LECTURE NOTES

ON

ME 252 : APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

(Revised for the academic year 2014-15)

BY

Dr.T.R.SEETHARAM
(PESIT,BANGALORE)

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 ME 252 APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS (4 - 0 – 0)

Course Objectives:

1) Students will acquire the skills to analyze a vapor power cycle given a set of operational
parameters and constraints, determine cycle efficiency, its power output, and required heat
input.

2) Students will acquire the skills to make modifications to improve the overall cycle
efficiency for the steam power cycle.

3) Students will acquire the skills to analyze and optimize a vapor refrigeration system given
the requirements and constraints of a refrigeration system.

4) Students will acquire the skills to understand the second law limitation of thermodynamic
efficiencies and will be able to sort out realistic and unrealistic thermodynamic system claims.

5) Students will acquire the skills to analyze and determine cycle efficiency, work output, and
required heat input for a gas turbine cycle, and determine thrust of a turbojet, for a given set of
operating parameters.

6) Students will acquire the skills to determine the moisture content in air and perform
calculations for humidification and dehumidification.

7) Students will acquire the skills to design a thermodynamic system such as a combined
cycle power system based on given constraints and availability of components and optimize its
overall efficiency.

8) Students will be able to understand the design and operation of thermal engineering systems
including engines, power generation systems, and refrigeration systems and apply this
knowledge to the design of similar systems.

9) Students will be able to understand and apply thermodynamic laws of air conditioning and
humidification/ dehumidification systems.

10) Students will acquire the skills to analyze and also make a thermal design of reciprocating
compressors.

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Course Content:

UNIT I

1. Reciprocating Compressors: Classification of reciprocating compressors; expression for

work input and volumetric efficiency for a single stage compressor; effect of clearance;
adiabatic, isothermal and mechanical efficiencies; analysis of an actual single stage
compressor; need for multistage compressors; optimum intermediate pressure for a two-stage
compressor with and without perfect inter cooling.(6 hours)

2. Testing of I.C.Engines: Introduction; Important performance parameters of IC engines and

their definitions; measurement of brake power, friction power, indicated power and fuel
consumption; Morse test for multicylinder engines; Illustrative examples (4 hours)

UNIT II

3. Vapour Power Cycles: Carnot vapour power cycle and its draw back as a reference cycle;
Analysis of a simple Rankine cycle; Concept of thermodynamic temperature, expression for
thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle in terms of temperature; effects of Pressure and
temperature on the performance of Rankine cycle; Analysis of modified Rankine cycles like
Reheat cycle, Regenerative cycle- Types of feed water heaters; analysis of regenerative cycles
with open type and closed type feed water heaters; Reheat-regenerative cycle. Binary Vapour
cycle.; process heat and by-product power;efficiencies of steam power plant(10 hours)

UNIT III

4. Gas Power Cycles: Analysis of Carnot gas power cycle and its limitation. Analysis of air
standard otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles and their comparison;Analysis of simple GT
cycle (Brayton cycle);Modifications of simple cycle like multistage expansion and multistage
compression for increased work output; modifications to improve the thermal efficiency of the
simple cycle; Analysis of practical gas turbine cycles; Analysis of Jet Propulsion cycles like
turboprop and turbojet engine cycles. Analysis of a simple Gas – Turbine cogeneration system.
(10 hours)

UNIT IV

5. Refrigeration Cycles: Carnot Refrigeration cycle; Limitations of Carnot Cycle as a

reference cycle; Gas refrigeration cycles – analysis of an ideal air refrigeration cycle;
deviations of practical cycle, analysis of practical air refrigeration cycles; practical applications
of gas refrigeration cycles; Mechanical vapour compression cycles – analysis of an ideal
vapour compression cycle; effect of subcooling;deviations of practical vapour compression
cycle; analysis of practical vapour compression cycles; analysis of vapour compression cycles
with multiple evaporators and with multi-stage compression; absorption refrigeration systems –
general expression for COP of a simple vapour absorption system; ammonia – water absorption
system (only description and no thermodynamic analysis) (6 hours)

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6.Air-conditioning:- Definitions of terms used in thermodynamics of air –water vapour
mixture; relation between specific humidity and relative humidity; analysis of various
psychrometric processes; adiabatic mixing of streams of moist air; summer and winter air
conditioning – condition line; apparatus dew point; coil bypass factor; (6 hours)

UNIT V
7. Thermodynamics of Reacting Mixtures: Introduction; Combustion equations; theoretical
air;air fuel ratio ; Products of combustion - flue gas analysis-orsat apparatus; latest methods of
flue gas analysis;energy release in combustion – constant volume combustion, combustion in
steady flow; enthalpy of formation;adiabatic flame temperature; enthalpy of
combustion,heating value;second law analysis of combustion process (5 hours)

8. Thermodynamics of Compressible flow: Introduction; Sonic velocity and Mach

number;Stagnation properties and their relation to static properties;analysis of one dimensional
steady isentropic flow of an ideal gas;critical properties – choking in isentropic flow;
dimensionless velocity M*; pressure distribution and choking in a nozzle (5 hours)

Text Book: 1. “Basic & Applied Thermodynamics”, P.K.Nag, Tata – McGraw-Hill

Co., 2002.
Reference Books: 1. “Thermodynamics – An engineering Approach”, Yunus A Cengel &
Michael A. Boles, TMH Edition, 2003

2. “An Introduction to Energy Conversion – Volume II Energy Conversion

Cycles)”,V.Kadambi & Manohar Prasad ,Wiley Eastern Pvt. Ltd.,1974

3. “ Lecture Notes on Applied Thermodynamics”, T.R.Seetharam (Private

Circulation)

Course Outcome:
After successful completion of this course, the student will be able to do the following:
1. Apply the principles of thermodynamics to reacting systems and analyze the chemical
equilibrium of a reacting system.
2.. Describe the characteristics of the Otto, Diesel, and Brayton power cycles and the method
of analysis of each cycle.
3. Analyse the experimental data of different types of I.C.Engines and calculate the various
performance parameters of an I.C.Engine.
4. Apply the principle of thermodynamics to analyse reciprocating compressors.
5.Analyze the Rankine cycle with various configurations to optimize the design of a power
plant and use the computer to synthesize and evaluate the design.
6. Use the methods of analysis of refrigeration cycles with verification provided by an
experimental refrigeration apparatus.
7. Apply the laws of thermodynamics to analyse different psychrometric processes and make a
thermodynamic analysis of an air conditioning plant
8. Apply the general relations and make thermodynamic analysis of subsonic and supersonic
flows.

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 CHAPTER 1

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

1.1.Introduction :- This chapter deals with thermodynamic analysis (energy analysis) of

reciprocating gas compressors. Gas compressors are devices in which mechanical work is done
on the gas, raising its pressure. Energy analysis is one of the many major aspects to be
considered in order to design a gas compressor.
Compression of gases is an important process in many power plants, refrigeration plants and
industrial plants. Industrial uses of gas compression occur in connection with pneumatic tools,
air brakes for vehicles, servo-mechanisms, metallurgical and chemical processes, conveying of
materials through ducts, production of bottled gases, and transportation of natural gas. The
term gas compression applies only to processes involving appreciable change of gas density;
this excludes ordinary ventilation and furnace draft processes.

1.2.Classification of Compressores:- Compressors are broadly classified into two types: (i)
positive displacement type and (ii) turbomachine type. In a positive displacement type of
compressor, the interaction between the moving part and the fluid involves a change of
volume, translation of the fluid or both. Fluid compression or expansion thus occurs without an
appreciable displacement of the mass centre of gravity of the contained fluid. Hence changes in
kinetic energy and momentum may be neglected in such machines. In the positive
displacement machine the fluid cannot escape the boundaries except for leakage. The action is
therefore nearly static. In the case of a turbomachine, the fluid undergoes change in momentum
and kinetic energy due to dynamic action between the flowing fluid and a rotor. Positive
displacement compressors are further classified as (i) reciprocating type and (ii) rotary type.
This chapter deals with analysis of reciprocating type of compressors.In a reciprocating air
compressor, air is sucked in to the compressor cylinder, it is then compressed to the required
pressure and then exhausted into a receiver where it is stored for further use.

1.3 Classification of Reciprocating Compressors:Reciprocating compressors are classified

according to (i) the number of surfaces (one or two) of the piston which actually participates in
the compression process, (ii) the number of stages employed to get the desired pressure ratio
and (iii) the number of cylinders employed.
According to the first classification, compressors are classified into single acting
compressor and double acting compressor. In the case of single acting compressor, only one
side of the piston face (see Fig. 1.1) participates in the compression process.One revolution of
the crank is required to complete one cycle of operation. Hence if N is the speed of the
compressor say in RPM then the number of cycles per minute executed by the compressor, Nc
is equal to N. On the other hand, in the case of a double acting compressor, since both sides of
the piston are participating in the compression process (i.e. if compression is taking place on
one side of the piston, suction is taking place on the other side) the number of cycles per unit
time will be equal to twice the speed of the compressor, i.e. Nc = 2N if the cross sectional area

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of the piston rod is negligible. Otherwise Nc = 2 { 1 – (a / A)}N, wher a = area of cross section
of the piston rod and A is the area of cross section of the cylinder.

Piston
Delivery/exhaust valve Delivery/exhaust valve
Piston Rod

Suction/inlet valve
Suction/inlet valve

(a) single acting compressor (b) double acting compressor

Fig. 1.1 : Single acting and double acting compressors

Reciprocating compressors are also classified as single - stage compressors and multi-stage
compressors. In the case of a single stage compressor the entire compression process from the
surroundings pressure to the required delivery pressure is carried out in a single stage, where as
in a multi stage compressor the whole compression process is divided into a number of stages,
so that after the compression in each stage, the gas is cooled in an inter cooler at constant
pressure back to its original temperature and then compressed
Wc (Wc)I stage

p1,T1 First stage

Compressor Compression
p1,T1 p2, T2
pi,Ti
Coolant out

Single stage
Compressor Intercooler

Coolant in pi,T1

Second stage
p2,T2 Compression

(Wc)II stage
Two-stage compressor
Fig. 1.2 : Difference between single stage and two stage compressors

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in the next stage. Fig. 1.2 shows the difference between a single stage compressor and a two-
stage compressor. The total work required in a two stage compressor is equal to the sum of
work required in I stage and II stage, which will always be less than the work required in a
single stage compressor for the same delivery pressure. There are other advantages of multi-
stage compressors over a single stage compressor which will be discussed later.
Whenever a large quantity of gas is required at high pressure it is not advisable to
employ a single cylinder as in that case the size of the cylinder will be very bulky. Under such
circumstances, the required quantity of gas to be compressed is divided into smaller quantities
compressed in separate cylinders and then discharged into a common receiver. The suction and
delivery pressures for all the cylinders are one and the same.Fig. 1.3 shows the difference
between a compressor with one cylinder and a compressor with two cylinders.

1.4. Expression for work done on a gas in a single stage compressor without clearance:-
The p – V diagram for a single stage compressor without clearance volume is shown in Fig.1.4.
Line 0 – 1 represents suction of air when the piston moves from its inner most position to outer
most position. During this process both pressure and temperature of the gas remains constant,
but the mass of air sucked increases from zero at state 0 to m1 at state 1. Line 1 – 2 represents
the compression process where in the gas is compressed from the suction pressure to the
required delivery pressure according to the law pV n = Constant. During this process the mass
remains constant (m2 = m3). Line 2 – 3 represents the delivery of the gas from the cylinder to a
receiver where the gas is stored at this pressure.During the delivery stroke both pressure and
temperature of the gas remains constant but mass of the gas decreases from m2 at state 2 to
zero at state 3. The wokdone on the gas per cycle is given by

Wc

.
m,p1,T1 m,p2,T2 Single cylinder compressor

Wc1
.
m/2,p1,T1 Cylinder 1 m/2,p2,T2
.
m,p2,T2
Wc2 = Wc1
m,p1,T1 Cylinder 2
.
m/2,p1,T1 m/2,p2,T2

Fig. 1.3 : Difference between a single cylinder compressor and a two-cylinder

compressor.

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 p
3 2

pV n= C

0 1
V
Fig. 1.4: p – V diagram for a single stage compressor without
clearance
1 2 3
Wc = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2

[p1V1 – p2V2]
= p1[V1 – V0] + -------------------- + p2[V3 – V2}
(n – 1)

For a compressor without clearance V0 = V3 = 0. Therefore

[p1V1 – p2V2]
n
Wc = p1V1 – p2V2 + -------------------- = (n−1) p1V1 [ 1 – (p2V2) / (p1V1)]
(n – 1)

For process 1-2 we can write p1V1n = p2V2 n or V2 / V1 = (p2/p1) – 1/n.

𝐧
Therefore Wc = (𝐧−𝟏) p1V1[ 1 – (p2 / p1) (n – 1)/n ] ………………………..(1.1)

Mass of air compressed per cycle = mc = m1 ─ m0 = m1 as m0 = 0. Assuming that the gas

behaves as a perfect gas

We have p1V1 = m1RT1 = mcRT1. Substituting this expression in Eq. (1.1) we get
𝐧
Therefore Wc = (𝐧−𝟏) m cRT1[ 1 – (p2 / p1) (n – 1)/n ] ………………………..(1.2)

Work done per unit mass of gas in order to raise its pressure from p1 to p2 is given by

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 𝐧
w = Wc / mc = RT1[ 1 – (p2 / p1) (n – 1)/n] ………………..(1.3)
(𝐧−𝟏)

It can be seen from Eq. (1.3) that work input required to compress unit mass of a gas from
pressure p1 to p2 depends on (i) the index of compression ‘n’, (ii) the desired pressure ratio
p2/p1 and (iii) the suction temperature T1.Therefore for given suction conditions (T1 is fixed), w
depends on ‘n’ and p2/p1. The effects of these two parameters on w is shown in Fig. 1.5 where
absolute value of w (non dimensionalized) is plotted
4
n = 1.4
n = 1.2
|w| /(mcRT1)

2 n = 1.0

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
p2 / p1
Fig. 1.5. Variation of work input with compression index

against p2/p1 for different values of the index ‘n’.It is clear from this plot that for a given
pressure ratio, the work input increases with increase in ‘n’ and is a minimum for n=1(a
compression index of n < 1 cannot be attained in practice as a gas cannot be cooled below its
original temperature, unless a refrigeration process is used). Therefore for minimum work of
compression , the index n should be unity which means that the compression process should be
according to the law pV = constant which for a perfect gas means that T = constant or the
compression process should be isothermal.

Therefore (w) minimum = wisothermal = RT1 ln (p2 / p1)……………………………..(1.4)

1.5. Expression for work done on a gas in single stage compressor with clearance:-In
practice a compressor without clearance does not exist. Some clearance space between the
piston face and the cylinder head, when the piston is in its innermost position is necessary to
prevent the piston from colliding with the cylinder head and therby providing a “cushioning
effect” when the piston moves in. When the clearance has been provided, the gas in the
clearance space alternately expands and contracts as the piston moves back and forth and has
no effect otherwise on the compressor cycle. The gas in the clearance space after each cycle
has to be first expanded to the suction pressure before fresh gas can enter the cylinder during
suction stroke of the next cycle. Therefore the ideal p – V diagram for a compressor with
clearance will be as shown in Fig. 1.6. Process 3 – 0 is the expansion of gas in the clearance
space from delivery pressure to suction pressure. Fresh gas will enter the compressor at 0 and
stops at 1.Process 1 -2 is the compression of the gas to the desired pressure and process 2 – 3 is

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the delivery of high pressure gas from the cylinder to a receiver in which the high pressure gas
is stored and used as and when required.
p

3 2

pV ne = const

pV nc = const

1
0
V
Vs = V1 – V3

Clearance volume = V3
Fig. 1.6: p – V diagram for a compressor with clearance
The work done on the gas per cycle is given by

1 2 3 0
Wc = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-0 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2 3

[p1V1 – p2V2] [p3V3 – p0V0]

= p1[V1 – V0] + ------------------ + p2[V3 – V2] + ---------------------
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

Since p0 = p1 and p3 = p2, the above equation can be simplified as

[p1V1 – p2V2] [p3V3 – p0V0]

Or Wc = [p1V1 – p0V0] + -------------------- + [ p3V3 – p2V2] + -------------------
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

1 1
= [p1V1 – p2V2] { 1 + ---------- } – [p0V0 – p3V3] { 1 + ------------ }
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

nc ne
= --------- p1V1[ 1 – (p2V2/p1V1) ] − ------------- p0V0 [ 1 – (p3V3 / p0V0]
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

For process 1-2 we have p1V1nc = p2V2nc or V2 / V1 = (p2 / p1) −1/nc.

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Similarly for process 3 -0 we have V3/V0 = (p3/p0) − 1/ne.

Substituting these expressions in the expression for Wc and simplifying we get

nc ne
Wc = ----------- p1V1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) (nc – 1)/nc − ------------- p0V0 [1 – (p2/p1) (ne – 1)/ne]
(nc – 1) (ne – 1)

……………………(1.5)

Normally the index for compression is taken as equal to the index for expansion, as the error
involved in such an assumption is negligible (this is illustrated in example 1.1) Hence
assuming that nc = ne = n, Eq.(1.5) reduces to

n n
Wc = ----------- p1V1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n] − ------------- p0V0 [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]
(n – 1) (n – 1)
Noting that p0 = p1, the above expression for Wc can be written as

n
Wc = ---------- p1(V1 – V0) [ 1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n] ………………………………(1.6)
(n – 1)

(V1 – V0) is the volume of air sucked and compressed per cycle as measured at suction
conditions. Therefore if mc is the mass of gas compressed per cycle then

p1(V1 – V0) = ( m1 ─ m0) RT1 = mcRT1 Therefore Eq. (2.6) can also be written as

n
Wc = ---------- mc RT1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n] ………………………………….(1.7)
(n – 1)
n
Work done per unit mass of gas = w = Wc / mc = ---------- RT1 [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]
(n – 1)

This expression is same as the one obtained for a compressor without clearance, indicating that
the work input per unit mass of gas to achieve the desired pressure ratio is independent of the
clearance volume.

1.6. Volumetric Efficiency for a reciprocating compressor :- For a compressor with

clearance, the volume of air sucked as measured at suction conditions is less than the swept
volume of the piston. In order to denote how efficiently gas is drawn into the compressor the
term “volumetric efficiency” is used. The ideal volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of
the actual mass of gas drawn to the mass of gas filling the stroke volume at suction conditions.

