PLANTS

FOR
STORMWATER DESIGN
Species Selection for the Upper Midwest

Daniel Shaw & Rusty Schmidt

Authors
Sam Brungardt
Editor
Richard Harrison
Designer
July 2003

To obtain a free copy of this guidebook, telephone (651) 297-8679 or write to Operations
and Environmental Review Section, Regional Environmental Management Division,
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 520 Lafayette Rd. N., Saint Paul, MN 55103-1402.

This publication can be made available in other formats, including Braille, large type,
computer disk or audiotape, upon request.

FUNDING
Funding for this guidebook was provided through a grant from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This guidebook is the result of the hard work of many individuals. First, we would like to
thank Mark Gernes at the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) for administering
the grant for this project and providing technical guidance. Rich Harrison played a
significant role in the project, tirelessly conducting layout and graphic design. Among other
MPCA staff, we are grateful to Sam Brungardt for taking on the daunting task of editing this
complex document, to Carol Pruchnofski for the great job she did designing the cover, to
Kathy Carlson, who led us through the printing process, and to Louis Flynn, who provided
technical guidance. We also thank Jackie Newman for developing the range graphic for the
book and Aaron Mikonowicz for assisting with the development of flood tolerance graphics.

Many professionals throughout the region played a significant role reviewing the plant
charts and the final draft. Among these are Steven Apfelbaum, Kevin Bilgalke, Mary
Blickendorfer, Julia Bohnen, Susan Borman, Mike Evenocheck, Diane Hellekson, Jason
Husveth, Bob Jacobson, Beth Kunkel, John Larson, Mary Meyer, Byron Shaw and Leslie
Yetka.

We also thank Bill Bartodziej and the Ramsey-Washington Metro Watershed District for
providing hydrographs and other technical information about stormwater projects. Paul
Jackson, Jason Husveth, Rusty Schmidt, Jeff Shaw, Tony Randazzo and Paul Bockenstedt
were the primary photographers for the book, and we appreciate their contributions.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dan Shaw is involved in ecological restoration, landscape and stormwater design and
landscape planning at the Saint Paul-based nonprofit, Great River Greening. He has worked
as an ecologist and designer for several years in both the public and private sector and is
author of Native Vegetation in Restored and Created Wetlands. He also is an adjunct
assistant professor in the Landscape Architecture Department at the University of
Minnesota, where he teaches plant identification and planting design classes. Shaw is also
co-owner of Another Sun Nursery, a company that grows native prairie, woodland and
wetland species.

Rusty Schmidt is a wildlife biologist and landscape ecologist with 10 years of natural
resource experience, having spent approximately eight years with the Minnesota
Department of Natural Resources and two years at URS. He conducts inventories and
evaluations for game and non-game wildlife species and has conducted function and value
assessments for wetlands and woodlands. Schmidt is also very involved in designing and
constructing alternative methods for managing surface water runoff in an environmentally
conscious way. He has created designs for restorations, rainwater gardens, bio-infiltration
swales and bioretention areas. His Cedar Pond project is featured at the end of this
guidebook.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Funding ................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements................................................................ i

About the Authors.................................................................. ii

Table of Contents................................................................... iii

Introduction............................................................................. 1

Using the Guidebook............................................................... 3

Environmental Influences on Plants.......................................... 5

Plant Considerations and Species for Stormwater

Management Practices.................................................... 23

Stormwater Management Practices........................................ 27

Literature Cited .................................................................... 53

Plant Species Information...................................................... 60

Plant Pages Bibliography...................................................... 338

Appendix 1, Planting and Maintenance Recommendations...... 344

Appendix 2, Vegetation and Hydrology Data for Three Twin Cities Stormwater
Projects............................................. 351
 INTRODUCTION

In recent years interest has increased in the use of innovative methods to retain and treat
stormwater. These methods, often called stormwater management practices (MPs), rely on
natural processes, such as microbial activity, filtration, infiltration, denitrification, nutrient
reduction and evapotranspiration, to attain water-quality goals. Although technical
information is available on the design of many types of stormwater MPs, little information
is currently available on plant species appropriate for these systems. This book has been
developed to guide designers through the process of selecting plant species for a variety of
stormwater MPs.

Plant species included in this book have been chosen based on their availability, presence in
the Upper Midwest before European settlement, aesthetic properties and functional
abilities within stormwater MPs. Native plants are the focus of the book and are
recommended exclusively due to their hardiness, and the wide variety of functions they
provide. See page 61 for a complete list of species included in the book.

This guidebook focuses on the selection of plant species that will optimize landscape
function. The beneficial functions plants perform in the landscape are varied and complex,
and range from providing habitat for beneficial microbes to physically inhibiting the flow of
stormwater. The ability of plants to intercept and hold rainwater and to decrease water
flow with stalks, stems, branches and foliage is one of the better recognized functions of
vegetation, but there are many others (MPCA 2000). In many stormwater systems, native
vegetation provides habitat for amphibians, reptiles, birds and insects. Native plants also
take nutrients into their tissues and their roots provide a substrate for growth of bacteria
and algae, which are responsible for nutrient cycling and organic degradation. In addition,
decaying plant matter supplies fixed organic carbon and food for microbes (Fassman et al.
2001). Native plants also contribute to the water cycle by returning water to the
atmosphere through evapotranspiration. In stormwater MPs such as vegetated filter strips,
the roots of native species increase soil strength and stability. Another function of native
plants, particularly in urban areas, is to add aesthetic value to stormwater systems. The
vegetation softens the appearance of structures and shoreline edges, adds interest through
line, texture and contrast, and provides color and harmony with the natural environment
(Fassman et al. 2001, MPCA 2000).

