since the landscape of Rigved is identical with the Harappan Civilization, therefore
the Rigvedic Priests and the Five Tribes of Nahusha become the two sides of same
coin. The Rigvedic Priests represent Vedic Culture and the Five Tribes make the
driving force behind Material Culture of Saraswati-Sindhu Valley Civilization.

XII. References:

1. “Rig Veda”(Bilingual), Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith (1896) in PDF (symbol-#).

2. “Rig Veda” ( Griffith Translation)-Table of Content, Alphabetical frequency etc.
from the Intratext Digital Library available on www.Intratext .com
3. Monier-Williams Dictionary.
4. All images are sourced from Internet/Public Domain and General Information

on various topics is taken from various books/Internet.

 A few lines about My Approach

Personal: I am VR Patil, from Pune city of Maharashtra State of India. Here I wish to
submit that I am neither Historian nor Archaeologist nor an expert in Vedic Sanskrit but an
engineer by qualification and profession as well.

As far as my knowledge on the complex subject like Rigved goes, I find almost all
eminent scholars of the present generation do speculate about the various characters
mentioned in the Rigvedic Texts including the Horse drawn Chariot, the Dasas, the Dasyus,
and the Five Tribes etc. Some scholars believe that as the Priests did not know writing; hence
from the Material Culture point of view everything present in the Ten Mandalas of Rigved
is myth only and must be taken with a pinch of salt. That is why some experts call river
Saraswati as the biggest myth of the literature.

Real Intention of any Scholar can be easily judged by finding out the Answers to the
following Questions. It is a very simple and two steps exercise.

1. How does a person look at the Characters/ the Incidences reported in the Rigvedic Poems?

2. What does a person want to make out of the descriptions given about them in Rigved?

To me, Rigved in the archaic Sanskrit language is the primary source of information
on the subject, the translations made in the different languages by the Vedic Experts are the
secondary, and all other books and hundreds and thousands of research papers/articles
published on the topics related to Rigved by several authors are the tertiary things.

Some scholars always try to dismiss anything that does not go well with their line of
thinking. In such cases, most of the seasoned people take their behaviour as the part of
diverse human nature and try to understand them. But these persons do not change their way,
and lose no opportunity to criticize their opponents even though the latter may be right about
their views. Some well established scholars have created their own fan followers or purposely
developed a clan culture like the Rigvedic Priests. They keep praising each other‘s work like

the well known Sanskrit phrase- “अषो रूऩां अषो ध्ळनन: / aho roopam aho dhvani-hi.
 Therefore, instead of choosing traditional path for examination of Rigvedic Features, I
decided to follow a non-conventional route what I call it as an Investigative Approach. This
includes application of four tools to study various topics of Rigved.

1. Minute Observation- to probe the minds of the Rigvedic Poets.

2. Simple Logic- to identify specialities and relationships of the various characters.
3. Collection and analysis of Data on a selected subject from the Ten Mandalas.
4. Use of Common Sense and General Awareness- to interpret in a better way.

One example of my approach is given below.

Transition from the Simple Agni worship to the Yajna Ritual

Rigvedic Poets inform us Agni was known to the children of Manu since olden days.
It can be taken as, in every house Agni was regularly kindled by man or woman in the form
of a spark generated due to intense rubbing action of one wooden stick over another or
rubbing one stone over another and then it was made to grow and get stabilized by constantly
blowing air. Therefore, Agni has been frequently called as Griha-Pati. In those days there
was no match/fire stick or lighter to initiate the fire.

The Rigvedic Composers in several verses have credited house to house spread of
Agni worship to ancient Bhrugu Rishi and his children. It means to say that Simple Agni
Worshipping Cult was already existed during the pre-Indra period along with Seven
Adityas in the Vedic Philosophy.

Visvamitra; the Mandala-3 Poet has equated initiation of Agni with the birth of Ila‟s
son. Visvamitra had high regards for feminine character Ila who enjoyed longer life-span.

Vasistha; the Mandala-7 Composer has brought out addition of Grita/Ghee to Agni
as the major contribution of Ila (see the verse Rv-7.16,8 for yeṣām-iḷā ghṛta-hastā ). In this
way, during the pre-Rigvedic time the Bhrugus promoted Agni worship in the every house.