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 mc p1(V1 – V0) / RT1
i.e. (η v)ideal = --------- = ---------------------------
mswept p1(V1 – V3) / RT1

(V1 – V0)
or (η v)ideal = ------------- ……………………………..(1.8)
(V1 – V3)

Normally the compressor specifications are given as the pressure ratio that has to be developed
and the volume of gas that has to be compressed per unit time as measured at free air
conditions (surrounding conditions). In that case the volumetric efficiency is defined as the
ratio of volume of gas compressed as measured at surroundings conditions to the swept volume
of the piston. This is the actual volumetric efficiency of the compressor. Thus
Vf
(η v) actul = ---------------- ………………………….(1.9)
(V1 – V3)

If the surroundings pressure is pf and temperature is Tf and Vf is the volume of gas compressed
per cycle as measured at these conditions then we have
p1(V1 – V0) pfVf
mc = ----------------- = ------------ Or Vf = (p1/pf)(Tf/T1) (V1 – V0)
RT1 RTf

Substituting this expression for Vf in Eq. (1.9) we get

p1Tf (V1 – V0)

(η v)actual = ------------------- = (p1Tf / pfT1) (η v) ideal ………….(1.10)
pf T1 (V1 – V3)

1.6.1.Expression for Ideal Volumetric Efficiency in Terms of Clerance Ratio, Pressure Ratio
and index of expansion:-

(V1 – V0)
(η v)ideal = -------------------
(V1 – V3)

(V1 – V3) + (V3 – V0)

= ---------------------------
(V1 – V3)

V3
= 1 + ------------ [ 1 – V0 / V3]
(V1 – V3)

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V3 / (V1 – V3) = Clearance ratio = C ; V0 / V3 = (p3 / p0) 1/ne = (p2 / p1) 1/ne. Substituting these
expressions we have

(η v)ideal = 1 + C [ 1 – (p2 / p1) 1/ne] ………………….(1.11)

The above equation is represented graphically in Fig. 1.7. It can be seen from this figure that
the volumetric efficiency diminishes very rapidly as the clearance ratio and pressure ratio
increases.

1.7. Actual p – V diagram for a single stage compressor:- While deriving the expression for
the work done on a gas in order to compress it from pressure p1 to pressure p2, it was assumed
that during the suction stroke the pressure and temperature of the gas inside the cylinder
remains constant and similarly during the delivery stroke also the pressure and temperature of
the gas inside the cylinder remains constant.The use of spring loaded valves causes a defect
called “valve flutter” because of which there will be fluctuations in suction and delivery
pressures.Hence the intake and delivery lines on the p – v diagram will be more or less sinuous
rather than straight lines..
Further it is necessary that there exists a finite pressure difference between the surroundings
and the cylinder interior so that the inlet valve opens and gas is sucked into the cylinder.
Similarly, compressed gas will flow out of the cylinder only if its pressure is

(η v)Ideal

1.0
1 / C = 20
= 15

= 10

0
p2/p1
1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Fig.1.7: Effect of pressure ratio and clearance on volumetric eficiency

more than the receiver pressure. These effects will make the actual p – V diagram bigger than
the ideal diagram.The process of compression can never be isothermal nor it can be isentropic.
Usually it will be polytropic with index ‘n’ anywhere between 1 and 1.4.The work input to
compressor will be minimum if the compression process is isothermal. In practice, the

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isothermal compression is approached either by cooling the cylinder head by spraying cold
water or by circulating cold water in jacket surrounding the cylinder.

The actual p – V diagram which includes the pressure drops across the valves, the
valve flutter and non-adiabatic compression is shown in Fig.1.8.The average pressure during
intake p1, is less than the atmospheric pressure by δp1 (δp1 is the inlet valve pressure drop),
while the average pressure at exit,p2 is greater than the receiver pressure by δp2 which is the
exit valve pressure drop. The real indicator diagram has its corners rounded at the end of
compression and expansion processes as compared with the ideal diagram. Further the actual
area of the diagram is greater than the theoretical area so that the actual work input is greater
than that for an ideal compressor given by Eqs (1.6) and (1.7).In order to account for these
deviations in the actual p – V diagram, a factor called “diagram factor,K” is introduced, which
is defined as the ratio of the area of the actual p – V diagram to the area of the ideal p – V
diagram so that the actual work don per cycle is given by

(Wc)actual = K(Wc)ideal ………………………………..(1.12)

p2
pr δp2

patm

p1 δp1

Fig.1.8: Actual p – V diagram for a reciprocating compressor

1.8. Performance Parameters for Reciprocating Compressors :- In an actual compressor,

because of irreversibilities, the required compressor work will not be equal to the ideal work of
compression. To account for these irreversibilitis a parameter called “compressor efficiency” is
defined. Compressor efficiency is an indication of how closely the actual compression process
The compressor efficiency is defined as follows:

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 Ideal work of compression
ηc = ---------------------------------- ……………………(1.13)
Actual work of compression

If the ideal work of compression is based on isentropic work of compression then the
efficiency is called as “Isentropic efficiency of compressor or adiabatic efficiency”. If the ideal
process is isothermal then the efficiency is called as “ Isothermal efficiency of compressor”.
For a reciprocating compressor the ideal work of compression is the isothermal work of
compression ,and hence Isothermal efficiency of compressor is used as one of the performance
parameters.In the case of turbo compressors, the ideal compression is the isentropic process
and hence isentropic efficiency of compressor is used as a performance parameter for turbo
compressors. The actual work of compression in Eq.(1.13) is the work transferred to air in the
cylinder. This will not be the work supplied by the external agency which is driving the
compressor. There are mechanical losses due to friction which will diminish the amount of
work supplied to the gas in the cylinder. To account for mechanical losses, a parameter called
“mechanical efficiency” is defined as follows:

Actual work of compression

ηmech = -------------------------------------- ………………..(1.14)
Shaft work supplied

The overall compressor efficiency is defined as follows:

Ideal work of compression

ηoverall = ----------------------------------- = ηmech ηc ……………………………..(1.15)
Shaft work supplied

1.9.Illustrative Examples on Single stage reciprocating compressors:

Example 1.1:- An ideal compressor has a displacement volume (stroke volume) of 14 litres
and a clearance volume of 0.7 litre. It receives air at 100 kPa and discharges at 500 kPa. The
compression is polytropic with index equal to 1.3 and expansion is isentropic. Assuming that
air behaves as a perfect gas, determine (i) work done on air per cycle and (ii) the error
involved in calculation of work done if the index for compression and for expansion are both
equal to 1.3.

Schematic:

Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

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Known: (i) displacement volume, (V1 – V3) and clearance volume,V3;(ii) suction and
discharge pressures, p1 and p2 ; (iii) compression index and isentropic expansion index

Find: (i) work done on air per cycle ; (ii) error in workdone if index for compression and
expansion are same

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) single acting compressor; (iii) air behaves as a perfect gas so that for
isentropic expansion, ne = γ = 1.4

Solution (i) : The p-V diagram for the problem is shown in the next page.When the index for
expansion is not equal to the index for compression the work done per cycle is given by

Wc = {nc/(nc – 1)}p1V1[1 – (p2/p1) (nc – 1)/nc] – {ne/(ne – 1)}p0V0[1 – (p2/p1) (ne – 1)/ne]

Now V1 = (14.7) x 10 − 3 m3. V0 = (p3/p0) 1/neV3 = (500/100) 1/1.4 x 0.7 x 10 − 3

Or V0 = 2.21 x 10 − 3 m3.

p
pVnc = const V1 – V3 = 14 x 10 − 3 m3
3 2
pVne = const
V3 = 0.7 x 10 − 3 m3;

p1 = 100 kPa ; p2 = 500 kPa;

nc = 1.3 ; ne = 1.4

0 1
V

Substituting the numerical values in the expression for Wc we get

Wc = {1.3 /0.3) x 100 x 103 x 14.7 x 10 − 3 [1 – (500/100) 0.3/1.3]

− {1.4/0.4} x 100 x 10 3 x 2.21 x 10 − 3 x {1 – (500/100)0.4/1.4]

= − 2.414 x 10 3 J = − 2.414 kJ

(Negative sign indicates that work is done on air by the surroundings)

(ii) When nc = ne = n, work done per cycle is given by

Wc = {n/(n – 1)}p1(V1 – V0) [1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]

16
Now V0 = (500/100) 1/1.3x 0.7 x 10 −3 = 2.414 x 10 − 3

= (1.3/0.3) x 100 x 10 3 x (14.7 – 2.414) x 10 − 3 x [1 – (500/100) 0.3/1.3]

= − 2.385 x 10 3 J = − 2.385 kJ

Percent error in assuming the same index for both compression and expansion processe is
given by
% error = (2.414 – 2.385) x 100 / 2.414 = 1.2 %.

Comments: The error involved in assuming the same index for compression and expansion
processes is negligible and hence it is usual to assume that index for expansion process is same
as that for compression process

Example 1.2:-A double acting compressor, with a piston displacement of 0.05 m 3 per stroke,
operates at 500 rpm. The clearance is 5 percent and it receives air at 100 kPa and discharges
at 600 kPa. The compression is polytropic according to the law pV 1.35 = constant. Determine
the power required to drive the compressor and the mass of air delivered in kg/s if the suction
temperature is 27 C.

Schematic:
Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Double acting,hence Nc = 2N; (ii) N = 500 rpm; (iii) Stroke volume, (V1 – V3) =

0.05 m3; (iv) Clearance volume,V3 = 0.05(V1 – V3); (v) suction pressure =p1 = 100 kPa; (vi)
delicery pressure = p2 = 600 kPa; (vii) compression and expansion indices = nc = ne = n = 1.35;
(viii) Suction temperature,T1 = 27+273 = 300 K
.
Find: (i) Power input ,P in kW ; (ii) mass of air delivered ,m in kg/s

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) expansion index = compression index = n (iii) air behaves as a perfect gas

Solution: Refer to the p – V diagram shown below.

17
 p
3 2
pVn = constant

0 1
V

V3 = 0.05 x 0.05 = 2.5 x 10 − 3 m3.

Hence V1 = 0.05 + 2.5 x 10 − 3 = 0.0525 m3.

For the expansion process 3 – 0 we have p0V0n = p3V3n or V0 = (p3/p0) 1/nV3

Therefore V0 = (600 / 100) 1/1.35 x 0.0025 = 9.4265 x 10 − 3 m3.

Mass of air compressed per cycle = (m1─ m0) = mc = p1(V1 – V0) / (RT1)

= 100 x 103 x [0.0525 – 9.4265 x 10 − 3] / (286 x 300)

Or mc = 0.0502 kg/cycle
.
Mass of air compressed per second = m = mcNc = 0.0502 x (2 x 500)/60

= 0.837 kg/s

(ii) Power = P = WcNc = {n/(n – 1)}mcNcRT1[1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1) / n]

= (1.35/0/35) x 0.837 x 0.286 x 300 x [1 – (600/100) 0.35 / 1.35]

= − 163.8 kW

Comments: Negative sign for P indicates that work is done on air by the surroundings

Example 1.3:- A single acting air compressor has a cylinder of bore 15 cm and the piston
stroke is 25 cm. The crank speed is 600 rpm.Air is taken from atmosphere (1 bar and 27 C) and
is delivered at 11 bars.Assuming polytropic compression of the type pV 1.,25 = C, find the power
required to drive the compressor if its mechanical efficiency is 80 % and the compressor has a
clearance which is 1/20th of the stroke volume. How long will it take to deliver 1 m 3 of air at
the compressor inlet conditions. Also find the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.

18
Schematic:

Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Bore = d = 0.15 m; (ii) stroke = l = 0.25 m; (iii) Speed = N = 600 rpm; (iv) suction
conditions : pressure = p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; (v) delivery pressure = p2 = 11 bar
(vi) Single acting and hence Nc = N; (vii) mechanical efficiency = η mech = 0.80;
(viii) compression index = n = 1.25; (ix) clearance volume = V3 = (1/20)[V1 – V3]

Find: (i) time to deliver 1 m3 of air as measured at suction conditions, (ii) ηv;
(iii) Power required, P

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) expansion index = compression index = n (iii) air behaves as a perfect gas

Solution: Refer to the p – V diagram shown below.

p
3 2

pVn = constant

0 1
V

(i) Stroke volume = (V1 – V3) = (πd2/4)l = π x (0.15)2 x 0.25 / 4 = 4.42 x 10 − 3 m3.

Therefore V3 = (1/20) x 4.42 x 10 − 3 = 2.21 x 10 − 4 m3

V1 = 4.42 x 10 − 3 + 2.21 x 10 − 4 = 4.641 x 10 − 3 m3

Also p0V0n = p3V3n. Or V0 = (p3 / p0) 1/n V3= (p2/p1) 1/n V3

19
Or V0 = (11/1) 1/ 1..25 x 2.21 x 10 − 4 = 1.51 x 10 − 3 m3.
.
Volume of air compressed per minute as measured at suction conditions ,Vs is given by

.
Vs = (V1 – V0)Nc= [4.641 – 1.51] x 10 − 3 x 600 = 1.88 m3/min.

Hence time required to compress 1 m3 of air as measured at suction conditions is given

By t = 1 /{(V1 – V0)Nc} = 1/1.88 = 0.532 min = 31.91 s.

(V1 – V0) (4.641 – 1.51) x 10 − 3

(ii) Volumetric efficiency = (η v)ideal = ------------- = --------------------------- = 0.7084
(V1 – V3) 4.42 x 10 − 3

= 70.84 %.

(iii) Power required to drive the compressor is given by

P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}p1(V1 – V0)[1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]Nc

1 1.25 1 x 10 5
= ------- x -------- x ------------ x (3.131 x 10 − 3) x [1 – (11/1)0.25/1.25] x (600/60) = − 12 .04 kW
0.80 0.25 1000
Comments: Negative sign for P indicates that work is done on air by the surroundings

Example 1.4:- A reciprocating compressor has a 5 % clearance with a bore and stroke of 25 x
30 cm. The compressor operates at 500 rpm. Air enters the cylinder at 27 C and 95 kPa and
discharges at 2000 kPa. If the indices for both comprssion and expansion are equal to 1.3
Determine (i) volumetric efficiency, (ii) the volume of air handled at inlet conditions in m3/s,
(iii) the power required to drive the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 90 %, (iv) the
mass of air delivered in kg/s, (v) the mass of air in the clearance space.

Schematic:
Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Clearance volume = V3 = 0.05 (V1 – V3); (ii) cylinder bore = d = 0.25 m; (iii)
stroke = l = 0.3 m;(iv) compressor speed = N = 500 rpm; (iv) suction conditions: pressure = p1
= 95 kPa; temperature = T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; (v) delivery pressure = p2 = 2000 kPa; (vi)
mechanical efficiency = η mech = 0.90; Compression index = expansion index = n = 1.3

20
 .
Find: (i) volumetric efficiency = ηv ; (ii) Volume of air handled at inlet conditions m3/s = (V1
– V0)Nc; (iii) Power required to drive the compressor = P; (iv) mass of air delivered in kg/s ,m
(v) mass of air in clearance space = m3

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) single acting compressor so that Nc = N (iii) air behaves as a perfect gas
(iv) free air conditions are same as suction conditions

Solution: Refer to the p – V diagram shown in the next page.

p
3 2

pVn = constant

0 1 V
.

(i) V1 – V3 = (πd2/4)l = (π x 0.252/4) x 0.30 = 0.01473 m3.

Therefore V3 = 0.05 x 0.01473 = 7.365 x 10 − 4 m3.

Hence V1 = 0.01473 + 7.365 x 10 − 4 = 0.0155 m3.

For process 3 – 0 we have p0V0n = p3V3n. Or V0 = (p3/p0) 1/nV3.

Hence V0 = (2000/95) 1/1.3 x 7.365 x 10 − 4 = 4.6585 x 10 − 3 m3.

Since free air conditions are same as suction conditions, ηv = (ηv)ideal

(V1 – V0) [0.0155 – 4.6585 x 10 − 3]

Therefore (ηv)ideal = -------------- = --------------------------------- = 0.736 = 73.6 %.
(V1 – V3) 0.01473
(ii) Volume of air delivered per second as measured at suction conditions is given by
.
Vs = (V1 – V0)Nc = {0.0155 – 4.6585 x 10 − 3} x 500 /60

= 0.0903 m3 / s.
1 n
(iii) P = WcNc / η mech = ------ x ------------- p1(V1 – V0)Nc [1 – (p2/p1) (n-1)/n]
η mech (n – 1)

21
 1 1.3 95 x 10 3
= ---------- x --------- x ---------- x 0.0903 x [ 1 – (2000/95) 0.3/1.3] = − 42 kW
0.90 0.3 1000
. .
(iv) Mass of air compressed per second = m = Vs p1 /(RT1)

0.0903 x 95 x 10 3
= ----------------------- = 0.01 kg/s
286 x 300

(v) Mas of air in the clearance space = m3 = p3V3/(RT3)

Now T3 = T2 = (p2/p1) (n – 1)/nT1 = (2000/95) 0.3 / 1.3 x 300 = 606 K

2000 x 10 3 x7.365 x 10 − 4
Therefore m3 = ----------------------------------- = 0.0085 kg
286 x 606

Comments: Nil

Example 1.5:- A single cylinder single acting air compressor takes air from atmosphere
(1.0315 bar and 25 C) and delivers at 9 bar.The compressor running at 900 rpm, delivers
1 kg of air per minute. The compression index is 1.25. The stroke to bore ratio is 1.25 and the
mechanical efficiency is 83 %. Calculate : (i) the cylinder dimensions, (ii) the power
required to drive the compressor, and (iii) the heat transfer during compression process. List
the assumptions needed to solve this problem.

Schematic:
Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Suction conditions; p1 = 1.03125 bar; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K; (ii) delivery pressure
=p2 = 9 bar; (iii) Compressor speed = N = 900 rpm; (iv) Single acting compressor so Nc = N
(v)m = 1.0 kg/min; (vi) mechanical efficiency = ηmech = 0.83; (vii) stroke to bore ratio = l/d =
1.25.
.
Find: (i) compressor dimensions, d,l; (ii)Power required to drive the compressor = P; (iii)
Heat transfer during compression process =Q1-2

22
 Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) air behaves as a perfect gas (iii) free air conditions are same as suction
conditions.

Solution: For a compressor without clearance the p-V diagram will be as shown below.

3 2
pVn = constant

0 1
V

(i) mass of air compressed /cycle = mc = m / Nc = 1/900 = 1.11 x 10 − 3kg / cycle.