Selecting plants for stormwater MPs is not a simple process. Stormwater systems are often
affected by a number of environmental conditions that are not conducive to plant growth
and survival. Some of these environmental conditions include prolonged flooding,
fluctuating water levels, sedimentation and pollutants. To complicate matters, invasive
species are sometimes better adapted to the above-mentioned conditions and ongoing
plant management may be important for project success.

Tools included in this book to aid plant selection

 Information about environmental factors that influence wetland plants

 Description of retention, detention, infiltration, wetland and filtration BMPs and
species lists for individual types of BMPs
 A plant matrix to select plants appropriate for various environmental conditions
 Information and photographs of 131 plant species
 Hydrology and species information for three stormwater projects in the Twin Cities
area
 USING THIS GUIDEBOOK

This book was developed to lead designers through a plant selection process. First,
environmental factors that influence plants in stormwater systems are presented. The
potential influence of these environmental factors should be investigated during the site-
analysis process and will be useful information for the selection of stormwater
management practices (MPs).

Next, information is presented for common types of MPs and plant considerations are
provided for each. The information about stormwater MPs corresponds to design
information in the Minnesota Urban Small Sites BMP Manual, Stormwater Best
Management Practices for Cold Climates (Barr 2001) and the Protecting Water Quality in
Urban Areas, Best Management Practices for Dealing with Storm Water Runoff from Urban,
Suburban and Developing Areas of Minnesota manual (MPCA 2000). Only stormwater MPs
that incorporate vegetation are included in this guidebook.

In addition to a discussion of planting considerations for each system, plant lists are
provided. These lists include a large number of species for each stormwater MP. Many
species were included to ensure that plant options are available to cover as many potential
site conditions as possible. The plant lists are arranged by scientific name and range from
mesic prairie species to emergent wetland plants. To help designers refine their plant lists
for a project, detailed information is provided for all of the 131 species that are included in
the plant lists. Page numbers are provided in the plant lists referring to the more detailed
information for each plant species located in the Plant Species for Stormwater
Management Practices section of this guidebook.

Information for each plant includes

 Habitat/plant community and type of system where the plant can be used
 Geographic range
 Plant description
 Normal water level for which the species is adapted
 Fluctuation tolerance
 Sensitivity of other tolerances
 Design considerations
 Wildlife use
 Nursery/plant information
 Planting techniques
 Indicator status

Flood tolerance charts that correlate water level and duration are presented to
demonstrate how long each species can remain inundated. These charts were developed
from available research, site observations and professional judgement and review.

A plant matrix summarizing information for each plant starts on page 66. The plant matrix
has been developed from information for each of the 131 species in the guidebook. The
matrix will aid in plant selection for a number of different environmental conditions and
stormwater management practices.
The authors gathered plant composition and hydrology information for three stormwater
projects in the Twin Cities area. Plant community success and structure for each case study
project is presented in appendix 2. This information should be useful to designers in making
decisions about plant selection.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON PLANTS

Many environmental factors affect plant growth and survival. These factors should be
considered during project planning (particularly during plant selection). This guidebook is
designed for the selection of plants after stormwater MPs have been chosen for a site.
However, many site characteristics that relate to plant growth should also be considered
when stormwater MPs are being selected. A thorough site analysis is necessary to compile
information to aid in species selection.

General site conditions to investigate during site analysis

 Texture, organic content and pH of the soil

 Anticipated water levels or soil moisture
 Adjacent plant communities
 Slopes
 Surrounding weedy vegetation
 Amount of sun or shade
 Aspect (north-, south-, east- or west-facing slope)

Several additional environmental factors can significantly affect plant growth in stormwater
projects. The following section provides detailed information about these factors. The
potential influence that each of these may have on a project should be investigated
thoroughly during site analysis to aid in the plant-selection process.

Environmental threats to investigate

 Flood depth and duration • Nutrients

 Low water levels • Salt
 Flood frequency • Turbidity
 Wave energy • Erosion
 Sediment loads • Invasive plants
 Pollutants and toxins • Herbivores

Flood Depth and Duration Flood depth and duration can significantly influence the growth
and survival of vegetation. Flooding particularly influences plants in detention basins and
wetland systems that receive a significant amount of water during storms.

The effect of flooding on plants includes the inhibition of seed germina- tion and vegetative
reproduction, changes in plant anatomy and mortality. In plants that are not adapted to
flooding, leaf and fruit formation and growth can be suppressed, premature leaf abscission
and senescence can result, and shoot dieback and decreased cambial growth can occur in
woody plants. Flooding can also inhibit root formation and branching as well as growth of
existing roots and mycorrhizae. It may also lead to decay of the root system.
Flooding can often cause many physiological changes in plants: photosynthesis and
transport of carbohydrates are inhibited, absorption of macronutrients (nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium, or N, P and K) is decreased due to root mortality, mycorrhizae
may be lost, stomata may close and root metabolism may be suppressed. The hormonal
balance in plants can also be altered by increases in ethylene (Kozlowski 1997).