Up-gradation of Simple Agni Worship to Proper Yajna/sacrifice Rite

Two verses Rv-8.89,5 and 6 specifically communicate us that Indra was fashioned
after the effect of Vritra/real drought and Yajna along with the composition of ―Songs of
Praise‖ was formulated subsequently.
 It means to say that when Yajna was established, at that time Ila was not alive.

Now it is necessary understand the ―Role of Matarisvan in bringing Agni to the

Manu‘s People‖ and to find out the names of the persons involved in giving proper shape to
Yajna ritual to the present form.

How did “Matarisvan” bring “Agni” to the Manu‟s Children?

The archaic Sanskrit word “Matarisvan‖ means Wind [3]. Hence it is essential to
know the role of wind in creation and propagation of Agni.

Rigvedic Poets have treated the wood as the store-house of Agni. This is due to the
fact that in those days, in every house food was cooked using firewood.

Now we need understand origin of the wildfires in the Forests. In forests, trees
represent fuel/combustible thing, but they cannot initiate fire on their own. There is a need of
a foreign element that can cause ignition of the fire in plants. Either human or lightning or
blowing wind can cause the initiation of fire in the forests.

When the wind blows for a longer duration then the dry branches of same tree or
adjacent trees come in contact with each other and start rubbing against each other. This long
duration rubbing action creates a spark which grows with time and the continuous act of
wind makes it stronger and sustainable. Constantly blowing wind causes spread of wildfire in
adjoining area of forest/trees. Thus in some cases, it is the wind that creates and propagates
Agni/wildfire in the Forests.

The verse Rv-3.9,5 from the hymn addressed to Agni provides a clue for the same.

Rv-3.9,5: Him wandering at his own free will, Agni here hidden from our view,
Him Matarisvan brought to us from far away produced by friction, from the Gods.

In other words, the ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests got the very idea of Yajna from
the wildfires that occur in nature. Therefore, they attributed ―Agni/ the fire of Yajna‖ to the
Matarisvan means Wind. The Priests assumed - if there were no wind, then no wildfire.

Please remember that wildfire results in destruction of acres of plants and vegetation,
loss of life of the birds and the animals who live in the forest as well as the human beings
who get trapped in the wildfire. This also provides an appropriate answer to the frequently
asked question, ―why did the Priests sacrifice animals in Yajna?‖

Real Shapers of the Yajna Ritual

1. As per the verse Rv-2.34,12 the Dashgavas (Angirasas) conducted the Earliest
Yajna/Sacrifice.
2. As per the verse Rv-10.92,10 the Atharva first time gave the idea of inviting All
Gods for Yajna rite. It is generally believed that Atharva belongs to Bhrugu clan.
3. As per the verse Rv-10.80,7 the Ribhus first time composed a prayer or a ―Song of
Praise‖ for Agni (verse Rv-1.96,2 credits ancient poet Ayu as the initiator of songs).
4. Rv-1.164,43 tells us that since inception Animal Sacrifice was part of Yajna ritual.
5. The verse Rv-10.63,1 conveys us that a special Yajna was conducted for Yayati who
was a special guest of the ancient Rishis and the son of king Nahusha.

Some Poets in their compositions have designated the feminine character Bharati as
Hotra Bharati, means in some way she was closely connected with initial phase of Yajna
ritual (Bharati could be mother of king Bharata).

Additionally, the Ribhus are credited to have mentally fashioned the Asvas and
Rathas for several Gods to bring them quickly at the place of Yajna. It is said that they also
made available more Soma Juice for the purpose of Yajna (see Appendix ―A‖).

In this way, a proper procedure for Yajna ritual got evolved due to active
participation from several persons belonging to different families of Rishis.

Please bear in mind that all afore-mentioned persons who were actively involved in
giving desired shape to Yajna ritual lived prior to the start of Rigvedic Composition.

Now we shall take up the last question on Rigved.

―Why did the Members of Priestly Community finally decide to settle in the Doab
Region (the land adjoining Yamuna and Ganga rivers) and not in the Sapta-Sindhu Region?

The answer for afore-stated question can be found in the verse Rv-10.43,3.