1.11 x 10 − 3 x 286 x 298

p1V1 = mcRT1 or V1 = (mcRT1)/p1 = ------------------------------- = 9.337 x 10 − 4 m3
1.01325 x 10 5
Now V1 = (πd /4)l = (πd x 1.25d)/4.
2 2

Hence d = [(4V1) / (1.25 π) ] 1/3 = [(4 x 9.337 x 10 − 4) / (1.25 x π)] 1/3 = 0.0983 m.

and l = 1.25 x 0.0983 = 0.123 m.

.
(ii) P = (1/ηmech){n /(n – 1)}m RT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n]

1 1.25 1
= -------- x ----------- x ------ x 0.286 x 298 x [1 – (9/1.01325) 0.25/1.25] = − 2.344 kW.
0.83 0.25 60

(iii) Applying first law for the compression process1-2 we have

. . .
Q1-2 − W1-2 = m (u2 – u1)
. . .
Or Q = W1-2 + m Cv [T2 – T1]
. .
= m [p1v1 – p2v2] / (n – 1) + m Cv [T2 – T1]
. .
= m [RT1 – RT2] / (n – 1) + m Cv [T2 – T1]

23
 .
= m (T2 – T1) [ Cv – {R /(n – 1)}]

Now T2 = T1(p2/p1)(n-1)/n = 298 x (9/1.01325)0.25/1.25 = 461.23 K

.
Hence Q1-2 = (1/60) x [461.23 – 298] x [0.719 – {0.286/0.25}] = − 1.156 kW

Example 1.6:- A single-cylinder double acting air compressor is to deliver air at 10 bar,
starting from atmospheric air at 20 C. The cylinder bore is 15 cm and the stroke is 20 cm. The
compressor speed is 600 rpm.Assuming the temperature of the delivered air to be 200 C, find,
(i) the mass of air delivered in kg/min, (ii) the index of compression, and (iii) the power needed
to drive the compressor. Assume that the effective cylinder area on the piston side is 90 % of
the total area.
Schematic:
Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Double acting compressor with Nc = (1 +0.9)N = 1.9N; (ii) speed = N= 600 rpm;
(iii) Suction conditions :p1 = 1 atm ; T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K; (iv) Delivery pressure =p2 = 10
bar; (v) compressor dimensions: bore = d = 0.15m; stroke = l = 0.2 m; (vi) Delivery
temperature = T2 = 200 + 273 = 473 K
.
Find: (i) mass of air delivered in kg/min = m ; (ii) Compression index = n; (iii) Power required
=P
Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) air behaves as a perfect gas (iii) free air conditions are same as suction
conditions

Solution: Clearance is neglected. Hence p – v diagram will be as shown below.

24
 p

3 2
pVn = constant

0 1
V

π x 0.15 2 x 0.2
(i) Stroke volume = V1 = (πd2/4)l = ---------------------- = 3.534 x 10 − 3 m3
4
.
m = mcNc = (p1V1/RT1)Nc = [1.01325 x 105 x 3.534 x 10− 3 x 1.9 x 600] / (286 x 293)
.
Or m = 4.8714 kg/min.

(ii) T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n or (n – 1) / n = ln(T2/T1) / ln(p2/p1)

ln(473/293)
Hence (n – 1) / n = ----------------------- = 0.21 Or n = 1.266.
ln(10/1.01325)
. .
(n – 1)/n
(iii) P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}mRT1 [1 – (p2/p1) ] = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}mR(T1-T2)

1 1.266 4.8714
= ------ x --------- x ------------- x 0.286 x [293 – 473] = − 19.9 kW
1.0 0.266 60

Example 1.7:- A single acting single cylinder air compressor runs at 750 rpm. The heat
transfer during compression is 1/3rd of the total compression work. The working pressure
limits are 1 bar and 10 bar.If the clearance volume is 1/30th of the stroke volume and if the
stroke to bore ratio is 1.2, compute (i) the index of compression, (ii) the volumetric efficiency
(iii) the cylinder dimensions to deliver 1 kg/min of air taken from atmosphere at 30 C.

Schematic:

25
 Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Single acting and hence Nc = N; (ii) Speed = N = 750 rpm; (iii) Heat transfer
during compression process = Q1-2 = (1/3)W1-2; (iv) Suction conditions: p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 30 +
273 = 303 K; (v) Delivery pressure = p2 = 10 bar; (vi)Clearance volume = V3 = (1/30)(V1 –
V3); l/d = 1.2;(vii) mass of air delivered = m = 1.0 kg/min; (viii) stroke to bore ratio = l/d =
1.2;

Find: (i) Index of compression = n; (ii) volumetric efficiency = ηvl; (iii) diamer, d and stroke l;

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) air behaves as a perfect gas (iii) free air conditions are same as suction
conditions

Solution: The p – V diagram will be as shown below

p
3 2

pVn = constant

0 1
V
(i)
For the compression process the first law equation per unit mass of air is

q1-2 − w1-2 = u2 – u1

Hence (1/3)w1-2 – w1-2 = u2 – u1 Or

− (2/3)w1-2 = u2 – u1

− (2/3) [RT1 – RT2}/(n – 1) = Cv{T2 – T1]

2 x 0.286
Solving for ‘n’ we have n = 1 + (2/3) (R/Cv) = 1 + ------------- = 1.265

26
 3 x 0.719
.
(ii) mass of air compressed per cycle = mc = m / Nc = 1/750 kg/cycle.

(1/750) x 286 x 303

Hence V1 – V0 = (mcRT1) / p1 = -------------------------- = 1.155 x 10 − 3 m3 /cycle.
1.0x 10 5

But V0 = (p3/p0) 1/n V3 = (10/1) 1/1.265 V3 = 6.173 V3.

Hence V1 – 6.173V3 = 1.155 x 10 − 3 m3………………………(a)

Also V3 = (1/30) (V1 – V3) or V1 = 31V3.

Substituting this in Eq.(a) we have (31 – 6.173)V3 = 1.155 x 10 − 3

Or V3 = 1.155x 10 − 3 / (31 – 6.173) = 4.652 x 10 − 5 m3

Hence V1 = 31 x 4.652 x 10 − 5 = 1.442 x 10 − 3 m3

And V0 = 6.173 x 4.652 x 10 − 5 = 2.872 x 10 − 4 m3.

Since free air conditions are same as suction conditions, ηv = (ηv)ideal = (V1 – V0) / (V1 – V3)

1.155 x 10 − 3
Therefore ηv = --------------------------------------- = = 0.8277 = 82.77 %
[1.442 x 10 − 3 – 4.652 x 10 − 5 ]

(iii) Stroke Volume = Vs = V1 – V3 = (1.442 – 0.04652) x 10 − 3 = 1.395 x 10 − 3 m3.

But Vs = (πd2/4)l = (πd2/4) x 1.2 d Or d = (4Vs / 1.2 π) 1/3.

Hence d = { (4 x 1.395 x 10 − 3) /(1.2 x π) }1/3 = 0.114 m. and l = 1.2 x 0.114 =0.137 m

Example 1.8:- A single cylinder single acting air compressor uses “isothermal” compression
to compress 0.7 kg/min of air from 1 bar and 25 C to 7 bar, while running at 600 rpm. The
clearance volume is 1/25th of the stroke volume which is 1.2 litres. If the actual area of the
indicator diagram is 10 % greater than the theoretical and the mechanical efficiency is 81%,
calculate (i) the volumetric efficiency, (ii) the index of expansion and (iii) actual power
required to drive the compressor. Neglect all pressure drops.

Schematic:

27
 Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Single acting i.e. Nc = N; (ii) compression index = nc = 1 (because process is
isothermal); (iii) mass of air compressed /min = m = 0.7 kg/min;(iv) Suction conditions: p1 = 1
bar; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K; (v) delivery pressure = p2 = 7 bar; (vi) spedd = N = 600 rpm; (vii)
clearance volume = V3 = (1/25) (V1 – V3) and (V1 – V3) = 1.2 x 10 −3 m3;(viii) diagram factor
= K = 1.1; (ix) mechanical efficiency = ηmech = 0.81;

Find: (i) ηv; (ii) expansion index = ne; (iii) Actual Power required = Pactual

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) air behaves as a perfect gas (iii) free air conditions are same as suction
conditions

Solution: The p – V diagram for this problem will be as shown below;

.

p
3 2
Isothermal process

pVne = constant

0 1
V

(i) Mass of air compressed per cycle = mc = m / Nc = 0.7 / 600 = 1.167 x 10 − 3 kg/cycle.

Volume of air compressed per cycle as measured at suction conditions is given by

mcRT1 1.167 x 10 − 3 x 286 x 298

(V1 – V0) = --------- = -------------------------------- = 0.995 x 10 − 3 m3
p1 1 x 10 5

Since free air conditions are same as suction conditions, ηv = (ηv)ideal = (V1 – V0) / (V1 – V3)

0.995 x 10 − 3

28
 Therefore ηv = ----------------------- = 0.8292 = 82.92 %.
1.2 x 10 − 3

(ii) Now V3 = (1/25) x 1.2 x 10 − 3 = 4.8 x 10 − 5 m3.

Hence V1 = 1.2 x 10 − 3 + 4.8 x 10 − 5 = 1.248 x 10 − 3 m3

And therefore V0 = 1.248 x 10 − 3 – 0.995 x 10 − 3 = 0.253 x 10 − 3.

For the expansion process 3 – 0 we have p0V0ne = p3V3ne

ln(p3/p0) ln(7/1)
Or ne = -------------------- = --------------------- = 1.171
ln(V0/V3) ln(0.253/0.048)

(iii) Referring to the p – V diagram shown in example 5.1 work done per cycle is given
1 2 3 0
Wc = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-0 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2 3

= p1(V1 – V0) + p1V1 ln(p1/p2) + p3(V3 – V2) + (p3V3 – p0V0) / (ne – 1)

Now V2 – V3 = (mcRT2) / p2. But T2 = T1 as process 1-2 is isothermal.

1.167 x 10 − 3 x 286 x 298

Hence V2 – V3 = -------------------------------- = 1.421 x 10 − 4 m3.
7 x 10 5

Therefore Wc = [1x 0.995 x10 − 3 + 1 x 1.248 x 10 − 3 x ln(1/7) − 7 x 1.421 x 10 − 4

+ {7 x 4.8 x 10 − 5 - 1 x 0.253 x 10 − 3.}/(1.171 – 1)] x 10 5

= [0.995 − 2.429 − 0.9947 + 0.4854] x 102 = − 194.36 J/cycle

Ptheoretical = WcNc = − 194.36 x 600 / (60 x 1000) kW = − 1.9436 kW

Pactual = K Ptheoretical / η mech = − 1.9436 x 1.1 / 0.81 = − 2.639 kW

Example 1.9:- The following data refer to a single acting air compressor: Suction pressure =
1 bar; Receiver pressure = 10 bar; Loss of pressure due to valve resistance at inlet = 0.05 bar;
pressure drop at the exit valve = 0.33 bar; Cylinder bore = stroke = 12.0 cm; Clearance
volume = 1/25th of stroke volume; Index for expansion and compression = 1.25; Mechanical
efficiency = 80 %.If the receiver capacity is 600 litres and if it takes 8 minutes to fill it to 10
bar starting from 1 bar, find the maximum power required to drive the compressor. Assume

29
that the receiver temperature remains at 25 C throughout the filling process. Also determine
the mass of air compressed the volumetric efficiency and the speed of the compressor.

Schematic:
Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Known: (i) Suction pressure = p1 = 1 bar;(ii) receiver pressure = pR = 10 bar; (iii)pressure drop
across inlet valve = pf – p1 = 0.05 bar;(iv) pressure drop across exit valve = p2 – pR = 0.33 bar;
(v) cylinder dimensions = d = l = 0.12 m; (vi) index for compression = index for expansion = n
= 1.25; (vii) clearance volume = V3 = (1/25)(V1 – V3) ; (viii)mechanical efficiency = η mech =
0.80; (ix) volume of receiver = VR = 0.6 m3; (x) Receiver pressure = pR = 10 bar;(xi) time
taken to fill the receiver = t = 8 min; (xii) Final temperature of air in the receiver= TRf = Initial
temperature of air in the receiver = TRi =25 + 273 = 298 K.
.
Find: (i) Power required= P ;(ii) mass of air compressed/min = m ;(iii) (ηv)actual

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) air behaves as a perfect gas (iii) suction temperature,Tf is sam as the free
air temperature,Tf

Solution: The p – V diagram for this problem will be as shown in the figure below.

p2 p

pR

pf
p1

1 x 105 x 0.6
(i) Mass of air initially in the receiver = mi = pRiVR /(RTRi) = ------------------- = 0.704 kg
286 x 298

10 x 105 x 0.6

30
Mass of air finally in the receiver = mf = pRfVR /(RTRf) = ---------------------- = 7.04 kg
286 x 298
. (7.04 – 0.704)
Mass of air delivered to the receiver per minute =m=(mf – mi) / t =------------------ =0.792 kg/m
8

(ii) P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}m RT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n-1)/n]

1 1.25 0.792
= --------- x ---------- x -------- x 0.286 x 298 x [1 – (10.33/1)0.25/1.25] = − 4.185 kW.
0.80 0.25 60

(iii) (ηv)ideal = 1 + C { 1 – (p2/p1)1/n} = 1 + (1/25) x [1 – (10.33 / 1)1/1.25} = 0.781

1.0 x 298
(ηv)actual = [(p1Tf) / (pfT1)] (ηv)ideal = ----------------- x 0.781 = 0.744 = 74.4%
1.05 x 298

Example 1.10:- A single stage double acting air compressor running at 1000 rev/min delivers
air at 25 bar. The suction conditions are 1 bar and 40 C. The free air conditions are 1.013 bar
and 15 C and the free air delivered is 0.25 m 3 / min. The clearance volume is 3 % and the
stroke to bore ratio is 1.2 : 1. Calculate the cylinder dimensions and the volumetric efficiency.
Assume that n = 1.3 for both compression and expansion processes. Also calculate the
indicated power and isothermal efficiency.

Known: (i) Double acting and hence Nc = 2N; (ii) speed = N = 1000 rpm; (iii) Delivery
pressure = p2 = 25 bar; (iv) Suction conditions: p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 40 + 273 = 313 K; (v) free air
conditions: pf = 1.013 bar; Tf = 15+273 = 288 K; (vi) free air delivered = Vf = 0.25 m3/min;
(vii) Clearance Ratio = V3 / (V1 – V3) = 0.03; (viii) stroke to bore ratio = l / d = 1.2; (ix)
compression index = expansion index = n = 1.3
Find: (i) Cylinder dimensions:d,l; (ii) Volumetric efficiency= (ηv)actual; (iii) Power= P;
(iv) Isothermal efficiency = ηisothermal

Schematic:
Wc = work done per cycle

p1,T1 Compressor p2, T2(delivery conditions)

(suction
conditions)

Assumptions: (i) temperature and pressure remain constant during suction as well as during
delivery strokes; (ii) air behaves as a perfect gas (iii) No pressure drop across the inlet and
delivery valves:

31
Solution: The p – V diagram for this problem will be as shown below.

p
3 2

pVn = constant

0 1
V
.
. pf Vf 1.013 x 10 5 x 0.25
(i) Mass of air delivered / min = m = ------------- = ---------------------------- = 0.3075 kg/min
RTf 286 x 288
.
Hence mc = m / Nc = 0.3075 / (2 x 1000) = 1.5375 x 10 − 4 kg/cycle

Volume of air compressed /cycle = (V1 – V0) = mcRT1 / p1

1.5375 x 10 − 4 x 286 x 288

= -----------------------------------
1.0 x 10 5

= 1.263 x 10 − 4 m3.

Now V0 = (p3 / p0) 1/n V3 = (25/1) 1/1..3 V3 = 11.89 V3.

Hence V1 – 11.89V3 = 1.263 x 10 − 4 ………………(a)

But V3 = 0.03 (V1 – V3) or V1 = 34.333V3.

Substituting this expression in Eq.(a) we get

(34.333 – 11.89)V3 = 1.263 x 10 − 4

Or V3 = 5.63 x 10 − 6 m3.

Hence V0 = 11.89 x 5.63 x 10 − 6, V1 = 34.333 x 5.63 x 10 − 6 = 1.933 x 10 − 4

And Vs = V1 – V3 = 1.933 x 10 − 4 − 5.63 x 10 − 6 = 1.877 x 10 − 4.

Now (πd2/4)l = Vs or (πd2/4) 1.2d = Vs.

32
Therefore d = {(4Vs) / (1.2π) }1/3 = { (4 x 1.877 x 10 − 4) / (1.2 x π)}1/3

Or d = 0.0584 m and l = 1.2 x 0.0584 = 0.07 m

(V1 – V0) (1.933 x 10 − 4 − 6.694 x 10 − 5)

(ii) (ηv)ideal = ------------- = --------------------------------------- = 0.6732
Vs 1.877 x 10 − 4

p1Tf 1 x 288
(ηv)actual = ------- (ηv)ideal = -------------------- x 0.6732 = 0.6115
PfT1 1.013 x 313
.
(iii) Indicated power = P = (1/ηmech){n/(n – 1)}m RT1[1 – (p2/p1) (n – 1)/n]

1 1.3 0.3075
= ------ x ---------- x ---------- x 0.286 x 313 x [1 – (25/1)0.3/1.3]
1.0 0.3 60

= − 2.2 kW.

(iv) Isothermal work done on air cycle is given by (Refer to the p – V diagram shown below)

3 2

pV = constant or
T = constant

0 1
V

1 2 3
(Wc)Isothermal = W0-1 + W1-2 + W2-3 = ∫pdV + ∫pdV + ∫pdV
0 1 2

= p1V1 + p1V1 ln(p1/p2) – p2V2 = p1V1 ln(p1/p2)

= mcRT1 ln(p1/p2)

33
 .
Hence Pisothermal = (Wc)Isothermal Nc = m RT1 ln(p1/p2)

= (0.3075 / 60) x 0.286 x 313 x ln(1/25) = − 1.477 kW

ηisothermal = Pisothermal / Pactual = 1.477 / 2.2 = 0.6714 = 67.14 %.

1.10. Disadvantages of single stage compressors (need for multi-stage compressors):

Following are the disadvantages of a single stage compressor:

(i) In a single stage compressor, as the delivery pressure increases the volume of air
compressed per cycle decreases , thereby decreasing the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor. This is illustrated in Fig.1.9 where the volume of air compressed has decreased
from (V1 – V0) to (V1 – V0’), when the delivery pressure has increased from p2 to p2’. Low
volumetric efficiency means that the speed of the compressor has to be increased in order to
compress a given mass of gas per unit time. There is a practical limitation beyond which the
speed of the compressor cannot be increased.