Despite the negative influences of flooding, many plant species have developed
physiological and anatomical adaptations that allow them to survive in flooded conditions.
These adaptations include metabolic adaptations, oxygen transport and rhizospheric
oxidation, hypertrophied lenticels, aerenchyma tissue and adventitious roots.

Metabolic adaptations. Several metabolic adaptations to flooding are utilized by plants.

They include control of energy metabolism, availability of abundant energy resources,
provision of essential gene products and synthesis of macromolecules and protection
against postanoxic injury (Kozlowski 1997).

Oxygen transport and rhizospheric oxidation. This is the capacity of plants to absorb and
transport oxygen from above-ground tissues to roots growing in oxygen-scarce
environments. Oxygen transport is aided by hypertrophied lenticels, aerenchyma tissues
and adventitious roots (Kozlowski 1997).

Aerenchyma tissue. This root and stem tissue is permeated with large intercellular spaces.
Species that do not respond to soil anaerobiosis by enlarging their internal air spaces
typically undergo anoxia in their roots (Kozlowski 1997).

Adventitious roots. Adventitious roots are specialized roots growing at or just above the
water or ground surface that increase the flood tolerance of plants. Adventitious roots
increase water absorption, assist with oxygen absorption, transform some toxins to less
harmful compounds and increase the supply of root-synthesized gibberellins and cytokinins
to the leaves (Kozlowski 1997). Adventitious roots may allow species such as buttonbush
and black willow to persist in early succes- sional environments characterized by fluctuating
water levels and sedi- ment levels (Donovan et al. 1988).

Seedlings and plants that are totally submerged are the most susceptible to flood-related
mortality. Photosynthesis is limited or nonexistent in times of complete submergence
except for plants that are adapted to submerged conditions. Seedlings are particularly
susceptible to flood stress because they generally have fewer reserves to draw upon during
stressful conditions. Seedlings are also susceptible to sediment deposition and scouring.
Kennedy and Krinard (1974) found that tree seedlings were killed in a flood whereas trees
at least one year old survived.

Other factors that can influence a plant’s resistance to flooding and saturated soil include
its age and condition and the timing and duration 7 of the flood (Yeager 1949, Kozlowski
1997). Generally plants are less affected by flooding in the spring than during summer
months when they are actively growing. Soil conditions can also have a significant effect on
plant survival. Flooding can affect soils by altering soil structure, depleting oxygen,
accumulating CO2 , inducing anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and reducing iron
and magnesium (Kozlowski 1997).
Harris and Marshall (1963) studied the drawdown and reflooding of wetlands in the Agassiz
National Wildlife Refuge in northwestern Minnesota. After reflooding a wetland, they found
that spike-rush (Eleocharus palustris) and soft-stem bulrush (Scirpus validus) were
destroyed by flooding with over 15 inches of water. Common cattail (Typha latifolia) and
sedges (Carex spp.) disappeared from continuously flooded areas in four to five years.
Hybrid cattail (Typha glauca) survived in 24 inches of water through five years of flooding.

In another study investigating species’ tolerance to flooding, Squires and Van der Valk
(1992) found that awned sedge (Carex atherodes), white top-grass (Scholochloa
festucacea), common reed grass (Phragmites australis), hybrid cattail (Typha glauca), hard-
stem bulrush (Scirpus acutus), soft-stem bulrush (Scirpus validus) and alkali bulrush (Scirpus
maritimus) survived for only one or two years in the flooded areas. They also found that
some Scirpus species survived as tubers in the flooded areas.

Casanova and Brock (2000) investigated how depth, duration and frequency of flooding
influence the establishment of wetland plant communities. The study was conducted by
exposing seed bank samples to various water level treatments of depth, duration and
frequency of inundation and comparing germination success. They found that depth was
least important in influencing plant community composition while duration of individual
flooding events was important in segregating plant communities. The highest biomass and
species richness was found in pots that were never flooded and pots with short, frequent
floods.

Prolonged flooding will most likely lead to plant mortality and a drawdown is generally
necessary for revegetation. Most aquatic emergents 8 need low water levels or complete
removal of water from a basin for seeds to germinate. The physiological processes
necessary for germination require oxygen. Since flooding restricts oxygen availability, it also
prevents germination from occurring (Kozlowski 1997). Linde (University of Michigan 1974)
found that cattail (Typha spp.), sweet flag (Acorus calamus), burreed (Sparganium spp.),
bulrush (Scirpus spp.), Walter’s millet (Echinochloa walteri), smartweed (Polygonum spp.),
willow (Salix spp.) and flatsedge (Cyperus spp.) germinated most successfully when mud
flats were exposed by drawdowns. Harris and Marshall (1963) determined that it is
desirable to induce drawdowns in wetlands with continuous standing water every five or six
years to maintain emergent cover.

Low Water Levels Prolonged low water levels can also stress plants within wetlands and
stormwater systems. Most wetland plants are not well adapted to retaining moisture
during dry conditions. In areas of open water that become dry, submergent species are
generally replaced by emergent species. Emergent species have root systems such as large
rhizomes and tubers that make them resistant to erosion by waves and ice as well as
changes in water level. Submergents, however, devote most of their biomass to above-
ground structures and cannot survive prolonged periods of drying (Wetzel 1983). In a study
of aquatic vegetation of the St. Lawrence River, Hudon (1997) found that emergent
vegetation was not affected by a one-year drop in water levels whereas submerged plants
did not survive.

