Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
Organic Chemistry
• The study of the chemistry of carbon
compounds.
Properties of Carbon
• Carbon atoms bond reasonably Structural Formula
strongly with other carbon atoms.
• Carbon atoms bond reasonably Displayed formula
strongly with atoms of other
elements. • Shows all the bonds in the molecule
• Carbon atoms make a large number as individual lines with each atom
of covalent. written at the end of each line using
its elemental abbreviation.
➢ Elemental carbon is not
abundant but all living things Condensed formula
contain organic compounds
➢ Most organic chemicals are • Atoms that are directly bonded to a
covalent compounds neighboring atom are placed
➢ Not all carbon-grouping
adjacent to that atom; contains
compounds are organic
more information about bonding
Representation of Organic Molecules order than the molecular formula.
Molecular Formula Line structure
• The simplest way to represent a • Hydrogen atoms are not shown and
compound by counting up all of the all the carbons are not labeled but
different types of atoms and listing rather are indicated at the end or
them in order. bend in every line, leaving just a
carbon skeleton with functional
Structural Formula groups attached to it. Any
heteroatoms and hydrogens
• Shows how the various atoms are attached to heteroatoms are shown
bonded. in condensed form.
▪ Displayed
▪ Condensed ETHANOIC ACID
▪ Line Structure
Molecular Formula
• Count up all of the different types of
atoms and list them in order; carbon
is listed first, hydrogen second,
followed by oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
phosphorus, and finally any
halogens.
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Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
2-BUTANOL • Carbon becomes chiral when it has
four different substituents attached
to it.
ORGANIC NOMENCLATURE
• A system has been devised by the
International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) for
STEREOISOMERS, ENANTIOMERS, naming organic compounds.
CHIRALITY • The IUPAC system is convenient for
naming relatively small, simple
STEREOISOMERS organic compounds.
• Naming an organic compound
• Is a special type of isomer where the usually begins with identifying what
atoms of a compound linked is referred to as the ‘parent chain’,
together have the same order, but which is the longest straight chain of
their 3-dimensional arrangement in carbon atoms.
space differs.
ENANTIOMERS
• Is a special kind of stereoisomers
that are mirror images of each
other, but are not superimposable. ✓ Substituents branching from the
main parent chain are located by a
carbon number, with the lowest
possible numbers being used. When
the substituents are small alkyl
CHIRALITY
• The term that is given to objects that
are mirror images but are not
superimposable.
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Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
✓ Cyclic alkanes are called
cyclopropane, cyclobutene,
cyclopentane, cyclohexane, and so
on: ✓ Ethers and sulfides are designated
by naming the two groups on either
side of the oxygen or sulfur.
✓ In the case of multiple substituents,
the prefixes di, tri and tetra are
used. ✓ If an amide has an unsubstituted
– NH2 group, the suffix is simply
‘amide’. In the case of a
substituted amide, the group
attached to the amide nitrogen is
named first, along with the letter
‘N’ to clarify where this group is
✓ Functional groups have
characteristics suffixes. Alcohols,
for example, have ‘ol ’ appended to
the parent chain chain name, along
with a number designating the
location of the hydroxyl group.
Ketones are designated by ‘one’. located.
✓ For esters, the suffix is ‘oate’. The
group attached to the oxygen is
named first.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
• Specific atoms, ions or groups of
atoms having consistent properties.
✓ Alkenes are designated with an ‘ene’ It makes up part of a longer
ending, and when necessary the molecule. They are made up from
location and geometry of the double
bond are indicated. Compounds with
multiple double bonds are called
dienes, trienes, etc.
specific bonding patterns with the
atoms most commonly found in
organic molecules.
✓ Some groups can only be present on
Alkenes and Alkynes Amines
a terminal carbon, and thus a
locating number is not necessary: Aromatic group Organic Phosphates
aldehydes end in ‘al’, carboxylic Alkyl halides Aldehydes and Ketones
acids in ‘oic acid’, and carboxylates
in ‘oate’.
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Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
Alcohols, Phenols, Thiols Carboxylic acid and their The sulfur analog of an alcohol is
derivates called a thiol.
Ethers and Sulfides Nitriles
ALKENES AND ALKYNES
• Alkenes have carbon0carbon double
bonds while alkynes have C-C triple
•
bonds.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons
• Except for methanol, all alcohols can
be classified as primary, secondary
or tertiary.