(ii) Increase in delivery pressure will also result in increase in the temperature of the gas and
this may cause lubrication problem (There is a possibility of the lubricating oil getting
vaporized and getting ignited).

(iii) If the pressure ratio for a single stage compressor is very large then the work required to
drive the compressor will also be very large

All these disadvantages are overcome by employing multistage compression with intercooling
in between the stages.

34
 p2’ 0’
2’
p2
0 2

p1 1
(V1 – V0)
V
Vc (V1 – V0’)

Fig.1.9: Effect of Delivery Pressure on volume of air compressed per cycle

1.11. Work done in a Two-stage compressor with intercooling in between the stages:

The schematic diagram and the corresponding p – V diagram for a two stage compressor with
intercooling in between the stages are shown in Fig 1.10(a) and 1.10(b) respectively.
It is assumed that the index for compression and expansion are equal for both the stages of
compression.Work done per cycle is given by

Wc = (Wc)I + (Wc)II

= {n1 /(n1 – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n1 – 1)/n1] + {n2 /(n2 – 1)}mcRT5[1 – (p6/p5)(n2 – 1)/n2]

…………………………(1.16)
Where n1 = index for I stage and n2 = index for II stage compression. If n1 = n2 = n, then

35
 p
V3 = Clearance Volume for I stage

V1 – V3 = Stroke volume for I stage

7 6
V7 = Clearance volume for II stage
V5 – V7 = stroke volume for II stage
V1 – V0 = Volume of air
compressed per cycle as measured
3 2 at suction conditions of I stage.

4 5 V5 – V4 = volume of air compressed

per cycle as measured at suction
conditions of II stage.
0 1
Fig.1.10(a): p-V diagram for a
V two stage compressor

QIC
(Wc)I

First stage Inter cooler

p1,T1 Compressor p2,T2 p5,T5

(Wc)II Second stage

compressor

Fig. 1.10(b): Schematic for a two stage compressor

p6,T6

Wc = {n /(n – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n] + {n /(n – 1)}mcRT5[1 – (p6/p5)(n – 1)/n]

…………………………….(1.17)

It can be seen from the above equation that for given inlet conditions to the compressor and for
given overall pressure ratio p6 / p1, Wc depends on the intermediate pressure p2.

The intermediate pressure p2 is chosen such that the work required to dive the compressor is a
minimum.

36
1.12. Optimum intermediate pressure for a two-stage compressor (condition for
minimum work input for a two stage compressor):

In order to obtain the condition for minimum work input the following assumptions are made.
(i) There is no pressure loss in the inter cooler; i.e., p5 = p2;

(ii) the index for compression and expansion are equal and are same for both the stages of
compression.

With these assumptions the Eq.(1.17) reduces to

Wc = {n /(n – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p2/p1)(n – 1)/n] + {n /(n – 1)}mcRT5[1 – (p6/p2)(n – 1)/n]

For given values of p1,T1, and p6, Wc will be optimum if dWc / dp2 = 0.

Now dWc/dp2 = − {n /(n – 1)}mcRT1 (p1)(1 – n)/n p2(n – 1)/n – 1

+ {n /(n – 1)}mcRT5 (p6)(n - 1)/n p2(1 - n)/n – 1= 0

Or T1 (p1)(1 – n)/n p2− 1/n = T5 (p6)(n - 1)/n p2(1 – 2n)/n

Or p2− 1/n
----------- = (T5 /T1) (p6/p1) (n - 1)/n
p2(1 – 2n)/n
___________________
or p2 = √[(T5 /T1) n/(n – 1) p6 p1 ] ……………………..(1.18)

Eq.(1.18) gives the optimum intermediate pressure for a two stage compressor.

Special case: Perfect intercooling:- When the intercooling is perfect, the gas will be cooled
back to its original temperature in the inter cooler, i.e., T5 = T1. Then Eq.(1.18) reduces to
______
p2 = √ (p6p1) ……………………..(1.19)
_____
Therefore pressure ratio for first stage for minimum work = p2 / p1 = √ (p6p1) / p1

Or p2 / p1 = √ (p6 / p1)

Similarly for second stage pressure ratio = p6/p5 = p6/p2 = p6 /(√(p6p1)

= √ (p6 / p1)
Thus for minimum work of compression, if the inter cooling is perfect, the pressure for both
the stages of compression are same and equal to the square root of the overall pressure ratio for
the compressor. This can be extended to a compressor with ‘N’ stages of compression with
inter cooling between the stages. For such a compressor with perfect inter cooling, the work

37
required will be minimum if the pressure ratio is same for all the stages and equal to the Nth
root of the overall pressure ratio

Now for a two stage compressor with perfect intercooling, the work done in both the stages
will be same, because the inlet temperature and the pressure ratio for both the stages are
same.Hence

(Wc)minimum = {2n/(n – 1)}mcRT1[1 – (p6/p1) (n – 1)/2n] …………………………(1.20)

Eq.(1.20) is valid only if the intercooling is perfect and the compressor is designed for
minimum work input.

1.13. Illustrative examples on Multi-stage compressors:

Example 1.11:- A two-cylinder, two stage air compressor delivers 2 kg/min of air at 25 bar,
taking in air at 1 bar and 30 C. The compression index is 1.25. Neglecting clearance calculate
(i) the intermediate pressure for minimum power, (ii) heat transfer during intercooling and (iii)
power required to drive the compressor.(iv) what would have been the power required if single
stage air compressoreis used for the same suction and delivery conditions and to deliver the
same quantity of air.

Schematic:
(QIC)1
(ṖI)1 (ṖII)1

P1,T1,
ṁ/2 P5,T5
Istage Inter cooler for II Stage p6,T6,
Compressor Cylinder 1 Compressor
Cylinder1 ṁ/2
Cylinder 1

(ṖI)2 (QIC)2 (ṖII)2

ṁ II stage Inter Cooler P5,T5 II Stage
p6,T6,
Compressor
Compressor for Cylinder 2 ṁ/2
Cylinder2 Cylinder 2
P1,T1,
ṁ/2

Nomenclature:p1,T1 : Suction conditions for I stage for both the cylinders;

P2,T2 : Delivery conditions for I stage for both the cylinders;
P5,T5 : Suction conditions for II stage for both the cylinders;
P6,T6 : Delivery conditions for II stage for both the cylinders;
(ṖI)1 :Power input to air in cylinder 1 of I stage; (ṖI)2 :Power input to air in cylinder 2 of I stage;
(ṖII)1 :Power input to air in cylinder 1 of II stage; (ṖII)2 :Power input to air in cylinder 2 of II
stage;
(QIC)1 : Heat Transfer rate in Intercooler of Cylinder 1;(QIC)2:Heat Transfer rate in Intercooler of
Cylinder 2;
ṁ : Mass of air compressed per unit time from both the cyliders

38
Known: (i) Number of cylinders = 2; (ii) No.of stages = 2; (iii) mass of air delivered = m = 2
kg/min;(iv) delivery pressure from the II stage = p6= 25 bar; (v) suction conditions for the I
stage :p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K; (vi) index for compression for both the stages = nc =
1.25 ;
Find: (i) p2 for minimum power; (ii) Heat transfer in the inter cooler = QIC; (iii) Power = P.
(iv) Power for a single stage air compressor for the same suction and delivery conditions and to
deliver the same quantity of air.

Assumptions: (i) Suction conditions for the I stage same as free air conditions; (ii) Perfect
intercooling in the inter cooler (i.e. no pressure loss in the inter cooler i.e. p5 = p2 and T5 = T1);
(iii) Clerance is negligible; (iv) air behaves as a perfect gas; (v) compression index is same for
both the stages

Solution: The p – V diagram for the given problem will be as shown below.

(i) With perfect inter cooling for minimum power p2 = √ (p6p1) = √(25 x 1) = 5 bar

(ii) Temperature at the exit of I stage = T2 = T1(p2/p1)(n – 1)/n = 303 x (5/1)0.25/1.25 = 418 K.

p
0 – 1 – 2 – 3 : p – V diagram
7 6 for first stage

4 – 5 – 6 – 7 : p – V diagram
pVn = const. for second stage

(4)3
5 2

0 1
V

Fig. E1.11: Figure for example 1.11

. .
Mass flow rate through each cylinder = m = mtotal / number of cylinders

= 2/2 = 1 kg/min

Applying first law for the inter cooler and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies
we have . .

39
 QIC = m C p(T2 – T5 ) = (1/60) x 1.005 x (418 – 303) = 1.926 kW.

(iii) For two stage compressor with perfect inter cooling the total power required is given by

.
P = {2n/(n – 1)} mtotal RT1[ 1 – (p6 / p1)(n - 1) / 2n
]

2 x 1.25 2.0
= --------------- x------- x 0.286 x 303 x [ 1 – (25/1)0.25/ (2 x1..25] = − 10.97 kW.
0.25 60
(iv) Power for a single stage air compressor for the same suction and delivery conditions and to
deliver the same quantity of air is given by

(P)single stage = {n/(n – 1)} mtotal RT1[ 1 – (p6 / p1)(n - 1) / n

]

1.25 2.0
= --------------- x------- x 0.286 x 303 x [ 1 – (25/1)0.25/ (1..25] = − 13.0 kW.
0.25 60
Example 1.12: A two stage, double acting air compressor operates at 150 rpm. The conditions
of air at the beginning of compression are 97.9 kPa and 27 C. The low pressure cylinder with a
bore and stroke of 35 X 38 cm discharges the air at 379 kPa to the intercooler. The air in the
intercooler suffers a pressure drop of 17.2 kPa and enters the high pressure cylinder at 29 C.
The discharge pressure is 2000 kPa. Compression and expansion processes in both the stages
are according to the law pV 1.3 = C. The surroundings are at 100 kPa and 20 C. The percent
clearance is 5 % for each cylinder. Determine (i) “free air” capacity in m3/s, (ii) the heat loss
in the intercooler, (iii) the total power required, (iv) optimum interstage pressure, (v) diameter
of the hp cylinder if the stroke is same for both the stages (vi) the heat loss in the low-pressure
and high-pressure compression processes.

Schematic :

(Wc)I QIC
p1,T1 p2,T2 p5,T5 p6,T6
First stage Inter cooler Second stage
Compressor compressor

Known: (i) No. of atages = 2; (ii) Double acting and hence Nc = 2N; (iii) Speed = N = 150
rpm; (iv) suction conditions for the I stage: p1 = 97.9 kPa; T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; (v) bore for
the I stage = d1 = 0.35 m;(vi) stroke for the I stage = l1 = 0.38 m = l2; (vii) delivery pressure for
the I stage = p2 = 379 kPa; (viii) Pressure drop in the inter cooler = p2 – p5 = 17.2 kPa; (ix)
Inlet temperature of air for the II stage = T5 = 29 + 273 = 302 K; (x) suction pressure for the II
stage = p6 = p7 = 2000 kPa; (xi) index for compression and expansion = n = 1.3 for both the

40
stages (xii) free air conditions: pf = 100 kPa; Tf = 20 + 273 = 293K; (xiii) Clearnace volume for
I stage = V3 = 0.05 (V1 – V3) ; (xiv) clearance volume for II stahe = V7 = 0.05 (V5 – V7);
. .
Find: (i) Vf ; (ii) QIC ; (iii) P ; (iv) Optimum value of p2; (v) d2 if l2 = l1; (vi) Q1-2
and Q5-6.

Assumptions: (i) Pressure and temperature of air during suction and delivery strokes for both
the stages remainconstant (ii) air behave as a perfect gas (iii) The indices for compression and
expansion are same throughout.

Solution: The p – V diagram for the 2-stage compressor is shown below.

p

pVn = constant
7 6

pVn = constant
3 2

4 5

0 1

π x 0.35 2 x 0.38
(i) Stroke volume of I stage = V1 – V3 = (πd1 /4)l1 = -------------------------- = 0.0366 m
2

Hence V3 = 0.05 x 0.0366 = 1.83 x 10 − 3 m3 ;V1 = 0.0366 + 1.83 x 10 − 3 = 0.03843 m3

Therefore V0 = (p3/p0) 1/n V3 = (379/97.9) 1/1.3 x 1.83 x 10 − 3 = 5.184 x 10 − 3 m3.

(V1 – V0) = 0.03843 − 5.184 x 10 − 3 = 0.03325 m3.

p1(V1 – V0) 97.9 x 10 3 x 0.03325

Mass of air compressed per cycle = mc = ------------------- = ---------------------------------
RT1 286 x 300

= 0.0379 kg/cycle
.

41
Hence m = mcNc = 0.0379 x 2 x 150 = 11.37 kg/min.
.
m RTf
. 11.37 x 286 x 293
Volume of free air delivered / minute = Vf = ------------ = -------------------------- = 9.53 m3/min
pf 100 x 10 3

(ii) Applying I law for the inter cooler we have

. .
QIC = m Cp (T2 – T5). But T2 = (p2/p1)(n – 1)/nT1 = (379 / 97.9) 0.3 / 1.3 x 300
.
Or T2 = 410 K. Therefore Q IC = (11.37 / 60) x 1.005 x [410 – 302] = 20.6 kW

____________________
(iii) Optimum value of p2 = √ [ (T5 / T1) n / (n – 1) p6p1 ]
___________________________
= √ [(302/300) 1.3 / 0.3 x 2000 x 97.9 ] = 449 kPa.

(iv) p5 = p2 – 17.5 = 379 – 17.5 = 361.5 kPa.

Power = P = PI stage + PII stage

n . n .
(n – 1) / n
= -------- m RT1 [ 1 – (p2/p1) ] + ------- m RT5 [ 1 – (p6/p5) (n – 1) / n]
(n – 1) (n – 1)

1.3 11.37
= ---------- x -------- x 0.286 x [ 300 x {1 – (379/97.9) 0.3 / 1.3}
0.3 60
+ 302 x {1 – (2000/361.5)0.3 / 1.3} ] = − 60.17 kW

mc RT5 0.0379 x 286 x 302

(v) Now (V5 – V4) = ------------ = ------------------------- = 9.05 x 10 − 3 m3
p5 361.5 x 10 3

Now V4 = (p7/p4) 1 / n V7 = (2000 /361.5) 1/1.3 V7 = 3.73 V7.

Hence V5 – 3.73 V7 = 9.05 x 10 − 3 ………………………………(a)

But V7 = 0.05 (V5 – V7 ) or V5 = 21 V7

Substituting this in Eq. (a) we get (21 – 3.73) V7 = 9.05 x 10 − 3

Or V7 = 5.24 x 10 − 4 m3

42
and V5 = 21 x 5.24 x 10 − 4 = 0.0110 m3.

Hence stroke volume for II stage = Vs2 = (V5 – V7) = (0.0110 − 5.24 x 10 − 4 ) = 0.0105 m3

_____________ _____________________
Hence d2 = √ [ (4Vs2) / (πl2)] = √ [ (4 x 0.0105) / (π x0.38)] = 0.1875 m.

. . .
(vi) Applying I law for process 1-2 we have Q1-2 = W1-2 + m(u2 – u1)
. . .
Or Q1-2 = mR(T1 – T2) / (n – 1) + m Cv(T2 – T1)

11.37
= -------- x [300 – 410] x { 0.286/ 0.3 – 0.719 }= − 4.885 kW
60
. . .
Similarly Q5-6 = mR(T5 – T6) / (n – 1) + m Cv(T6 – T5)

Now T6 = (p6 / p5)(n – 1) / n T5 = (2000 / 361.5) 0.3/1.3 x 302 = 448.35 K

.
Hence Q5-6 = (11.37/60) x [302 – 448.35] x {0.286 / 0.3 – 0.719}= − 6.5 kW.

Example 1.13:- A two-stage air compressor is required to take in 1500 litres of free air per
minute at 1 bar and 25 C. The delivery pressure is 20 bar. The heat transfer during
compression, which may be assumed to be polytropic, is double that in the intercooler for the
first stage, and 1/3rd of the total compression work for the second stage. Assuming the
intercooler effectiveness to be 0.83 and an intermediate pressure as the geometric mean of the
suction and delivery pressures of the compressor, find the power required to drive the
compressor assuming a mechanical efficiency of 80 %.
.
Schematic:
(Wc)II
(Wc)I QIC
p1,T1 p2,T2 p5,T5 p6,T6
First stage Inter cooler Second stage
Compressor compressor

Known: (i) No. of stages = 2; (ii) Vf = 1.5 m3/min; (iii) suction conditions:p1= 1 bar; T1= 25
+ 273 = 298 K; (iv)delivery pressure = p6 = 20 bar;(v) Q1-2 = 2QIC; (vi) Q5-6 = (1/3) W5-6;
(vii)effectriveness of intercooloer = ε = 0.83; (viii) p2 = √(p6p1); (ix) ηmech = 0.80.

Find: (i) Pactual ;

43
Assumptions: (i) Pressure and temperature of air during suction and delivery strokes for both
the stages remainconstant (ii) air behave as a perfect gas (iii) The indices for compression and
expansion are same .

Solution : The p-V diagram for the 2-stage compressor is shown in the next page.

First step is to find the compression index for the two stages of compression.

It is given that for the first stage Q1-2 = 2QIC …………………………(a)

pVn2 =
7 6 constant

pVn1 =
3 2 constant

4 5

0 1

Now QIC = 2mcCp[T5 – T2] = 2mcCp ε [T1 – T2]

Applying first law for the process 1-2 we have Q1-2 = W1-2 + (U2 – U1)

Or Q1-2 = mcR(T1 – T2) / (n1 – 1) + mcCv(T2 – T1)

Substituting the expressions for QIC and Q1-2 in Eq. (a) and simplifying we get

2Cp ε = R / (n1 – 1) - Cv

R 0.286
Or n1 = 1 + --------------------- = --------------------------------- = 1.12.
(Cv + 2Cp ε) [0.719 + 2 x 1.005 x 0.83]

For the second stage it is given that Q5-6 = (1/3)W5-6

44
First law equation for process 5-6 is Q5-6 – W5-6 = U6 – U5

Hence (1/3)W5-6 – W5-6 = U6 – U5

Or − (2/3) W5-6 = (U6 – U5) .