A variety of short-lived, early successional species are also well adapted to low water levels.
Species that germinate quickly on exposed mud flats and are common in seasonally flooded
basins include smartweed (Polygonum spp.), flatsedge (Cyperus spp.), spikerush (Eleocharis
spp.) and beggartick (Bidens cernua). If water levels remain low, these species are generally
replaced with perennial grasses and forbs.
Flood Frequency The effect of flood frequency and accompanying water fluctuations on
plants has not been studied as thoroughly as that of flooding depth and duration, but it is
believed to be a major plant stressor. Galatowitsch et al. (1997) found that hydrologic
alterations by stormwater could reduce native perennial cover to the same extent as
cultivation in wet meadows. They discovered that less than 25 percent of the relative
abundance of species in stormwaterimpacted wetlands is comprised of species that are
characteristic of unimpacted sites. Examples of species not found in impacted wetlands
included slender sedge (Carex lasiocarpa), Canada blue-joint grass (Calamagrostis
canadensis) and prairie cord grass (Spartina pectinata). It is not known whether altered
water chemistry, water fluctuations or both are responsible for the plant community
changes observed. Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea), an invasive species found in
many impacted sites, may have an advantage because it can grow in flooded conditions as
well as in relatively dry soils. Husveth (1999) found that sedge meadow species were more
prevalent in lowfluctuation wetlands than in highfluctuation wetlands while mudflat annual
species were more common to high-fluctuation wetlands than lowfluctuation wetlands.

In Montgomery County, Maryland, Shenot (1993) conducted a study to investigate the

persistence of wetland species planted along the aquatic bench (a plateau, 3-18 inches
deep, designed to optimize area for emergent species) of three stormwater ponds two to
three years after planting. The ponds were planted with six to eight species of plants in
single-species clusters with an average density of four plants per square meter. Two ponds
were extended detention ponds with periodic inundation of 3-6 feet. Eighty-two percent of
the planted species persisted in the ponds after two to three years. Factors believed to
contribute to plant death included frequency and depth of inundation, nutrient-poor
inorganic soils, steep bench slopes and predation by ducks. Thirty-five to 80 wetland plant
species established as volunteers in each of the ponds (Shenot 1993, Schueler 2000).

Relative Persistence of Eight Species of Wetland Plants on the

Aquatic Bench (Shenot, 1993)
Persistence Spread
Sweet flag (Acorus calamus) Good Limited
Arrow arum (Peltandria virginia) Poor None
Pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata) Good Moderate
Arrowhead (Saggitaria latifolia) Excellent Excellent
Lizard’s tail (Saururus cernus) Poor None
Common three square (Scirpus americanus) Good Excellent
Soft-stem bulrush (Scirpus validus) Excellent Good
Wild Rice (Zizania aquatica) Excellent Limited
(Adapted from Schueler 2000)

Top 10 Volunteer Species Recorded at the Three Ponds (Shenot 1993)

Various exotic grasses (Graminea) 75%
Common rush (Juncus effusus) 55%
Fox sedge (Carex vulpinoidea) 33%
Other sedges (Carex spp.) 33%
Smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) 33%
Mostly many-flowered aster (Aster spp.) 30%
False nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica) 30%
Rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides) 30%
Bugleweed (Lycopus virginicus) 30%
Spike rush (Eleocharis sp.) 22%
 Defined as percentage of stations where the species was recorded as one of the five
most numerically dominated species at the station. N=40
(Adapted from Schueler 2000)

As was discussed earlier, flooding tends to limit root growth, and in some cases specialized
water roots are developed. It is likely that as plants dryquickly after flooding, their root
systems may not be able to supply sufficient water. A study on the effects of water
fluctuation on trees, including black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), common baldcypress (Taxodium
distichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), in a swamp in the southeastern United States
showed that weekly changes in the growth of the three species were significantly affected
by changes in water levels. It is believed that the reduced growth resulted from frequent
restructuring of root systems in response to alternately flooded and drained conditions. In
sites that were permanently flooded or saturated, limits of tree growth was not observed
(Keeland and Sharitz 1997).

Kozlowski (1997) states that “Because root growth typically is reduced more than stem
growth, the root/shoot ratio is decreased. When the flood water drains away, the
previously flooded plants may be less tolerant of drought because absorption of water by
their small root systems cannot adequately replenish losses due to transpiration.”

Although water fluctuations can have detrimental effects on plants, it is also important to
recognize that the fluctuation of water levels is a natural phenomenon in many basins,
particularly where there are steep slopes surrounding wetlands. In some cases, water
fluctuations can help certain community types, such as floodplain forests, that are adapted
to such conditions. The fluctuations may decrease weed competition and aid in seed
dispersal.

Flooding frequency has been shown to influence plant diversity in some situations. Pollock
et al. (1998) studied 16 wetland sites in Alaska and found that “species-rich sites had low to
intermediate levels of productivity and intermediate flood frequencies, and speciespoor
sites had very low or high flood frequency and low productivity.” This corresponds with
Huston’s (1979) dynamic-equilibrium model of species diversity, which predicts that the
highest diversity will be found where there are intermediate levels of disturbance and low
diversity will be found where there are high or low levels of disturbance.