Rv-10.43,3: viṣūvṛdindro amateruta kṣudhaḥ sa id rāyo maghavāvasva īśate |

tasyedime pravaṇe sapta sindhavo vayovardhanti vṛṣabhasya śuṣmiṇaḥ ||
# From indigence and hunger Indra turns away: Maghavan hath dominion over precious wealth.
These the Seven Rivers flowing on their downward path increase the vital vigour of the potent Steer.

The verse Rv-10.43,3 conveys that after heavy downpour/rain only (the Singer has
described it as an act of Indra), Seven Rivers start advancing. It means, at the time of
composition of the Last Mandala also, rivers of the Sapta Sindhu were the rain-fed rivers.
This could be the main reason for the Rigvedic People who chose the Doab (Ganga-
Yamuna) region of the Far East part of Rigvedic Territory for their permanent settlement.

Thus by using simple logic and common sense, in many cases we can easily find out
what was stored in the minds of the Rigvedic Poets.

My last seven years experience with Rigved has taught me that the interests of
many Rigvedic Scholars and Indologists are fantastical and away from the textual
reality. Most of the scholars do not bother to make distinction between the Fictional
aspects and the Factual things present in the ancient literature. Since several decades,
while discussing on the topics like Rigved, Avesta, and Harappan/Indus Valley
Civilization, the Experts belonging to different fields have not stopped beating around the
bush, but continued to confuse the common readers on the various topics including Asva.
Agenda driven scholars have done more damage to the credibility of the Rigvedic
Poets and also seriously hurt the ethos of the Vedic scholarship than helping the people to
know more about the ancient documents. Strictly speaking, their articles/research papers/
books only tell the half truth, do not give correct picture of the Rigvedic Features, and
actually mislead many as the common people do not have time to go into minute details to
verify the facts on the subjects discussed by these experts. Therefore, the vast wealth of
knowledge available in Rigved remains hidden or out of reach of the common man.

I am the ―army of one‘ and have been seriously studying Rigved with great interest
since last seven years. In my view, Rigved is the master document created by the ―Aryas‖. I
wish to close my essay with the Famous Quote generally attributed to Abraham Lincoln.

―You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the
time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time‖.

This quote is very much applicable to All Rigvedic Scholars.

“My Heart beats for the Rigvedic Composers”
 Appendix “A”
The Ribhus (three brothers) of pre-Rigvedic Era
The Ribhus, (Ribhu, Vaja, and Vibhavan) the three brothers and the sons of
Sudhanvan would have been the well known Physicians/Vaidyas of pre-Rigvedic time. Due
to their special efforts/treatments, their seriously ill and aged parents would have lived for
some more time. Hence the Rigvedic Poets in their style have frequently but proudly said that
these three brothers made their parents to feel young and energetic
Similarly, using some special treatment they could have made a sick cow who had
delivered a calf sometime before to regain the consciousness. In this way, they were able to
give fresh lease of life to both a cow and its calf (or a cow which was unable to feed its calf
due to some health issue would have started feeding its calf after receiving treatment from the
Ribhus).
The Ribhus introduced the novel but mythical concept of special Asvas/Hari for
Indra, created more Asvas for other Deities, and Suratha of Asvins using mental insight to
bring the Gods to Yajna site. Additionally, due to their innovativeness it became possible to
extract more juice from already used Soma stalks. Since Soma was one the most essential
items for Yajna, then its availability in a large quantity made the Priests to offer it in ritual
more number of times in a day. That is why; the Ribhus are often remembered by the
Rigvedic Priests as the Specially Gifted Persons who contributed a lot in shaping of Yajna
ritual in the early days as their inventive ideas brought a sea change in the day-to-day life of
the Yajna rite addicted pre-Rigvedic Priests.
The Ribhus would have lived at least two generations or about 50 years before the
start of Rigvedic compositions. Due to their unparallel contributions in improvisation of
Yajna ritual, in Rigved the Ribhus are treated as the Gods who lived in Heaven and often
invited to receive third pressing of Soma. There are 11 Hymns dedicated to the Ribhus.
Mandala-1: Rv-1.20; 110; 111; 161

Mandala-3: Rv-3.60

Mandala-4: Rv-4.33 to 37

Mandala-7: Rv-7.45

“The depth of thinking and the width of knowledge must increase with the length
of research/study one conducts in a selected field”.