Or − (2/3) mcR(T5 – T6) / (n2 – 1) = mcCv(T6 – T5)

Or 2R 2 x 0.286
n2 =1+ ------ = 1 + --------------- = 1.265
3Cv 3 x 0.719

Now p2 = √ [p6p1] = √ [20 x 1] = 4.472 bar

Pactual = (1/ηmech)P = (1/ηmech) [PI stage + PII stage]

. .
= (1/ηmech) [{n1/(n1 – 1)}mRT1{1 – (p2/p1)(n1 – 1)/n1} + mRT5{1 – (p6/p5)(n2 – 1)/n2}]
.
= (1/ηmech) [{n1/(n1 – 1)}mR {T1 – T2} + {n2/(n2 – 1)}mR {T5 – T6}]

Now T2 = (p2 / p1) (n1 – 1)/n1T1 = (4.472/1)(1.12 – 1) / 1.12 x 298 = 350 K

ε = (T2 – T5) / (T2 – T1) or T5 = T2 – ε(T2 – T1) = 350 – 0.83 x (350 – 298) = 306.84 K
. .
m. = (pfVf) /(RTf) = (1 x 10 5 x 1.5) / (286 x 298) = 1.76 kg/min = 0.0293 kg/s

Similarly T6 = (p6 / p5) (n2 – 1)/n2 T5 = (20/4.472) 0.265 / 1.265x 306.84 = 420 K

Hence Pactual = (1/0.8) x 0.0293 x 0.286 x [ (1.12/0.12)x(298 – 350) +

(1.265/0/265)x (306.84 – 420)]

Or Pactual = − 10.742 kW

Example 1.14:- A multistage single acting compressor compresses air from 1 bar and 25 C to
30 bar. The maximum temperature in each stage is limited to 100 C. The cylinder heads are
cooled so that the heat transfer during compression is 0.7 times that in the intercooler, where
the air returns to its initial temperature. Find the index of compression, the number of stages
(assume perfect intercooling), the compression pressures, the temperature at the end of
compression and the power required to drive the compressor to compress 1000 litres per
minute of air for minimum work input.

45
Schematic:

(Wc)I QIC
p6,T6
p1,T1 First stage p2,T2 Inter cooler p3,T3 Second stage
Compressor compressor

Ps, Ts

ps+1, Ts+1
Sth Stage

Known: (i) Suction conditions for the I stage: p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K; (ii) Delivery
pressure from the last stage = ps+1 = 30 bar; (iii) Exit temperature from each stage ≤ (100 +
273) = 373 K; (iv) Q1-2 = 0.7 QIC;

Find: (i) Index of compression,n; (ii) No. of stages,S; (iii) delivery pressure from each stage;
(iv) delivery temperature from each stage; (v) Power required to drive the compressor,P

Assumptions: (i) Pressure and temperature of air during suction and delivery strokes for all
the stages remain constant (ii) air behave as a perfect gas (iii) The index for compression is
same for all stages.(iv) Perfect intercooling: i.e. air is cooled back to its original temperature in
the intercooler after each stage of compression.

Solution: (i) Applying I law for the compression process in stage 1 we have

Q1-2 = W1-2 + (U2 – U1) = mcR(T1 – T2) / (n – 1) + mcCv(T2 – T1)

Or Q1-2 = mc(T1 – T2)[R /(n – 1) − Cv] ……………………….(a)

Also Q1-2 = 0.7 QIC = 0.7mcCp(T1 – T2).

Substituting this expression in Eq.(a) we have

0.7mcCp(T1 – T2) = mc(T1 – T2)[R /(n – 1) − Cv]

Or 0.7 Cp = [R /(n – 1) − Cv]

46
 R 0.286
Or n = 1 + ------------------- = 1 + --------------------------------- = 1.2
[Cv + 0.7Cp] {0.719 + 0.7 x 1.005]
𝑇2𝑚𝑎𝑥 373
(ii) Maximum temperature ratio for I stage = = = 1.252
𝑇1 298

Hence Pressure ratio for the first stage = (p2 / p1) = (T2max/T1) n/(n – 1)

Or (p2 / p1) 1 (1.252) 1.2 / 0.2 = 3.85

With perfect intercooling for minimum work pressure ratio should be same for all stages.
Therefore
ln(pS+1/p1) ln(30 / 1)
S
ps+1 / p1 = (p2/p1) or S = ---------------- = --------------- = 2.52
ln(p2/p1) ln(3.85)

Since the number of stages cannot be a fraction S should be rounded off to the next integer.
Hence S = 3. Then pressure ratio developed per stage is given by

Pr = (30 /1) 1/3 = 3.11

(iv) Therefore delivery temperature from each stage = T2 = T1(Pr) (n – 1)/n

Or T2 = 298 x (3.11) 0.2 / 1.2 = 360 K

(iii) Delivery pressure from I stage = 1 x 3.11 = 3.11 bar

Delivery pressure from II stage = 3.11 x 3.11 = 9.6721 bar

Delivery pressure from III stage = 9.6721 x 3.11 = 30 bar (as given in the problem)

(v) Minimum power required with perfect intercooling is given by

Pminimum = No. of stages X power for each stage

. (n – 1) / n
= S {n / (n – 1)}p1Vf [ 1 – (Pr) ]

3 x 1.2 1 x 105 1000 x 10 − 3

= ---------- x ----------- x ------------------ x [ 1 – (3) 0.2 / 1.2 ]
0.2 1000 60

= − 6.03 kW

47
 1.14. Exercise Problems in Reciprocating Compressors

1.14.1.An air compressor is tested and it is found that the electric motor used 37.3 kW when
the compressor handled 0.189 m3 /s of air at 101.4 kPa and 300 K and discharge pressure is
at 377.1 kPa. Determine (a) overall adiabatic efficiency and (b) overall isothermal efficiency.

1.14.2. Calculate the volumetric efficiency of a single cylinder, double acting compressor with
a bore and stroke of 45 cm x 45 cm. The compressor is tested at 150 rev/min and found to
deliver a from 101.3 kPa and 300 K to 675 kPa at a rate of 0.166 m3/s when the index is 1.33
for both expansion and compression processes.

1.14.3. A 6.93 kW single cylinder double acting air compressor has mechanical and volumetric
efficiencies of 82 % and 87 % respectively.The bore is 12 cm and the stroke is 15 cm.The
effective area on the ptsto side is 90 % of the total piston area.The compression index is 1.3
and the crank speed is 500 RPM.Determine (i) the rate of delivery of air from the compressor,
(ii)the delivery pressure, and (iii) the index of expansion.Assume the clearance to be 1/32 of
the swept volume.

1.14.4. Derive expressions for the optimum intercooler pressures for a three stage
compressor with two stages of intercooling. List all the assumptions made.

1.14.5. A two stage air compressor is required to deliver 42 kg/min of air from 99 kPa and 305
K to 1275 kPa. The compressor operates at 205 RPM. Compression and expansion processes
follow the law pV1.25 = constant. Both the cylinders have a clearance of 3.5 %. There is a
pressure drop of 20 kPa in the intercooler. The low pressure cylinder discharges air at the
optimum pressure into the intercooler. The air enters the high pressure cylinder at 310 K. The
intercooler is water cooled with water entering at 295 K and leaving at 305 K. Determine (a)
“free air” in m3/s, (b) the low pressure and high pressure discharge temperatures, (c)the
optimum interstage pressure, (d) the cooling water required in the intercooler in kg/s, (e) the
theortical power required to drive the compressor, (f) the low pressure cylinder dimensions if
L/D ration is 0.70 and (g) the output of the electric motor driving the compressor if the
mechanical efficiency is 85 %.

1.14.6.A multistage air compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 25 0C and compresses it to 20
bars. Assume perfect intercooling and that the amount of energy rejected by air in the inter
cooler is equal to the amount of energy rejected by air during the compression due to cooling
of the cylinder. The compressor runs at 900 rpm and delivers 3 kg/min of air. All the pistons
have a stroke of 17 cm. Find (i) the index of compression; (ii)The number of stages if the
discharge temperature from each stage is not to exceed 400 K; (iii)the temperature and
pressure at the end of each stage; (iv) Power input to the compressor if the mechanical
efficiency is 0.8 for each stage.

1.14.7.A single acting air compressor with two stages is to supply air at 70 bar while running
at 250 rpm. Each cylinder has a stroke of 15 cm and compressor air flow rate is 0.5 kg/min.

48
The compression law in each cylinder is pV1.3 = constant. The intercooler effectiveness is 0.81,
while the external air temperature is 25 C.Find the suitable diameters for the low and high
pressure cylinders as well as power absorbed by the compressor if the mechanical efficiency
is 0.85.
1.14.7. A single-stage, double acting reciprocating air compressor is guranteed to deliver 0.24
m3/s of free air with a clearance of 3 % and inlet conditions of 100 kPa and 21 C and a
discharge pressure of 725 kPa. When tested under these conditions the compression and
expansion processes follow the law pV 1.34 = constant. Determine (i) the piston displacement
in m3 / s ; (ii) the capacity and discharge pressure if the % clearance is held constant and the
compressor is operated at an altitude of 1800 m, where the barometric pressure is 604 mm of
mercury and the temperature is 21 C.

1.14.8.A single – stage, single acting reciprocating compressor deals with 1410 litres of free
air per minute aat 0.97 atm and 20 0C.The delivery pressure is 15 bar.Clearance volume is 4%
of stroke volume.If this is converted into a two-stage compressor with aan inter cooler and
runs at the same speed as before, find the increase in the volume of free air delivered and the
power required under conditions of maximum efficiency. Assume n = 1.32 for both
compression and expansion and that the effectiveness of the inter cooler is 0.85.

49
 Solutions to Exercise Problems in Reciprocating Compressors

1.14.1.An air compressor is tested and it is found that the electric motor used 37.3 kW when
the compressor handled 0.189 m3 /s of air at 101.4 kPa and 300 K and discharge pressure is at
377.1 kPa. Determine (a) overall adiabatic efficiency and (b) overall isothermal efficiency.

Sketch for the problem:

P2, T2, ṁ

Compressor
Ẽ Electric Motor

P1,T1, ṁ
Known: Ẽ = − 37.3 kW (Negative sign indicates that work is done on air by the surroundings);
Ṽf = 0.189 m3/s; pf = 101.4 kPa; Tf = 300 K; p2 = 377.1 kPa

Find: (a) Overall adiabatic efficiency, ηadiabatic ; (b) Overall isothermal efficiency,ηisothermal

Assumptions: (i) Pressure and temperature remain constant during the suction stroke and the
delivery stoke; (ii) free air conditions are same as suction conditions: i.e., p 1= pf and T1 = Tf; (iii)
air behaves as a perfect gas with Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K and γ = 1.4.

Solution: (a) The overall adiabatic efficiency for a compressor is given by

Power required assuming the compression process to be isentropic Ṗ𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐

ηadiabatic = =
Power Input to the motor driving the compressor Ẽ

𝛾−1
𝛾 𝑝2 𝛾
Now ṖIsentropic = 𝛾−1 ṁ 𝑅𝑇1 [1 − (𝑝 ) ]
1

Since air is assumed to behave as a perfect gas we have pfṼf = ṁRTf

0.4
1.4 377.1 1.4
Hence ṖIsentropic = 1.4−1 ∗ 101.4 ∗ 0.189 ∗ [1 − (101.4) ] = − 30.58 kW

− 30.58
Therefore ηadiabatic = = 0.8199 = 81.99 %
− 37.3

(a) The overall isothermal efficiency for a compressor is given by

50
 Power required assuming the compression process to be isothermal Ṗ𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
ηIsothermal = =
Power Input to the motor driving the compressor Ẽ

𝑝1 101.4
Now ṖIsothermal = ṁRT1 ln = 101.4 * 0.189 * ln (377.1) = − 25.17 kW
𝑝2

− 25.17
Therefore ṖIsothermal = = 0.6748 = 67.48 %
− 37.3

1.14.2. Calculate the volumetric efficiency of a single cylinder, double acting compressor with
a bore and stroke of 45 cm x 45 cm. The compressor is tested at 150 rev/min and found to
deliver a from 101.3 kPa and 300 K to 675 kPa at a rate of 0.166 m3/s when the index is 1.33
for both expansion and compression processes. Also find the power required to drive the
compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 85 %

p-V diagram for the problem:

p

3 2

pV ne = const

pV nc = const

1
0
V
Vs = V1 – V3

Clearance volume = V3
Known: Double acting with Nc = 2N; N = 150 rpm; d = l = 0.45m;p1 = 101.3 kPa; p2 = 675 kPa;
T1 = 300 K; Ṽf = 0.166 m3/s; nc = ne = n = 1.33; ηmech = 0.85

Find: (i) ηvol; (ii) Ṗactual

Assumptions: (i) Pressure and temperature remain constant during the suction stroke and the
delivery stoke; (ii) free air conditions are same as suction conditions: i.e., p 1= pf and T1 = Tf; (iii)
air behaves as a perfect gas with Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K and R = 0.287 kJ/(kg-K)

Solutions: (i) Since free air conditions are assumed to be same as suction conditions, it follows
that
𝑉 −𝑉
ηvol = 𝑉1 − 𝑉0
1 3

51
Now (V1 – V3) = (π/4) d2l = (π / 4) * (0.45)2 * 0.45 = 0.0716 m3

0.166∗60
V 1 – V0 = Ṽf / N c = = 0.0332 m3
2∗150

0.0332
Hence ηvol = 0.0716 = 0.4637 = 46.37 %

(ii) Actual power required to drive the compressor is given by

𝑛−1
1 𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
Ṗactual = 𝜂 p1 (V1 – V0)Nc [1 − (𝑝 ) ]
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑛−1 1

0.33
1 1.33 675 1.33
= ∗ 1.33−1 ∗ 101.3 ∗ 0.166 ∗ [1 − (101.3) ] = − 47.9 kW
0.85

Comments: Negative sign indicates that work is done on air by the surroundings.

1.14.3. A 6.93 kW single cylinder double acting air compressor has mechanical and volumetric
efficiencies of 82 % and 87 % respectively.The bore is 12 cm and the stroke is 15 cm.The
effective area on the ptsto side is 90 % of the total piston area. The crank speed is 500
RPM.Determine (i) the rate of delivery of air from the compressor, (ii)the delivery pressure,
and (iii) the index of compression and expansion. Assume the clearance to be 1/32 of the
swept volume. assume the suction conditions to be 1 atm and 300 K

p-V diagram for the problem:

p 3 2

pV ne = const

pV nc = const

1
0
V
Vs = V1 – V3

Clearance volume = V3
Known: Ṗactual = − 6.93 kW (negative sign to indicate work is done on air by the
surroundings);
𝑉3 1
ηmech = 0.82; ηvol = 08.7;d = 0.12 m; l = 0.15m; Nc = 1.9N; N = 500 rpm; C = =
𝑉1 − 𝑉3 32

52
p1 = 101.325 kPa; T1 = 300 K

Find: (i) ṁ; (ii) nc and ne; (iii)p2

Assumptions: (i) Pressure and temperature remain constant during the suction stroke and the
delivery stoke; (ii) free air conditions are same as suction conditions: i.e., p 1= pf and T1 = Tf; (iii)
air behaves as a perfect gas with Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K and R = 0.287 kJ/(kg-K);(iv) indices for
both compression and expansion are same, i.e., nc = ne = n;

Solution: (i) Since free air conditions are assumed to be same as the suction conditions we
have

𝑉1 − 𝑉0
ηvol =
𝑉1 − 𝑉3

or V1 – V0 = ηvol (V1 – V3) = 0.87 * (π / 4) * (0.12)2 * 0.15 = 1.476* 10 −3 m3

Writing the perfect gas equation corresponding to suction conditions we have

P1(V1 – V0 )Nc = ṁ R T1

500
𝑝1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉0)𝑁𝑐 101.325∗1.476∗10 −3 ∗(1.9∗ )
60
Or ṁ= = = 0.0.0275 kg/s
𝑅 𝑇1 0.287∗300

1
𝑝 𝑛
(ii) ηvol = 1 + C [1 − (𝑝2) 𝑒 ]
1

1
1 𝑝 𝑛
0.87 = 1 +
32
[1 − (𝑝2) ]
1

1
𝑝 𝑛
Or (𝑝2) = 5.16 …………………………………(1)
1

𝑛−1
1 𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
Also Ṗactual = ṁ R T1 [1 − (𝑝 ) ]
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑛−1 1

𝑛−1
1 𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛
Hence – 6.93 = *0.0275 * 0.287 * 300 [1 − (𝑝 ) ] …………………………………….(2)
0.82 𝑛−1 1

53
There are two unknowns namely the index n and the pressure ratio p 2 / p1 and they can be
found out using the Eqs. (1) and (2 ). Since each of these equations cannot be solved
independently,they have to be solved only by a trial and error procedure as shown in the
table below

Trial No Assumed value of n p2 / p1 from LHS of Eq. (2) RHS of Eq.(2) % deviation =
Eq.(1) (|LHS| –
|RHS|)
*100/LHS
1 1.3 8.44 − 6.93 − 7.958 −14.83
2 1.2 7.164 − 6.93 −6.745 + 2.66
3 1.22 7.403 − 6.93 −6.96 − 0.433

Iteration is stopped after 3 trials as after 3rd iteration the % deviation between the calculated
value of power required to drive the compressor( 6.96 kW) agrees with the given value (
6.93). within less than 1 %.Hence the index n = 1.22 and delivery pressure = p2 = 7.403 p1 =
7.403 atm.

Comments: Since we have only two equation to solve for the pressure ratio and the index of
expansion, it is necessary to assume ne = nc as otherwise we will have three unknown namely
nc,ne and the pressure ratio and we have only two equations to solve.

1.14.4. Derive expressions for the optimum intercooler pressures for a three stage compressor
with two stages of intercooling. List all the assumptions made.

54
p-V diagram for a three stage compressor:
p
11 10 0 – 1 – 2 – 3 : p – V diagram
for first stage

4 – 5 – 6 – 7 : p – V diagram
for second stage
(8) 7 9 6 8 – 9 – 10– 11 : p – V diagram
for third stage

5 2
(4)3

0 1
V

Known: Suction conditions to the first stage p1, T1 and overall pressure ratio p10 / p1

Find: Intermediate pressures p2 and p6 for minimum work of compression in terms of p1 and
p10.