A study in northern Minnesota (Wilcox and Meeker 1990) also demonstrated that high
diversity can be found with intermediate levels of disturbance. Two regulated lakes and one
unregulated lake were SMARTWEED 15 studied to determine the effects of water
fluctuations on aquatic macrophytes. It was found that the unregulated lake, which
fluctuated about 1.6 m annually, had structurally diverse plant communities at all depths. In
Rainy Lake, which had reduced water fluctuations (1.1 m annually), few species were
present along transects that were never dewatered. In Namakan Lake, which had increased
water fluctuations (2.7 m annually), rosette and mat-forming species dominated transects
where drawdown occurred in early winter and disturbance resulted from ice formation in
the sediments.

Stormwater MPs, such as wet and dry swales, filter strips and rain water gardens, can be
important for treating and slowing water flow before it reaches ponds and wetlands.
Appropriate design is important to ensure that flooding and water fluctuation will not be
severe. The outlets should be designed so as to endure natural fluctuations during storm
events. Multiple wetland cells and gentle side slopes can add to species diversity by
dispersing water, decreasing water fluctuations and providing a wide range of available
habitat for wetland species. A Vermont study (Occoquan Watershed Monitoring Lab et al.
1990) demonstrated that multiple pond systems can promote diversity (18 species) in
wetland BMPs. Common rush (Juncus effusus), spikerush (Eleocharis obtusa) and rice-cut
grass (Leersia oryzoides) dominated the 0-to-6-inch zone; spikerush (Eleocharis spp.) and
rice-cut grass dominated the 6-to-12-inch zone; water purslane (Ludwigia palustrus) and
duckweed (Lemna spp.) dominated the 12-to-18-inch zone; and cattail (Typha spp.),
spikerush (Eleocharis spp.), yellow water lily (Nuphar adventa) and white water lily
(Nymphea odorata) dominated the 18-to-30-inch zone.

For more information on the effect of hydrology on vegetation, see appendix 2 for an
investigation of three stormwater projects in the Twin Cities area.

Wave Energy On large water bodies, waves can have a significant influence on plant
growth. In a study of the effects of wave action at Axe Lake in Ontario, Keddy (1983) found
that “waves may have direct effects on vegetation; for example, through removing biomass,
uprooting seedlings, and transporting propagules.” He observed that “waves may also have
many indirect effects through the erosion, transport and deposition of sediment.” At Axe
Lake, Keddy found that “Large leafy species on sheltered shores tended to be replaced by
small creeping or rosette species on exposed shores.” Of the emersed species, bulrushes
(Scirpus spp.) tend to do best in exposed situations. If emersed plants can become
established, their presence may reduce wave and current action and permit a greater
variety of plants to establish (University of Michigan 1974). Stormwater MPs, such as wet
ponds, generally are not large enough to be significantly affected by wave action, but waves
may contribute to plant stress. Wave break structures are often necessary on large water
bodies to ensure planting success.

Sediment Loads Wetlands often receive sediment and nutrients from runoff (Brown 1985)
and this is the case in stormwater detention basins and other types of stormwater systems.
A study of beaked sedge (Carex rostrata) and common fox sedge (Carex stipata) in
Washington State (Ewing 1995) investigated the effect of sedimentation and showed that
sediment deposition can depress plant productivity. Other studies have shown similar
results. Van der Valk et al. (1981) found that with 15 cm of sediment, root density
decreased by 37 and 49 percent in subsequent years in freshwater lowland wetlands in
Alaska.

It has also been demonstrated that the accumulation of sediment negatively affects seed
germination. Jurik et al. (1994) found that sediment loads as low as 0.25 cm significantly
decreased the number of species that germinated from seedbank samples. The addition of
sediment had the least effect on species with large seeds.

Pollutants and Toxins Plants vary greatly in their ability to assimilate toxins and pollutants
into their stems and roots. With recent interest in phytoremediation and wastewater
cleansing, an increasing number of species are being investigated to determine their ability
to assimilate pollutants and toxins. A study by the City of Seattle (1993) investigated the
ability of five wetland species to take up zinc, lead and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH)
into plant tissue. The species chosen for the study were common cattail (Typha latifolia),
water flag (Iris pseudacorus), burreed (Sparganium spp.), blunt-spikerush (Eleocharis ovata)
and hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus). Of the five species, cattail was the most efficient at
taking up pollutants, but concentrations of lead, zinc and TPH were highest in burreed
tissue. Cattail was more vigorous and therefore had a higher pollutant uptake per area of
cover. Spike rush also had high pollution concentrations within plant tissue. There is
concern that wetland species that assimilate pollutants may pose a risk to wildlife that use
them as a food source. This study found that concentrations of TPH, zinc and lead were
higher in the roots than in the shoots, which may help decrease the risk to most wildlife
species.