• In a primary alcohol, the carbon
bonded to the OH group is also
bonded to only one other carbon. In
a secondary alcohol and tertiary
AROMATIC GROUP
alcohol, the carbon is bonded to two
• Planar ring structures; six-
membered carbon ring with
alternating single and double bonds.
or three other carbons, respectively.
ETHERS AND SULFIDES
• In an ether functional group, an
oxygen is bonded to two carbons.
ALKYL HALIDES
• The sulfur analog of an ether is a
sulfide.
• Formed when the carbon of an
alkane is bonded to one or more
halogens.
ORGANIC PHOSPHATES
• Phosphate and its derivative
ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS, THIOLS
functional groups are ubiquitous in
biomolecules. Phosphate linked to a
• Forms when a carbon is single- single organic group is called a
bonded to an OH group. phosphate ester; when it has two
• When the hydroxyl group is directly links to organic groups it is called a
attached to an organic ring, the phosphate diester. A linkage
resulting group is called a phenol.
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Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
between two phosphates creates a group. The carboxylate ion form has
phosphate anhydride. donated the H+ to the solution.
• Other derivatives are carboxylic
esters (usually just called ‘esters’),
thioesters, amides, acyl phosphates,
acid chlorides, and acid anhydrides.
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
• Ketones and aldehydes are two
closely related carbonyl-based
functional groups. In a ketone, the
carbon atom of carbonyl is bonded
to other carbons. In an aldehyde, the NITRILES
carbonyl carbon is bonded on one
side to a hydrogen, and on the other
side to a carbon.
• Formaldehyde, in which the carbonyl
carbon has bonds to two hydrogens
is an exception.
• A nitrile group is characterized by a
carbon-nitrogen triple bond
HYRDROCARBONS
CARBOXYLIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES
• The simplest organic compounds,
• When a carbonyl carbon is bonded composed of carbon and hydrogen
on one side to a carbon (or atoms only.
hydrogen) and on the other side to Two types of hydrocarbons
an oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur the Aliphatic Arranged in
functional group is considered to be hydrocarbons straight chains,
one of the ‘carboxylic acid branched or non-
derivates’, a designation that aromatic ring
describes a set of related functional structures.
groups. The main member of this Aromatic Arranged in ring
family is the carboxylic acid hydrocarbons structures with
functional group, in which the delocalized pi
carbonyl is bonded to a hydroxyl electrons.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes
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Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
Possess only With one or With one
single bonds more double or more ▪ ELIMINATION
bonds triple ▪ REARRANGEMENT
bonds ▪ SUBSTITUTION
CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2 HYDROGENATION
Saturated Unsaturated Unsaturat
ed • Hydrogen (H2) is added across the
More double bond, converting an
Least Most reactive unsaturated molecule into a
reactive reactive than saturated molecule.
alkanes
Favors Favors Favors
substitution addition addition
reaction reaction reaction
HALOGENATION
• Halogens are added across the
Aromatic hydrocarbons double bond and the final product is
Monocyclic Polycyclic a haloalkane.
aromatic aromatic
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons
Composed of a Contain two or
single aromatic ring more fused
benzene rings
sharing a common
side
HYDROHALOGENATION
• Alkenes react with molecules that
contain one hydrogen and one
halogen. The final product is a
haloalkane.
REACTIONS
▪ ADDITION
HYDRATION
o Hydrogenation
o Halogenation
o Hydrohalogenation
o Hydration
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Introduction in Organic Chemistry
LECTURE/ WEEK 3/ PPT-BASED
• The addition of water to a molecule
✓ In more complex molecules,
hydrohalogenation and hydration
reactions can lead the formation of
more than one possible product.
SUBSTITUTION REACTION
• Due to high reactivity of alkenes,
they usually undergo addition
reactions rather the substitutions
Markovnikov’s Rule
• States that in addition reactions
with HX (where X is a halogen or the
OH group from water), the H always
attaches to the carbon that already
has the most hydrogens, and the X reactions. The exception is the
attaches the carbon with the fewer benzene ring.
hydrogen atoms.
ELIMINATION REACTION
• A molecule loses a functional group,
typically a halogen or an alcohol
group, and a hydrogen atom from
two adjacent carbon atoms to
create an alkene structure.
REARRANGEMENT REACTION
• Specific organic reaction that causes
the alteration of the structure to
form an isomer.
• With alkene structures, often result
in the conversion of a cis-isomer into
the trans conformation.
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