Assumptions: (i) Since work of compression per unit mass of gas is independent of clearance
volume, it is assumed that clearance is neglected for all the three stages of compressor; (ii)
pressure and temperature during suction and delivery strokes for all the stages remain
constant; (iii) The index of compression is same for all the stages of compression.(iv) There are
no pressure losses in the two inter coolers between the three stages of compressor; i.e. p 5 = p2
and p9 = p6; (v) Inter cooling is perfect: i.e. after each stage of compression the air is cooled
back to its original temperature which means that T5 = T9 = T1

Solution: The work of compression per unit mass is given by

𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑊𝑐 𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑝6 𝑛 𝑛 𝑝10 𝑛
w=𝑚 = RT1 [1 − (𝑝 ) ] + 𝑛−1 RT5 [1 − (𝑝 ) ] + 𝑛−1 RT9 [1 − ( 𝑝 ) ]
𝑐 𝑛−1 1 5 9

With the above assumptions the above expression for w reduces to

𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛 𝑝6 𝑛 𝑝10 𝑛
w = RT1 {[1 − (𝑝 ) ] + [1 − (𝑝 ) ] + [1 − ( 𝑝 ) ]} ………………………………(1)
𝑛−1 1 2 6

55
In Eq.(1) for given values of p1, T1, p10, and n, w depends on the two intermediate pressures
p2 and p6.Hence for minimum work of compression the following conditions have to be
satisfied:
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
= 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝜕𝑝2 𝜕𝑝6
𝑛−1
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 1−𝑛
𝜕𝑤 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛−1 −1 1−𝑛 −1
= 0 gives RT1 {[0 − (𝑝 ) ∗ 𝑝2 𝑛 ] + [0 − (𝑝6 ) 𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛 ] + 0} =
𝜕𝑝2 𝑛−1 1 𝑛 𝑛

This simplifies to p2 = √𝑝1 𝑝6 ……………………………(2)

𝜕𝑤
Similarly 𝜕𝑝 = 0 gives p6 = √𝑝2 𝑝10 …………………………….(3)
6

Hence for minimum work of compression the pressure ratio for the first stage is given by

1 1
𝑝2 √𝑝1 𝑝6 (𝑝2 𝑝10 )4 𝑝2 𝑝 3
𝑝1
= 𝑝1
= Or
𝑝1
= ( 𝑝10) ………………………………(4)
√𝑝1 1

1
𝑝6 𝑝 3
Similarly
𝑝5
= ( 𝑝10) …………………………... (5)
1

The overall pressure ratio for the compressor can be written as

𝑝10 𝑝10 𝑝6 𝑝2
= ∗ ∗
𝑝1 𝑝9 𝑝5 𝑝1

𝑝6 𝑝2
Substituting for and from Eqs.(4) and (5) we get for minimum work of compression the
𝑝5 𝑝1
pressure ratio for the third stage as

𝑝10 𝑝10 1
𝑝10 𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑝10 𝑝 3
𝑝9
= 𝑝6 𝑝2 = 𝑝10 1/3
or
𝑝9
= ( 𝑝10) ……… ……………………….(6)
∗ ( ) 1
𝑝5 𝑝1
𝑝1

Comments: The above result shows that for a three stage compressor with perfect
intercooling and with same index of compression for all the three stages the work of
compression will be minimum if the pressure ratio is same for all the three stages of
compression and equal to the cube root of the overall pressure ratio. Also the total work of
compression is equally divided between the three stages.

56
1.14.5. A two stage air compressor is required to deliver 4.2 kg/min of air from 99 kPa and 305
K to 1275 kPa. The compressor operates at 205 RPM. Compression and expansion processes
follow the law pV1.25 = constant. Both the cylinders have a clearance of 3.5 %. There is a
pressure drop of 20 kPa in the intercooler. The low pressure cylinder discharges air at the
optimum pressure into the intercooler. The air enters the high pressure cylinder at 310 K. The
intercooler is water cooled with water entering at 295 K and leaving at 305 K. Determine (a)
“free air” in m3/s, (b) the low pressure and high pressure discharge temperatures, (c)the
optimum inter stage pressure, (d) the cooling water required in the intercooler in kg/s, (e) the
theortical power required to drive the compressor, (f) the low pressure cylinder dimensions if
L/d ratio is 0.70 and (g) the output of the electric motor driving the compressor if the
mechanical efficiency is 85 %.
Schematic for the problem:

(Wc)I ṁw, Twi Two (Wc)II

ṁ,p1,T1 First stage p2,T2 p5,T5 Second stage

Compressor Inter cooler compressor

p6,T6

p-V diagram for the problem:

V3 = Clearance Volume for I stage

p V1 – V3 = Stroke volume for I stage
V7 = Clearance volume for II stage
7 6 V5 – V7 = stroke volume for II stage
V1 – V0 = Volume of air compressed
per cycle as measured at suction
conditions of I stage.
3 2 (Wc)I = Workdone / cycle for the I
stage;(Wc)II = Workdone / cycle for
4 5 the II stage; ṁw = mass flow rate of
cooling water in the intercooler
Twi = Temperature of water at inlet
to the inter cooler
0 1 Two = Temperature of water at exit
of the inter cooler
V

Known: ṁ = 4.2 kg/min = 0.07 kg/s; p1 = 99 kPa; T1 = 305 K; p6 = 1275 kPa; N =205 rpm; ne = nc
= n = 1.25; Clearance ratio = C = 0.035 for both the stages; p2 – p5 = 20 kPa; p2 is the optimum
intermediate pressure;T5 = 310 K; Twi = 295 K; Two = 305 K; ηmech = 0.85; L/d1 = 0.7;

57
Find: (a)free air in m3/s ,i.e. Ṽf ; (b) T2 and T6 ; (c) p2; (d)ṁw; (e)ṖTheoretical; (f)L and d1; (g) Ṗactual

Assumptions: (i) pressure and temperature during suction and delivery stroke for all the
stages remain constant;(ii) Free air conditions are same as suction conditions for the I stage,
i.e. p1 = pf and Tf = T1; (iii)Compressor is single acting, i.e. Nc = N ; (iv) The index of compression
and expansion is same for both the stages; (v) air behaves as a perfect gas with R = 0.287
kJ/(kg – K) and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K); (vi) In the intercooler all the heat given out by air is
completely absorbed by the cooling water.

Solution: (a) Writing the perfect gas equation for free air we have

pfṼf = ṁRTf

0.07∗0.287∗305
Or Ṽf = (ṁRTf) / pf = = 0.0619 m3/s
99

𝑛 1.25
𝑇5 𝑛−1 310 1−1.25
(c) Optimum intermediate pressure = p2 = √( ) 𝑝1 𝑝6 = √( ) ∗ 99 ∗ 1275
𝑇1 305

= 370 kPa

(b) For compression process 1 – 2 we have

𝑛 1.25 −1
𝑝2 𝑛−1 370 1.25
T2 = T1 ( ) = 305 * ( ) = 397 K.
𝑝1 99

Similarlry for process 5 – 6 we have

𝑛 1.25 −1
𝑝6 𝑛−1 1275 1.25
T2 = T5 ( ) = 310 * ( ) = 401.5 K.
𝑝5 370−20

(d) Applying steady state steady flow energy equation to the inter cooler and neglecting
changes in KE and PE of both the fluid s we have

ṁCp[T2 – T5] = ṁw Cpw[Two – Twi]

ṁCp[T2 – T5] 0.07∗1.005∗(397−310)

Hence ṁw = Cpw[Two – Twi] = = 0.1457 kg/s
4.2∗(305−295)

(e) ṖTheortical = (ṖTheortical) I stage + (ṖTheortical) II stage

58
 𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑝6 𝑛
= 𝑛−1 ṁ R T1 [1 − (𝑝 ) ] + 𝑛−1 ṁ R T5 [1 − (𝑝 ) ]
1 5

1.25−1 1.25−1
1.25 370 1.25 1.25 1275
= 1.25−1 ∗ 0.07 * 0.287 * 305 [1 − ( 99 ) ] + 1.25−1 ∗ 0.07 * 0.287 * 310 [1 − (370−20 )
1.25
]

= − 9.24 – 9.19 = − 18.43 Kw

(f) Since free air conditions are assumed to be same as suction conditions for I stage we have

Ṽ 0.0619∗60
(V1 – V0) = 𝑁𝑓 =
𝑐 205

Or (V1 – V0) = 0.0181 m3 ………………………………………(1)

1 1
𝑝 1.25 370 1.25
For expansion process 3 – 0 we have V0 = V3 (𝑝3 ) = ( 99 ) = 2.871 V3
0

Substituting this expression for V0 in Eq.(1) we have

V1 – 2.871 V3 = 0.0181 m3 ……………………………………………………….(2)

𝑉3
Clearance ratio C = 𝑉 = 0.035
1 − 𝑉3

Or V3 = 0.0338 V1 …………………………………………………………(3)

Solving for V1 and V3 from Eqs. (2) and (3) we get V1 = 0.02 m3 and V3 = 6.74 * 10 −4

Stroke volume = Vs = V1 – V3 = 0.02 – 6.74 * 10 −4 = 0.0193

Vs = (π / 4) d12 L = (π / 4)* 0.7 d13

1 1
4𝑉𝑠 3 4∗0.0193 3
Or d1 = ( ) = ( 0.7∗ 𝜋 ) = 0.327 m
0.7 𝜋

Stroke = L = 0.7 * 0.327 = 0.229 m

(g) ṖActual = ṖTheortical / ηmech = − 18.43 / 0.85 = − 21.68 kW

Comments: (i)The negative sign for ṖActual indicates that work is done on air by the
surroundings.

(ii) The reason for assuming that the compressor is single acting is that today only a very few
manufacturers produce double acting compressors because, it is quite expensive to produce,

59
requires special foundations to handle vibration problems and requires frequent expensive
maintenance.

1.14.6.A single acting air compressor with two stages is to supply air at 70 bar while running
at 250 rpm. Each cylinder has a stroke of 15 cm and compressor air flow rate is 0.5 kg/min.
The compression law in each cylinder is pV1.3 = constant. The intercooler effectiveness is 0.81,
while the external air temperature is 25 C.Find (i) the suitable diameters for the low and high
pressure cylinders (ii)power absorbed by the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 0.85,
(iii) The heat lost by air in the intercooler.

Schematic:

(Wc)I ṁw, Twi Two (Wc)II

ṁ,p1,T1 First stage p2,T2 p5,T5 Second stage

Compressor Inter cooler compressor

p6,T6

p-V diagram :

p
V1 = Stroke volume for I stage
V5 = stroke volume for II stage
(Wc)I = Workdone per cycle for the
7 6 I stage
(Wc)II = Workdone per cycle for the
II stage

(4) 3 5 2

0 1

60
Known: Single acting,hence Nc = N; p6 = 70 bar; N = 250 rpm; L = 0.15 m for both the stages;
ṁ=0.5 kg/min = 0.0083 kg/s; nc = 1.3 for both the stages; ε = 0.81;Tf = 25 + 273 = 298 K; ηmech
= 0.85

Find: (i) d1 and d2; (ii) ṖActual; (iii) QIC;

Assumptions: (i) pressure and temperature during suction and delivery stroke for both the
stages remain constant;(ii) Suction conditions are same as free air conditions,i.e. p1 = pf and T1
= Tf ; with pf = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa; (iii) The index of compression and expansion is same for
both the stages;(iv) air behaves as a perfect gas with R = 0.287 kJ/(kg-K) and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-
K);(v)Clearance is neglected (vi)No pressure loss in the intercooler,i.e. p5 = p2

0.5
mcRT1 ( )∗0.287∗298
250
Solution: (i) V1 = = = 1.688 * 10 – 3 = (π / 4) d12 L
p1 101.325

4𝑉 4∗1.688∗ 10−3
Hence d1 = √ 𝜋 𝐿1 = √ = 0.12 m.
𝜋∗0.15

mcRT5 mcRT5
Similarly V5 = =
p5 p2

To find p2,T2 and T5: For finding these three unknowns we require three equations which are
given below.
For minimum work of compression, the intermediate pressure p2 is given by

p2 = √(T5)n−1 p1 p6 …………………(1)
T1

For compression process 1 – 2 we have

𝑛−1
𝑝2 𝑛
T2 = T1 (𝑝 ) ……………………(2)
1

The effectiveness of the intercooler is given by

Actual temperature drop of air in the inter cooler T −T

ε = Maximumtemperature drop of air in th einter cooler = T 2 − T5
2 1

Or T 5 = T2(1 – ε) + ε T1 ……………………….(3)

The three equations Eq. (1), Eq.(2) and Eq.(3) cannot be solved independently and therefore a
trial and error procedure has to be adopted to find p 2, T2 and T5 as shown in the table below.
Since ε is < 100 %, it follows that T5 will be a few degrees higher than T1.

61
Trial No Assumed P2 from Eq. (1) in T2 from Eq. T5 from Eq.(3) % Deviation between
value of T5 kPa (2) in K in K assumed value of T5 and
( K) calculated value of T5
1 303.00 852.00 487.1 333.92 + 9.62
2 333.92 1077.0 514.2 339.10 + 1.52
3 339.10 1114.3 518.2 339.84 + 0.218

Since the deviation after three trials is < 1 %, iteration is stopped.

Therefore p2 = 1114.3 kPa; T2 = 518.2 K and T5 = 339.84 K.

0.5
mcRT5 mcRT5 (
250
)∗0.287∗339.84
Stroke volume for II stage = V5 = = = = 1.751 * 10 – 4 = (π / 4) d22
p5 p2 1114.3
L

4𝑉 4∗1.751∗ 10−4
Hence d2 = √ 𝜋 𝐿5 = √ = 0.0385 m.
𝜋∗0.15

(ii) ṖActual = (ṖActual)I stage + (ṖActual)II stage

𝑛−1 𝑛−1
1 𝑛 𝑝2 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑝6 𝑛
=𝜂 ṁ R T1 [1 − (𝑝 ) ]+𝜂 ṁ R T5 [1 − (𝑝 ) ]
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑛−1 1 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑛−1 5
1.3−1
1 1.3 1114.3 1.3 1 1.3
= ∗ ∗ 0.0083 * 0.287 * 298 [1 − ( ) ]+ * ∗ 0.0083 * 0.287 *
0.85 1.3−1 101.325 0.85 1.3−1

1.3−1
7000 1.3
339.84 * [1 − (1114.3) ]

= − 2.674 − 2.18 = − 4.854 kW

(iv) Heat lost by air in the intercooler per unit time is given by

QIC = ṁ Cp [T2 – T5] = 0.0083 * 1.005 *[518.2 – 339.84] = 1.49 kW .

62
 CHAPTER 2

Measurements and Testing of I.C.Engines

2.1. Introduction: - The basic task in the design and development of I.C.Engines is to reduce
the cost of production and improve the efficiency and power output. In order to achieve the
above task, the engineer has to compare the engine developed by him with other engines in
terms of its output and efficiency. Hence he has to test the engine and make measurements of
relevant parameters that reflect the performance of the engine. In general the nature and
number of tests to be carried out depend on a large number of factors. In this chapter only
certain basic as well as important measurements and tests are described.

2.2. Important Performance Parameters of I.C.Engines:- The important performance

parameters of I.C. engines are as follows:

(i) Friction Power,

(ii) Indicated Power,

(iii) Brake Power,

(iv) Specific Fuel Consumption,

63
(v) Air – Fuel ratio

(vi) Thermal Efficiency

(vii) Mechanical Efficiency,

(viii) Volumetric Efficiency,

(ix) Exhaust gas emissions,

(x) Noise

2.3. Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory

2.3.1. Measurement of Friction Power:- Friction power includes the frictional losses and the
pumping losses. During suction and exhaust strokes the piston must move against a gaseous
pressure and power required to do this is called the “pumping losses”. The friction loss is made
up of the energy loss due to friction between the piston and cylinder walls, piston rings and
cylinder walls, and between the crank shaft and camshaft and their

bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as water
pump, ignition unit etc.

Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction power:

(i) Willan’s line method;

(ii) From the measurement of indicated power and brake power;

(iii) Motoring test;

(iv) Retardation test;

(v) Morse Test.

2.3.1.1. Willan’s Line Method:- This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method.
In this method a graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power (horizontal axis)
is drawn and it is extrapolated on the negative axis of brake power (see Fig. 2.1).The intercept
of the negative axis is taken as the friction power of the engine at

64
 1.0
Fuel 0.8
consumption
(g/s) 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

5 10 15 20 25
Brake power (kW)
Friction Power

Fig. 2.1. Willan’s line method

that speed. As shown in the figure, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel
consumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and this
permits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop power, i.e. brake power = 0, it
consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been spent in
overcoming the friction. Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal axis will
be the work representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as a whole is
termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction power will
hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for compression ignition
engines.

The main draw back of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from
data between 5 and 40 % load towards the zero line of the fuel input.The directional margin of
error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.

2.3.1.2.From the Measurement of Indicated Power and Brake Power:- This is an ideal
method by which friction power is obtained by computing the difference between the indicated
power and brake power. The indicated power is obtained from an indicator diagram and brake
power is obtained by a brake dynamometer. This method requires elaborate equipment to
obtain accurate indicator diagrams at high speeds.

2.3.1.3.Morse Test:- This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines. The Morse
test consists of obtaining indicated power of the engine without any elaborate equipment. The
test consists of making, in turn, each cylinder of the engine inoperative and noting the
reduction in brake power developed. In a petrol engine (gasoline engine), each cylinder is
rendered inoperative by “shorting” the spark plug of the cylinder to be made inoperative. In a

65
Diesel engine, a particular cylinder is made inoperative by cutting off the supply of fuel. It is
assumed that pumping and friction are the same when the cylinder is inoperative as well
as during firing.

In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the brake
power is measured. Next, one cylinder is cut off by short circuiting the spark plug if it is a
petrol engine or by cutting of the fuel supply if it is a diesel engine. Since one of the cylinders
is cut of from producing power, the speed of the engine will change. The engine speed is
brought to its original value by reducing the load on the engine. This will ensure that the
frictional power is the same.

If there are k cylinders, then

Total indicated power k

when all the cylinders are working = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + …………...+ ipk = ∑ipj
j=1

k
We can write ∑ipj = Bt + Ft ………………………………………..(2.1)
j=1

where ipj is the indicated power produced by j th cylinder, k is the number of cylinders,

Bt is the total brake power when all the cylinders are producing power and Ft is the total
frictional power for the entire engine.

If the first cylinder is cut – off, then it will not produce any power, but it will have frictional
losses. Then
k
we can write ∑ipj = B1 - Ft ………………………………………..(2.2)
j=2

where B1 = total brake power when cylinder 1 is cut - off and

Ft = Total frictional power.

Subtracting Eq. (2.2) from Eq. (2.1) we have the indicated power of the cut off cylinder. Thus

ip1 = Bt – B1 ………………………………………..(2.3).