Just as plant species vary in their ability to assimilate toxins and pollutants, they also vary in
their tolerance to these materials (Stockdale 1991). Snowden and Wheeler (1993)
examined 44 fen species in solution culture to determine their tolerance to iron. The plants
varied greatly in their tolerance, with species such as common rush (Juncus effusus) and
water-flag (Iris pseudacorus) being very tolerant, marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) and reed
canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) being semi-tolerant, and green sorrel (Rumex acetosa)
and queen of the meadow (Filipendula ulmaria) being very sensitive.

Individual species can be affected by some chemicals and unaffected by others. Dushenko
et al. (1995) investigated the effect of arsenic bioaccumulation and toxicity in aquatic
macrophytes exposed to gold mine effluent and found that broad-leaved cattail (Typha
latifolia) responded with decreased stand height, necrosis of leaf tips and reduced
micronutrient concentrations of copper, manganese and zinc in root tissues. A study in
China (Ye et al. 1998) investigating the tolerance of broadleaved cattail to zinc (1.0 µg/ml),
lead (10.0 µg/ml) and cadmium (0.2 µg/ml) accumulation found that this species was able
to tolerate these metals for 48 to 72 days.

Nutrients As nutrient inputs to wetlands increase, nutrients can be stored in surface litter,
plants or soils. However, the capacity of a wetland to retain a nutrient such as phosphorus
can become saturated over time and release of the nutrient can result. Nutrient inputs can
have a direct effect on vegetation. Species like reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) that
thrive in nutrient-rich conditions can displace species that are adapted to conditions of
lower nutrient availability (Horner et al. 1988). A study of a wastewater-treatment wetland
showed that plants near the discharge point had greater biomass, were taller and had
higher concentrations of phosphorus in their tissues (Tilton et al. 1979). Athanas and
Stevenson (1991) compared two stormwater wetlands in Maryland. They found that the
system that received higher amounts of sediment and nutrients had higher diversity
(cattails, rushes, sedges and boneset) than the other system (cattails and common reeds),
which received less sediment and nutrients. A study in Vermont (Schwartz 1985)
investigated the effect of sewage on wetland vegetation. Nitrate levels of 0.328 mg/L and
phosphate levels of 2.53 mg/L from raw sewage resulted in unchanged growth of cattail
(Typha spp.). Rushes (Scirpus spp.), giant burreed (Sparganium eurycarpum), lesser
duckweed (Lemna minor) and coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) were positively affected
by the nutrients, while elodea (Elodea canadensis) and pondweeds (Potomogeton spp.)
were negatively affected.

There is concern that wetland treatment systems in northern climates will not function
effectively during the winter months due to inactivity of bacteria and plant material.
Research being conducted at Montana State University by Stein and Hook is showing that
systems containing plants can function effectively in cold climates. The researchers are
finding that wetland systems with water temperatures of 36 degrees F can effectively
remove nitrogen and organic carbon from water. Plant debris and snow cover helps keep
water temperatures around 36 degrees. In addition, water treatment in cold temperatures
improves significantly when plants are a part of the system. This differs from research
conducted in southern climates that shows that bacteria play the largest role in cleaning
water and plants play a less important role. Plants that the Montana State researchers are
finding most effective are sedges and bulrushes. These species are much more effective at
treating water during the winter than cattails, which are relatively inactive (Flaherty 2002).

Mowing and removing above-ground growth of cattails, grasses and other species used in
stormwater MPs is one method of removing nutrients. The removed biomass can be
composted or possibly incinerated.

Salt Roadways and parking lots in the Midwest are salted heavily during winter months.
During melting and rainfall events, salt can be washed into a stormwater system. Biesboer
and Jacobson (1994) studied the role of road salt in limiting germination of warm-season
grasses. They found that salt concentrations were highest within the 19 FOX SEDGE first 3
feet from the road and then rapidly declined within 30 feet. They found that most warm-
and cool-season grasses could germinate and grow beyond 10 feet from a road without
experiencing stress. They state that warm-season grasses, such as blue grama (Bouteloua
gracilis) and buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides), can handle high salinities. Warm-season
grasses also have advantages over cool-season grasses because they germinate later in the
season, after spring rains reduce concentrations of sodium chloride in the soil (Ohrel 2000).

Another study (Isabelle et al. 1987) demonstrated that salt in roadside snowmelt can affect
species composition and biomass of wetland vegetation. In the study, seed of five wetland
species was planted in greenhouse plots and exposed to snowmelt/tapwater mixtures
containing 0, 20 and 100 percent snowmelt each day. After a month the seedlings were
harvested, and it was found that the number of germinating seeds was inversely
proportional to snowmelt salt concentration. Two species, purple loosestrife (Lythrum
salicaria) and common cattail (Typha latifolia), germinated when exposed to undiluted
snowmelt while other species (Aster umbellatus, Dulichium arundinaceum and Scirpus
cyperinus) did not. Both purple loosestrife and cattails dominate many urban wetland and
stormwater systems and their ability to germinate under high-salt conditions may
contribute to their dominance.

Wilcox (1986) observed that a bog in Indiana that was adjacent to an uncovered salt
storage pile for 10 years was prone to invasion by non-bog species such as narrow-leaf
cattail (Typha angustifolia). Many tamarack (Larix laricina) and many species of sphagnum
moss (Sphagnum spp.) were killed by the salt. The author noted that it is probable that red
maple 20 CULVER’S ROOT (Acer rubrum), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), leather-leaf
(Chamaedaphne calyculata), holly (Ilex spp.) and highbush blueberry (Vaccinium
corymbosum) were also affected by the salt. Other than cattails, species that did not appear
to be affected by salt included duckweed (Lemna spp.), arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.) and
bladderwort (Utricularia spp.).

Turbidity While flooding is a stress to many plant species, turbid water can compound the
problem. Turbidity tends to reduce the amount of photosynthesis that can be conducted by
a plant by limiting sunlight. Shaw (2002) observed that in nursery beds, Tussock sedge
(Carex stricta) fully submerged in turbid water declined quickly while plants that still had
some leaves above the surface of the water continued to increase their above-ground
growth. It was believed to be the combination of flooding and turbid water that caused the
plants to decline.

Loading of sediments can directly increase turbidity. Street cleaning and erosion control can
effectively decrease the amount of sediment entering stormwater systems.
Erosion Erosive action around roots is another potential stress to plants in stormwater
systems. Erosion naturally occurs in floodplains but may also occur in stormwater systems
that are not adequately vegetated. Deep-rooted, native, prairie species and wetland shrubs
do a good job of stabilizing buffer areas around ponds and wetlands. Aggressive grasses,
such as prairie cord grass, big bluestem, Indian grass and switch grass, as well as many
native shrub species are particularly well suited for this use. Cover crops such as oats,
winter wheat and annual ryegrass are also useful in controlling erosion. Cover crops
germinate quickly and hold the soil while the slower-developing native grasses become
established. Since cover crops germinate quickly, they are good indicators of the overall
success of plantings. If cover crops do not germinate in an area, there is a good chance that
native species that were planted will need to be re-seeded.

Invasive species Flooding can influence plant competition by physically or physiologically

damaging plants and by changing the physical and chemical environment of soils (Pollock et
al. 1998). Some invasive species seem to thrive under conditions of flooding and fluctuating
water levels. Cooke et al. (1989) found that invasive species such as reed canary grass
(Phalaris arundinacea) and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) can come to dominate
wetlands that receive urban stormwater. Salt tolerance also gives an advantage to some
invasive species, and the combination of these factors may explain why so many urban
wetlands and stormwater systems are dominated by invasive plants.

While few native plants can compete with these invasive species, some aggressive native
species can live amongst them. For example, cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum), blue vervain
(Verbena hastata) and green bulrush (Schoenoplectus atrovirens) can be found in ditches
among reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea). Seed of fast-establishing natives can be
used also to stabilize and compete in areas where reed canary grass is a significant threat.
Ultimately, management of native plantings is important to limit the growth of invasive
plants.

Herbivores Wild geese and other herbivores, such as deer, rabbits, muskrat, beavers, mice
and carp, are a significant threat to new plantings. Geese are particularly attracted to
seedling plants and have been know to completely destroy projects. Animal exclosures are
often necessary to stop herbivores. Exclosures constructed to prevent geese from grazing
newly planted areas should also help to prevent grazing by deer, rabbits, muskrat, beavers
and carp. It is difficult to select plants that herbivores will not eat, so exclosures are
generally the best option.

PLANT CONSIDERATIONS AND SPECIES FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Root systems of species covered in this guidebook vary greatly in their depth and
density/biomass.

Vegetation is often grouped into the categories of trees and shrubs, grasses/ sedges/rushes
and forbs/ferns. Each of these categories of vegetation has its own benefits and limitations
for stormwater projects.

Trees and Shrubs

Benefits

 Trees and shrubs, particularly willow species, have a significant influence on

evapotranspiration and a capacity for nutrient uptake.
 Roots aid infiltration by acting as pathways for water flow.
  Fibrous roots absorb large amounts of water.
 Trees and shrubs are useful for bank stabilization and can often be planted as
cuttings. Deeprooted species are particularly useful for anchoring soil to steep
slopes.
 Trees provide vertical structure in the landscape.
 Trees provide important habitat for many wildlife species.
 Trees provide important habitat for many wildlife species. Limitations
 Debris from trees may block outlets.
 Trees cannot be used in stormwater MPs where sediment will be excavated.
 Trees can inhibit the growth of prairie species.

Grasses, Sedges and Rushes

Benefits

 Roots of prairie grasses can extend deep into the ground and aid in infiltration and
evapotranspiration.
 Dense root networks stabilize soil and minimize erosion.
 Wetland species, particularly broad-leaved sedges and bulrushes, generally have
shallow roots but aid in evapotranspiration.
 Grasses generally have many stems and produce thatch that slows water flow and
facilitates filtration, making them well suited for filter strips.
 Many grasses, sedges and rushes are efficient at nutrient uptake.
 Native grasses, sedges and rushes add winter interest to the landscape and have
high wildlife value.

Limitations

 In projects with high flow rates, grasses must be mowed often to most efficiently
decrease stormwater velocity. Mown clump grasses will not produce seed.

Forbs and Ferns

Benefits

 Roots of prairie forbs can extend deep into the ground and aid in infiltration and
evapotranspiration.
 Wetland forbs, particularly broad-leaved species, generally have shallow roots but
aid in evapo transpiration.
 Native forbs add aesthetic appeal to the land scape and have high wildlife value.

Limitations

 Forbs generally have fewer basal stems than grasses and may not filter stormwater
as efficiently.