Similarly we can find the indicated power of all the cylinders, viz., ip 2, ip3, …..ipk. Then the
total indicated power is calculated as
k
(ip)total = ∑ipj ……………………………………….(2.4)
j=1

66
The frictional power of the engine is therefore given by

Ft = (ip)total – Bt ……………………………………(2.5)

The procedure is illustrated by some examples worked out at the end of the chapter.

2.3.2. Measurement of Indicated Power: Indicated power of an engine tells about the health
of the engine and also gives an indication regarding the conversion of chemical energy in the
fuel into thermal energy. It is an important variable because it is the potential output of the
cycle.Hence the measurement of indicated power must be very accurate. For obtaining
indicated power the cycle pressure must be determined as a function of cylinder volume. It is
of no use to determine pressure accurately unless volume or crank angle is accurately
measured.

Following methods are usually adopted to estimate the indicated power of an IC engine:
(i) using the indicator diagram

(ii) by measuring brake power and friction power and adding them to give indicated power

(iii) By conducting Morse test (applicable only for multi-cylinder engines).

(i) Method using Indicator diagram:- Indicator is a device which measures the variation of the
pressure in the cylinder over a part or full cycle and the plot of such information obtained is
called an “indicator diagram”. Indicator diagram gives a very good indication of the process
of combustion. Also the losses occurring in the suction and exhaust stroke can be studied using
this diagram.

Indicated power = indicated work per cycle x number of cycles / second

pim Vs ne K
ip = ----------------
1000 x 60

pim LA n K
= --------------- kW …………………………………….(2.6)
60,000

Where ip = indicated power (kW)

pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N / m2)

L = Length of the stroke of the piston (m)

A = Area of the piston (m2)

ne = number of power strokes per minute or number of explosions per minute

67
 K = number of cylinders.

Now ne = N / 2 for a four stroke engine and

= N for a two – stroke engine, where N is the speed of the engine in RPM.

The indicated mean effective pressure is calculated by using the equation

Area of the indicated diagram in m2

pim = ----------------------------------------------- x indicator spring stiffness in (N /m2) /m
Length of the indicator diagram in m

(ii) Method by measuring Brake Power and Friction Power:- In this method the brake power
is measured by using a brake dynamometer and the friction power is measured by using
Willan’s line method or by Motoring test or by retardation test and then the indicated power is
calculated as ip = bp + fp where bp is the brake power of the engine and fp is the friction
power.

(iii) Morse Test:- This method is already described in section 2.3.1.3.

2.3.3. Measurement of Brake Power: Indicated power is based on indicated net work and is
thus a measure of the forces developed within the engine cylinder.The rotational force
available at the engine crank shaft and the power corresponding to this is of more practical
interest. This power is interchangeably referred to as brake power or shaft power. Measurement
of brake power is one of the most important measurements in the test schedule of an engine. It
involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. The
torque measuring device is called the dynamometer.

Brake power is usually measured by attaching a power absorbing

device to the output shaft of the engine. Such a device will set up forces (which can be
measured) counteracting the forces delivered by the engine. The measured force is usually
referred to as the braking force, W. If ‘r’ is the distance from the centre of the output shaft and
the point of acting of Fb ( r is also called the lever arm),

then braking torque = T = W r …………………………………………….(2.7)

If N is the speed of the engine in RPM, then brake power in KW is given by

Brake power = bp = 2πNT / (60 x 1000)

Or bp = 2πNT / 60,000 kW ………………………………..(2.8)

In the above equation T should be in N – m.

68
Since in Eq. (2.7) only the brake load and speed can vary for a given engine, the equation can
be written as
WN
bp = --------------- …………………………………………..(2.9)
C
where C is called the dynamometer constant. Eq. (2.7) or Eq. (2.8) can be used to calculate the
brake power depending on the information available for a given engine.

Brake mean effective pressure: - Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) can be considered as
that portion of indicated mean effective pressure which goes into the development of useful
work output from the engine. Hence bmep is related to brake power by the following equation.

(bmep) LA ne K
bp = ----------------------- ……………………………………….(2.10)
60000

2.3.4. Measurement of Fuel Consumption: There are two basic types of fuel measurement
methods namely (i) volumetric method and (ii) gravimetric method.
In volumetric method the time taken for the engine to consume a known volume of fuel is
measured and knowing the specific gravity of the fuel the mass flow rate of fuel consumed is
calculated as follows:

Let t = time in seconds for the engine to consume ‘y’ cc of fuel, and

s = specific gravity of the fuel.

y x 10 − 6
.
Mass of fuel consumed per second = m = -------------- x s x 1000
t

. ys
Or m = ----------- kg/s………………….(2.11)
1000 t

Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption: This is defined as the mass of fuel consumption per
hour in order to produce an indicated power of one kilo watt.
.
3600 m
Thus, indicated specific fuel consumption = isfc = --------------- kg/kWh …..(2.12)
ip

Brake Specific fuel consumption:- This defined as the mass of fuel consumed per hour, in
order to develop a brake power of one kilowatt.
.
3600 m

69
Thus, brake specific fuel consumption = bsfc = --------------- kg/kWh ……..(2.13)
bp

2.3.5. Thermal Efficiency : There are two definitions of thermal efficiency as applied to IC
engines. One is based on indicated power and the other on brake power.The one based on
indicated power is called as ‘indicated thermal efficiency”, and the one based on brake power
is known as “brake thermal efficiency”.

Indicated thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of indicated power to the energy available
due to combustion of the fuel.
Indicated Power in kW
Thus ηith = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Mass flow rate of fuel in kg/s) x (Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg )

ip
Or ηith = --------------- ………………………………………………..(2.14)
m x CV
Similarly brake thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power to energy available
due to combustion of the fuel.

bp
Or ηbth = --------------- ………………………………………………..(2.15)
m x CV

2.3.6.Mechanical Efficiency: Mechanical efficiency takes into account the mechanical losses
in an engine. The mechanical losses include (i) frictional losses, (ii) power absorbed by engine
auxillaries like fuel pump, lubricating oil pump, water circulating pump, magneto and
distributor, electric generator for battery charging, radiator fan etc., and (iii) work requited to
charge the cylinder with fresh charge and work for discharging the exhaust gases during the
exhaust stroke. It is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated power. Thus
bp
ηmech = -------- ……………………………(8.16)
ip

2.3.7. Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn
into the cylinder during a given period of time to the theoretical mass which should have been
drawn in during the same interval of time based on the total piston displacement, and the
pressure and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
.
mactual
Thus ηv = ----------------- …………………………(2.17)
mth
.

70
where m = ρa n Vs ………………………………….(2.18)

where n is the number of intake strokes per minute and Vs is the stroke volume of the piston.

2.4. Illustrative examples:

Example 2.1:- The following observations have been made from the test of a four cylinder, two
– stroke petrol engine. Diameter of the cylinder = 10 cm; stroke = 15 cm; speed = 1600 rpm;
Area of indicator diagram = 5.5 cm2; Length of the indicator diagram = 55 mm; spring
constant = 3.5 bar/cm; Determine the indicated power of the engine.

Known: d = 0.1 m; L = 0.15 m ; No. of cylinders = K = 4; N = 1600 rpm; n = N (two – stroke);

a = 5.5 cm2; length of the diagram = ld = 5.5. cm; spring constant = ks = 3.5 bar/cm ;

Find: indicated power, ip.

a ks
5.5∗3.5
Solution: Indicated mean effective pressure = pim = --------------- = 5.5 = 3.5 * 10 5 N/m2
ld

pim LAnK 3.5 x 105 x 0.15 x (π/4) x 0.12 x 1600 x 4

ip = ---------------- = -------------------------------------------------------- = 43.98 kW
60,000 60,000

Example 2.2:- A gasoline engine (petrol engine) working on Otto cycle consumes 8 litres of
petrol per hour and develops 25 kW. The specific gravity of petrol is 0.75 and its calorific
value is 44,000 kJ/kg. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine

Known: Volume of fuel consumed/hour = y/t = 8 x 10 3 / 3600 cc/s ;

ip = 25 kW; CV = 44,000 kJ/kg;

Specific gravity of petrol = s = 0.75

Find: ηith ;
ys. 8 x 10 3 x 0.75
Solution: Mass of fuel consumed = m = ----- = --------------------- = 1.67 x 10 − 3 kg/s.
1000 t 1000 x 3600

ip 25
Indicated thermal efficiency = ηith = -------------- = -------------------------- = 0.3402 = 34.02%
m CV 1.67 x 10 − 3x 44000

71
Example 2.3:- The bore and stroke of a water cooled, vertical, single-cylinder, four stroke
diesel engine are 80 mm and 110 mm respectively.The torque is 23.5 N-m.Calculate the brake
mean effective pressure.
What would be the mean effective pressure and torque if the engine rating is 4 kW at 1500
rpm?

Known: Diameter = d = 80 x10 − 3 = 0.008 m ; stroke = L = 0.110 m; T = 23.5 N-m;

Find (i) bmep ; (ii) bmep if bp = 4 kw and N= 1500 rpm.

Solution: (i) Relation between brake power (bp) and brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is
given by

2πNT (bmep)LAn
bp = ------------ = ---------------
60,000 60,000
16 𝑇 16∗23.5
Hence bmep = (2πNT) / (LAn) = (2πNT) / {(Lπd2 /4) N/2} = = 0.11∗ 0.082
𝐿𝑑2

= 5.34 x 10 5 N / m2 = 5.34 bar

(ii) when bp = 4 kw and N = 1500 rpm, we have

6 60,000 x 4
60,000∗𝑏𝑝 60,000∗4
bmep = = 𝜋 1500 = 5.79 x 10 5 N/m2 = 5.79 bar.
𝐿𝐴𝑛 0.110∗( )∗ 0.082 ∗( )
4 2

60,000 bp 60,000 x 4
Also bp = 2πNT / 60,000 or T = ---------------- = -------------------- = 25.46 N – m.
2πN 2 x π x 1500

Example 2.4:-Find the air fuel ratio of a four stroke, single cylinder, air cooled engine with
fuel consumption time for 10 cc is 20.4 s and air consumption time for 0.1 m3is 16.3 s. The load
is 7 N at the speed of 3000 rpm. Find also the brake specific fuel consumption in kg/kWh and
brake thermal efficiency.Assume the density of air as 1.175 kg/m3 and specific gravity of the
fuel to be 0.7. The lower heating value of the fuel is 43 MJ/kg and the dynamometer constant is
5000.

Known: y = 10 cc ; t = 20.4 s ; Va = 0.1 m3; ta = 16.3 s ; W = 7 N ; N = 3000 rpm;

ρa = 1.175 kg/m3; s = 0.7 ; CV = 43 x 10 3 kJ/kg; Dynamometer constant = C = 5000.

Find:- (i) ma / mf ; (ii) bsfc ; (iii) ηbth.

0.1 x 1.175

72
Solution: (i) Mass of air consumed = ma = ---------------- = 7.21 x 10 − 3 kg/s.
16.3
ys 10 x 0.7
Mass of fuel consumed = mf = --------- = ------------------ = 0.343 x 10 − 3 kg/s
1000 t 1000 x 20.4

ma 7.21 x 10 − 3
Air fuel ratio = --------- = ------------------- = 21
mf 0.343 x 10 − 3

7 x 3000
(ii) Brake power = bp = WN / C = ------------- = 4.2 kW
5000

mf x 3600 0.343 x 10 −3 x 3600

bsfc = ------------------- = ---------------------------- = 0.294 kg/kWh
bp 4.2

bp 4.2
(iii) bith = --------------- = ----------------------------------- = 0.2848 = 28.48 %.
mf CV 0.343 x 10 −3 x 43 x 10 3

Example 2.5:- A six cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four stroke cycle. The bore of
each cylinder is 80 mm and the stroke is 100 mm. The clearance volume in each cylinder is 70
cc. At a speed of 4000 rpm and the fuel consumption is 20 kg/h. The torque developed is 150 N-
m. Calculate (i) the brake power, (ii) the brake mean effective pressure, (iii) brake thermal
efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg and (iv) the relative efficiency if the
ideal cycle for the engine is Otto cycle.

Known: K = 6 ; n = N /2 ; d = 8 cm ; L = 10 cm ; Vc = 70 cc ; N = 4000 rpm ; mf = 20

kg/h ; T = 150 N-m ; CV = 43000 kJ/kg ;

Find:- (i) bp ; (ii) bmep ; (iii) ηbth ; (iv) η Relative.

Solution: 2π NT 2 x π x 4000 x 150

(i) bp = ------------ = --------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 62.8 kW

60,000 bp 60,000 x 62.8

73
(ii) bmep = -------------------- = --------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.1 x (π / 4) x 0.08 2 x (4000/2) x 6

= 6.25 x 10 5 N/m2 = 6.25 bar

bp 62.8
(iii) ηbth = ----------------------- = ------------------------------ = 0.263 = 26.3 %.
mf CV (20 / 3600) x 43,000

(iv) Stroke volume = Vs = (π / 4) d2 L = (π / 4) x 8 2 x 10 = 502.65 cc

Vs + Vc 502.65 + 70
Compression Ratio of the engine = Rc = ------------ = --------------------- = 8.18
Vc 70

Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle = η Otto = 1 – (1/ Rcγ – 1)

1
= 1 − ---------------------- = 0.568 = 56.8 %
8.18 0.4

Hence Relative efficiency = ηRelative = η bth / η Otto = 0.263 / 0.568 = 0.463 = 46.3 %.

Example 2.6:- An eight cylinder, four stroke engine of 9 cm bore, 8 cm stroke and with a
compression ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has 54 cm arm. During
a 10 minute test, the dynamometer scale beam reading was 42 kg and the engine consumed 4.4
kg of gasoline having a calorific value of 44,000 kJ/kg. Air at 27 C and 1 bar was supplied to
the carburetor at a rate of 6 kg/min. Find (i) the brake power, (ii) the brake mean effective
pressure, (iii) the brake specific fuel consumption, (iv) the brake specific air consumption, (v)
volumetric efficiency , (vi) the brake thermal efficiency and (vii) the air fuel ratio.

Known: K = 8 ; Four stroke hence n = N/2 ; d = 0.09 m; L = 0.08 m; Rc = 7; N = 4500

rpm; Brake arm = R = 0.54 m ; t = 10 min ; Brake load = W = (42 x 9.81) N

.
mf = 4.4 kg ; CV = 44,000 kJ/kg ; Ta = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; pa = 1 bar; ma = 6 kg/min;
. .
Find:- (i) bp ; (ii) bmep ; (iii) bsfc ; (iv) bsac ; (v) η v ; (vi) ηbth ; (vii) ma / mf

Solution:
2π NT 2π NWR 2 x π x 4500 x (42 x 9.81) x 0.54
(i) bp = ----------- = ------------ = --------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000 60,000

= 104.8 kW

60,000 bp 60,000 x 104.8

74
(ii) bmep = ------------- = ------------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.08 x (π / 4) x 0.09 2 x (4500 / 2) x 8

= 6.87 x 10 5 N/m2 = 6.87 bar.

.
(iii) mass of fuel consumed per unit time = mf = mf / t = 4.4 x 60 / 10 kg/h

= 26.4 kg/h
.
mf 26.4
Brake specific fuel consumption = bsfc = ----------- = ------------- = 0.252 kg / kWh
bp 104.8
.
ma 6 x 60
(iv) brake specific air consumption = bsac = ------------- = ------------------
bp 104.8

= 3.435 kg / kWh

bp 104.8
(v) ηbth = --.-------------- = ----------------------------- = 0.325 = 32.5 %.
mf CV (26.4 / 3600) x 44,000
.
(vi) Stroke volume per unit time = Vs = (πd2/4) L n K

π
= ------ x (0.092) x 0.08 x (4500 / 2) x 8
4

= 9.16 m3 / min.
.
. ma Ra Ta 6 x 286 x 300
Volume flow rate of air per minute = Va = ------------- = --------------------
pa 1 x 10 5

= 5.17 m3 / min
. .
Volumetric efficiency = ηv = Va / Vs = 5.17 / 9.16 = 0.5644 = 56.44 %.
. .
(vii) Air fuel ratio = ma / mf = 6 /(4.4 / 10) = 13.64

Example 2.7:- A gasoline engine working on four- stroke develops a brake power of 20.9 kW.
A Morse test was conducted on this engine and the brake power (kW) obtained when each
cylinder was made inoperative by short circuiting the spark plug are 14.9, 14.3, 14.8 and 14.5
respectively. The test was conducted at constant speed. Find the indicated power, mechanical

75
efficiency and brake mean effective pressure when all the cylinders are firing. The bore of the
engine is 75mm and the stroke is 90 mm. The engine is running at 3000 rpm.

Known: brake power when all cylinders are working = Bt = 20.9 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 1 is inoperative = B1 = 14.9 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 2 is inoperative = B2 = 14.3 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 3 is inoperative = B3 = 14.8 kW ;

Brake power when cylinder 4 is inoperative = B4 = 14.5 kW ;

N = 3000 rpm ; d = 0.075 m ; L = 0.09 m ;

Find:- (i) (ip)total ; (ii) ηmech ; (iii) bmep ;

Solution:

(i) (ip)total = ip1 + ip2 + ip3 + ip4 = (Bt – B1) + (Bt – B2) + (Bt – B3) + (Bt – B4)

= 4Bt – (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4) = 4 x 20.9 – (14.9 + 14.3 + 14.8 + 14.5)

= 25.1 Kw

Bt 20.9
(ii) ηmech = ------------- = --------- = 0.833 = 83.3 %
(ip)total 25.1

60,000 Bt 60,000 x 20.9

(iii) bmep = --------------- = --------------------------------------------------
LAnK 0.09 x (π / 4) x 0.075 2 x (3000 / 2) x 4

= 5.25 x 10 5 N / m2 = 5.25 bar.

Example 2.8:- The following observations were recorded during a trail of a four – stroke,
single cylinder oil engine.
Duration of trial = 30 min ; oil consumed = 4 litres ; calorific value of oil = 43 MJ/kg ;
specific gravity of fuel = 0.8 ; average area of the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm2; length of the
indicator diagram = 8.5 cm; Indicator spring constant = 5.5 bar/cm; brake load = 150 kg;
spring balance reading = 20 kg; effective brake wheel diameter = 1.5 m ; speed = 200 rpm ;
cylinder diameter = 30 cm ; stroke = 45 cm ; jacket cooling water = 10 kg/min ; temperature
rise of cooling water = 36 C. Calculate (i) indicated power, (ii) brake power, (iii) mechanical
efficiency, (iv) brake specific fuel consumption, (v) indicated thermal efficiency, and (vi) heat
carried away by cooling water.