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

The types of stormwater management practices (MPs) are grouped into the categories of
retention, detention, infiltration, wetlands and filtration. The following information
provides a brief description of the types of stormwater MPs and planting considerations for
each.

Retention
Retention (extended detention) systems are designed to utilize the retention of water to
improve water quality. Retention systems covered in this guidebook include wet ponds and
extended storage ponds.
Wet Ponds and Extended Storage Ponds. Wet ponds are designed to retain a permanent
pool of water. The primary function of wet ponds is sedimentation, which removes metals,
nutrients, sediment and organics from stormwater. Wet ponds are suitable for sites with
high nutrient loads. Benches are often incorporated into wet ponds to add areas for plant
growth which aid in sedimentation, evapotranspiration and providing wildlife habitat.
Vegetation also acts as a barrier to keep children away from open water areas (MPCA
2000). Extended storage ponds are similar to wet ponds but are generally designed to
provide temporary storage of stormwater. As a result, extended storage ponds are
designed to fill quickly and then slowly decrease in water level (Barr 2001). Since both wet
and extended storage ponds may experience significant water fluctuations after storms,
plants must be chosen that can handle these conditions. Many urban wetlands and lakes
that receive stormwater experience environmental conditions similar to wet ponds and
many of the species in the following tables would be suitable for their planting.

Floodplain species may be well suited for extended storage ponds that flood and then
become dry. Plant species suitable for ponds can be grouped according to zones that
change with elevation. These zones are often referred to as “plant communities.” It is useful
to think about plantings in terms of plant communities because plant communities are
composed of species adapted to growing together.

ZONE PLANT COMMUNITY HYDROLOGY

1 Submergent zone 1.5 – 6 feet of water
2 Emergent zone 0 – 18 inches of water
3 Wet meadow zone Permanent moisture
4 Floodplain zone Flooded during snowmelt
and large storms
5 Upland zone Seldom or never inundated
(the upland zone includes
prairie and forest plant
communities)

Zone 1 (Submergent zone) – The submergent zone is found in areas of 3-6 feet of water in
wet ponds. Submergent vegetation makes up this zone because emergent vegetation
generally does not grow deeper than 3 feet. Submergent species may float free in the water
column or may root in the pool bottom and have stems and leaves that generally stay
under water. Submergent species are important for wildlife habitat and Zone 5 Zone 4 Zone
3 Zone 2 Zone 1 Floodplain species may be well suited for extended storage ponds that
flood and then become dry. Plant species suitable for ponds can be grouped according to
zones that change with elevation. These zones are often referred to as “plant
communities.” It is useful to think about plantings in terms of plant communities because
plant communities are composed of species adapted to growing together. 29 pollutant
removal, especially nitrates and phosphorus. Submergent species are not readily available
from native plant nurseries and can be difficult to plant. Many submergent species establish
on their own (Ogle and Hoag 2000).

Zone 2 (Emergent zone) – The emergent zone of a wet pond is generally 0 to 18 inches
deep. It is often designed as benches within ponds to optimize the area for emergent
plants. Emergent plants are important for wildlife and evapotranspiration. They also
provide habitat for phytoplankton, which play an important role in nutrient removal (Ogle
and Hoag 2000). A wide variety of wetland species are adapted to the emergent zone.
However, large fluctuations in water level and pollutants within wet ponds may limit the
number of species.

Zone 3 (Wet meadow zone) – The wet meadow zone is a constantly moist area that can
become inundated. The transition area between open water and the shoreline is prone to
erosion. Therefore, it is an important area for plant establishment. In addition to wet-
meadow grasses, sedges, flowers and shrubs, such as dogwoods, willows, buttonbush and
chokeberry, are well suited to this zone.

Zone 4 (Floodplain zone) – The floodplain zone is normally dry but may flood during
snowmelt and after large storms. Floodplain zones are generally flat terraces and are
common along rivers and streams. If a wet pond has a steep side slope, it may go directly
from zone 3 (wet meadow zone) to zone 5 (upland zone) without having a floodplain zone.
Floodplain species must be adapted to extremes in hydrology; they may be inundated for
long periods in the spring and be dry during the summer. The ability of floodplain species to
handle extremes in hydrology make them well suited to the edges of wet ponds and
detention ponds.

Zone 5 (Upland zone) – The upland zone is seldom or never inundated. A wide variety of
species are well adapted to the upland zone and their selection will depend on the site
conditions.

Zone 1 Submergent zone 3-6 feet of water

Note: Submergent species are not covered in depth in this guidebook, but desirable
species include the following:
Scientific Name Common Name
Forbs and Ferns
Brasenia schreberi Water shield
Ceratophyllum demersum Coontail
Elodea canadensis Elodea
Lemna trisulca Lesser duckweed
Myriophyllum exalbesieus Water milfoil
Nelumbo lutea Lotus
Nuphar lutea Yellow water-lily
Nymphaea odorata White water-lily
Potamogeton illinoensis Illinois pondweed
Potamogeton natans Floating-leaved pondweed
Potamogeton pectinatus Sago pondweed
Ranunculus flabellaris Yellow water crowfoot
Spirodela polyrrhiza Giant duckweed
Urticularia vulgaris Bladderwort
Vallisneria americana Wild celery
Woffia columbiana Watermeal