76
Known: t = 30 min ; y = 4000 cc; CV = 43 x10 3 kJ/kg; s = 0.8 ; area of the diagram = a =

8.5 cm2; length of the diagram = ld = 8.5 cm ; indicator spring constant = ks = 5.5 bar /

cm; W = 150 x 9.81 N ; Brake radius = R = 1.5 / 2 = 0.75 m; N = 200 rpm ; d = 0.3 m ;
.
L = 0.45 m ; mw = 10 kg/min ; ΔTw = 36 C; Spring Balance Reading = S = 20 x 9.81 N
.
Find:- (i) ip ; (ii) bp ; (iii) ηmech ; (iv) bsfc ; (v) ηith ; (vi) Qw

Solution:
a 8.5
(i) pim = ------- ks = ----------- x 5.5 = 5.5 bar = 5.5 x 105 N/m2
ld 8.5

pim L A n K 5.5 x 10 5 x 0.45 x (π / 4) x 0.32 x (200 / 2) x 1

ip = ------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------------------- = 29.16 kW
60,000 60,000

2π N(W – S) R 2 x π x 200 x (150 – 20)x 9.81 x 0.75

(ii) bp = ----------------------- = ---------------------------------------------------- = 20.03 kW
60,000 60,000

(iii) ηmech = bp / ip = 20.03 / 29.16 = 0.687 = 68.7 %.

ys
. 4000 x 0.8
(iv) Mass of fuel consumed per hour = mf = ------------- x 60 = ------------------ x 60
1000 t 1000 x 30

= 6.4 kg / h.
. 6.4
bsfc = mf / bp = ------------- = 0.3195 kg/kWh
20.03

ip 29.16
(v) ηith = ---.--------- = -------------------------------- = 0.3814 = 38.14 %.
mf CV (6.4 / 3600) x 43 x 10 3
. .
(vi) Qw = m Cp ΔTw = (10 / 60) x 4.2 x 36 = 25.2 kW

77
Example 2.9:- A four stroke gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 25 cm and stroke 45 cm.
The effective diameter of the brake is 1.6 m.The observations made in a test of the engine were
as follows.
Duration of test = 40 min; Total number of revolutions = 8080 ; Total number of explosions =
3230; Net load on the brake = 80 kg ; mean effective pressure = 5.8 bar; Volume of gas used
= 7.5 m3; Pressure of gas indicated in meter = 136 mm of water (gauge); Atmospheric
temperature = 17 C; Calorific value of gas = 19 MJ/ m3 at NTP; Temperature rise of cooling
water = 45 C; Cooling water supplied = 180 kg.
Draw up a heat balance sheet and find the indicated thermal efficiency and brake thermal
efficiency. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 760 mm of mercury.

Known: d = 0.25 m ; L = 0.45 m; R = 1.6 / 2 =0.8 m; t = 40 min ; Ntotal = 8080 ;

Hence N = 8080 / 40 = 202 rpm ntotal = 3230 ;

Hence n = 3230 / 40 = 80.75 explosions / min; W = 80 x 9.81 N; pim = 5.8 bar ;

.
Vtotal = 7.5 m3; hence V = 7.5 / 40 = 0.1875 m3/min; pgauge = 136 mm of water (gauge);

Tatm = 17 + 273 = 290 K; (CV)NTP = 19 x 10 3 kJ/ m3 ; ΔTw = 45 C;

.
mw = 180 / 40 = 4.5 kg/min; patm = 760 mm of mercury

Find:- (i) ηith ; (ii) ηbth ; (iii) heat balance sheet

Solution:

pim L A n K 5.8 x 10 5 x (π / 4) x 0.252 x 0.45 x 80.75

(i) ip = ------------------ = ------------------------------------------------------- = 17.25 kW.
60,000 60,000

2π N W R 2 x π x 202 x (80 x 9.81) x 0.8

bp = --------------------- = ------------------------------------------ = 13.28 kW
60,000 60,000

Pressure of gas supplied = p = patm + pgauge = 760 + 136 / 13.6 = 770 mm of mercury
. .
Volume of gas supplied as measured at NTP = VNTP = V (TNTP / T)(p / pNTP)

0.1875 x 273 x 770

= -------------------------- = 0.17875 m3 / min
290 x 760
. .
Heat supplied by fuel = Qf = VNTP (CV)NTP = 0.17875 x 19 x 103 = 3396.25 kJ/min

78
Heat equivalent of bp in kJ/min = 13.28 x 60 = 796.4 kJ/min
.
Heat lost to cooling water in kJ/min = mw Cp ΔTw = 4.5 x 4.2 x 45 = 846.5 kJ/min

Friction power = ip – bp = 17.25 – 13.28 = 3.97 kW

Hence heat loss due to fiction, pumping etc. = 3.97 x 60 = 238.2 kJ/min

Heat lost in exhaust, radiation etc (by difference) = 3396.25 – (896.4 + 796.4 + 238.2)

= 1465.15 kJ/min
Heat Balance Sheet:

Item Heat Energy Input Heat Energy spent

No. (kJ/min) (percent) (kJ/min) (percent)

1 Heat supplied by fuel 3396.25 100.00

2 Heat equivalent of bp 896.4 26.4

3 Heat lost to cooling

Water 796.4 23.4

4 Heat equivalent of fp 238.2 7.0

5 Heat unaccounted
(by difference) 1465.15 43.2

Total 3396.25 100.0 3396.25 100.0

Example 2.10:- A test on a two-stroke engine gave the following results at full load.

Speed = 350 rpm; Net brake load = 65 kg ; mean effective pressure = 3 bar ; Fuel
consumption = 4 kg/h ; Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 kg/h ; jacket water temperature
at inlet = 20 C ; jacket water temperature at outlet = 40 C ; Test room temperature = 20 C ;
Temperature of exhaust gases = 400 C; Air used per kg of fuel = 32 kg ; cylinder diameter =
22 cm ;stroke = 28 cm; effective brake diameter = 1 m ; Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ/kg ;
Mean specific heat of exhaust gases = 1 kJ/kg –K.
Find indicated power, brake power and draw up a heat balance for the test in kW and in
percentage.

Known: Two stroke engine. Hence n = N ; N = 350 rpm ; W = (65 x 9.81) N ;

. .
pim = 3 bar ; mf = 4 kg/h ; mw = 500 kg/h ; Twi = 20 C ; Two = 40 C ; Tatm = 20 C ;
. .
Teg = 400 C ; ma / mf = 32 ; d = 0.22 m ; L = 0.28 m ; Brake radius = R = ½ m ;

79
CV = 43,000 kJ/kg ; (Cp) eg = 1.0 kJ/(kg-K) ;

Find:- (i) ip ; (ii) bp ; and (iii) heat balance;

Solution: pim LAn 3 x 10 5 x 0.28 x (π/4) x 0.22 2 x 350

(i) ip = -------------- = ----------------------------------------------------
60,000 60,000

= 18.63 kW.

2π N WR 2 x π x 350 x (65 x 9.81) x 0.5

(ii) bp = ------------- = --------------------------------------- = 11.68 kW.
60,000 60,000
.
(iii) Heat supplied in kW = mf CV = (4 / 3600) x 43,000

= 47.8 kW
.
Heat lost to cooling water = mw (Cp)w [Two – Twi] = (500 / 3600) x 4.2 x [40 – 20] = 11.7 kW

. .
Heat lost in exhaust gases = (ma + mf) (Cp)eg [Teg – Tatm]

(32 + 1 ) x 4
= --------------- x 1.0 x [400 – 20] = 13.9 kW
3600

Heat balance sheet:

Heat Input kW % Heat Expenditure kW %

Heat supplied by fuel 47.8 100 Heat in bp 11.68 24.4

Heat lost to cooling

Water 11.70 24.5

Heat lost to exhaust

Gases 13.90 29.1

Unaccounted heat
(by difference) 10.52 22.0
Total 47.8 100 Total 47.80 100

80
 Chapter 3

Vapour Power Cycles

3.1. Introduction: Gas power cycles with the possible exception of the Gas turbine cycle are
not suitable for the use of fuels like coal. Since the fuel has to be burnt in the engine cylinder,
the internal combustion cycle cannot use fuels that leave large amounts of refuse in the
combustion chamber. Even in the open Brayton cycle, it is not possible to use coal, because,
the gases after combustion pass into the turbine, and these gases have to be totally free from
abrasive materials like ash. But the Vapour power cycles use a working substance which does
not contact the fuel. So, impurities in the fuel will not affect the working substance or the
machine through which the hot fluid has to pass in doing work. Secondly, in gas power cycles
it is extremely difficult to achieve an isothermal process where as this can be easily achieved in
a vapour power cycle using constant pressure phase change process.Vapour power cycle has
the further advantage that it can use high speed, light weight turbines to produce work output

81
instead of the bulky reciprocating piston engines that are used in internal combustion engines.
Another advantage of vapour power cycle over the Brayton cycle is that compression work is
very small as to neglect it in comparison with the net work output. But vapour power cycles
suffer from poor thermal efficiencies as compared to gas power cycles. High efficiencies in
vapour power cycles can be achieved only by using very high pressure or super-critical
pressure system with multi stage feed water heating and reheating. Power plants employing
vapour power cycles have water as the working substance, and pressures around 250 bar have
to be used to reach the super-critical state, with temperatures around 600 C. Even under such
conditions the overall thermal efficiency can be only as high as 40 %, but the life of the
equipment will be seriously affected, unless high quality and expensive materials are used. In
Brayton cycle temperatures of the order of 1100 K are reached as the equipment is not
subjected to steady high pressure continuously. In reciprocating engine cycles, even
temperatures greater than 2500 K may be reached, since there is no steady high temperature
and pressure maintained during the operation of the engine.

3.2 The Rankine Cycle (Ideal simple vapour power cycle)

Assumptions made in the analysis of Ideal Vapour power cycles:- (i) The expansion process
in the turbine and the compression process in the pump are isentropic.
(ii) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting various components as well as in the
heat exchangers like boiler, condenser, re-heaters and feed water heaters.
(iii) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid as it flows through the
various components are negligible.
(iv) Fluid flow is steady and one-dimensional

A schematic diagram for the Rankine cycle along with the corresponding
T – s and h – s are shown in Fig.3.1.

P: Feed water pump; B: Boiler; T: Turbine; C: Condensor

T wt
qs B
4
C qc
2
wp P 1

Fig.3.1(a) Schematic diagram for Rankine cycle

82
 T h
p2 = p3

3
p1 = p4 3

2
2
1 4 4

1
s s

Fig.3.1(b) T – s and h – s diagrams for Rankine cycle

Process 1 -2 : Isentropic pumping of feed water. During this process the feed water pressure is
raised from condenser pressure to boiler pressure by doing work on it.

Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heating of water in the boiler till it becomes a saturated dry
steam.

Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of steam in the turbine from boiler pressure to the
condenser pressure. During this process work is done by the steam on the surroundings.

Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure condensation of steam in the condenser till it becomes a

saturated liquid. During this process heat is rejected by the working substance to the
surroundings

3.2.1 Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency:

Applying steady-state, steady flow energy equation to the feed water pump we have
. .
Wp = m (h2 – h1) …………………….(3.1)
.
Where m is the mass flow rate of feed water through the pump.

or per unit mass of water the pump work is given by

. .
wp = Wp / m = (h2 – h1) ………………(3.2)
. .
Similarly for the turbine we have wt = Wt / m = (h3 – h4) ……………..(3.3)
. .

83
 qs = Qs / m = (h3 – h2) ………………(3.4)
. .
and qc = Q / m = (h4 – h1)……………….(3.5)

Net work output per unit mass of steam = wn = wt - wp

= (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)

Therefore thermal efficiency is given by

wn (h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1) (h4 – h1)
η Rankine = --------------- = --------------------------- = 1 − ----------------……...(3.6)
qs (h3 – h2) (h3 – h2)

It can be seen from Eq. (3.5) and (3.6) the net work output and thermal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle depends on the enthalpies h1,h2, h3, and h4, which in turn depends on the boiler
pressure, the condenser pressure and the temperature at which steam is entering the turbine.

3.2.2.Expression for Thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle in terms of temperatures

wn w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1 q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1 q2-3 + q4-1
η Rankine = --------------- = ------------------------------- = ---------------------------- = ----------------
qs q2-3 q2-3 q2-3

s1 s3
Now q4-1 = ∫Tds = T1(s1 – s4) and q2-3 = ∫Tds = Tm(s3 – s2).
s4 s2
Tm is defined such that when it is multiplied by the change in entropy during the heating
process gives heat supplied during the process. Tm is called as the “thermodynamic mean
temperature” at which heat is supplied to the working substance. Substituting these
expressions for q4-1 and q2-3 in the expression for thermal efficiency for the Rankine cycle ,we
have
Tm(s3 – s2) + T1(s1 – s4). Tm(s3 – s2) − T1(s4 – s1).
η Rankine = ------------------------------- = ---------------------------------
Tm(s3 – s2). Tm(s3 – s2).

Since s1 = s2 and s4 = s3, the above expression reduces to

(Tm – T1) T1
η Rankine = ---------------- = 1 − ------- ………………………………………(3.7)
Tm Tm

It can be seen from Eq.(3.7) that higher the value of Tm higher will be the thermal efficiency
for a given value of the condensation temperature T1.Also if the entire heat is supplied at one
constant temperature then the Rankine efficiency will be equal to the Carnot efficiency
between the same temperature limits. Therefore in present day steam power plants efforts are
being made to see that major portion of the heat supply takes place at one constant temperature.

84
3.3. Effects of pressure and temperature on the performance of the Rankine cycle

3.3.1. Effects of condsensor pressure: The effects of decreasing the condenser pressure on the
performance of the Rankine cycle are illustrated both on T – s diagram and h – s diagram
shown in Fig. 3.2. In the figure cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents Rankine cycle with higher condenser
pressure and cycle 1’-2’-3-4’-1’ represents the cycle with lower condenser pressure. It can be
seen from both the diagrams that area of the cycle 1’-2’-3-4’-1’ is more than that for the cycle
1-2-3-4-1. Since area of a closed curve on a T-s diagram represents the net work transfer
during the cycle, it follows that cycle with lower condenser pressure will have a higher work
output as compared to the cycle with higher condenser pressure. The thermal efficiency of a
Rankine cycle is given by
η = 1 − (T1/Tm), where T1 is the condensation temperature and Tm is the thermodynamic
3
temperature at which heat is supplied i.e. Tm = {∫Tds / (s3 – s2)}. When the condenser
2
pressure is reduced, both T1 and Tm reduces, but the overall effect is that the ratio T1/Tm
reduces, thereby increasing the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
But lower condenser pressure has certain disadvantages. It can be seen from

T h
p2 = p3

3
2 p1 = p4

2’ 4
1
4’
1’ 1

s s
1-2-3-4-1 = Cycle with higher condenser pressure:
1’-2’-3-4’-1’ = Cycle with lower condenser pressure
Fig.3.2 :T – s and h – s diagrams for Rankine cycle of different
condenser pressures.

the T – s diagram that as the condenser pressure decreases the quality of steam during the last
stages of expansion also decreases (x4’ < x4) which in turn decreases the efficiency of the
turbine. For good turbine efficiency and long turbine life the quality of steam during expansion
should not be less than 0.9.Also if the condenser pressure is below the atmospheric pressure
then there is a tendency for the atmospheric air to leak into the condenser which in turn affects
the performance of the condenser in the form of decrease in its efficiency. In such cases it

85
becomes necessary to have air extractors fitted to the condenser at extra cost to remove air
from the condenser.

3.3.2.Effects of Boiler Presure: The effects of increasing the boiler pressure on the
performance of the Rankine cycle are illustrated both on T – s and h – s diagrams in Fig.
4.3.It can be seen from these diagrams that a rise in boiler pressure will result in an increase in
the area representing the cycle by an amount A1 and a decrease in the area by an amount A2.Up
to a certain boiler pressure say about 165 bar, A1 > A2, indicating that there is a net increase in
the work out put from the cycle. Also up to this pressure the thermodynamic mean temperature
at which heat is supplied increases with increase in boiler pressure there by increasing the
thermal efficiency of the cycle. Beyond this pressure the thermodynamic temperature starts
decreasing with increase in boiler pressure and hence the thermal efficiency decreases with
increase in boiler pressure.This can be seen clearly from Fig. 3.4, which is a graph of cycle
efficiency versus boiler pressure.
A rise in boiler pressure will also results in decrease in the
quality of steam during the last stages of expansion thereby affecting the performance and life
of the turbine.

3.3.3. Effects of Superheating of steam: The effects of superheating the steam before it enters
the turbine on the performance of the Rankine cycle are shown both on T – s and h – s
diagrams in Fig.3.5. It can be seen from these diagrams that by super heating the

Area = A1

2’ 3’

3
2 Area=A2

1 4’ 4
s

1-2-3-4-1 = Cycle with lower boiler pressure;

1-2’-3’-4’-1 = Cycle with higher boiler pressure.

Fig. 3.3: Effects of boiler pressure on Rankine cycle

86
 Efficiemcy

165
Boiler Pressure, bar
Fig. 3.4 Effect of Boiler Pressure on Thermal Efficiency

T h

3’ 3’

3 3
2

4 4’
1 4 4’ 2
s
1 s

1-2-3-4-1:Cycle with saturated steam at turbine inlet

1-2-3’-4’-1: Cycle with superheated steam at turbine inlet

Fig. 3.5: Effects of superheating of steam on Rankine cycle

steam the area representing the cycle has increased indicating that the net work output from the
cycle has increased (shaded area in Fig.3.5 represents increased work output). The diagram
also shows that the quality of steam during the last stages of expansion has increased thereby
improving the performance of the turbine.
Superheating of steam needs additional heat supply.But the increased heat supply is more
than compensated by the increased work output, with the result the thermal efficiency increases
with the superheating of steam before it enters the

87
turbine

Cycle with superheated steam

at turbine inlet
ηthermal
Cycle with saturated steam
at turbine inlet

Boiler Pressure

Fig. 3.6: Effect of Superheating of steam on Thermal efficiency

. With the present day materials used in the manufacture of steam turbines, the maximum
temperature that the turbine blades can withstand is about 650 C.Fig. 3.6 shows the effect of
superheating of steam on Rankine cycle efficiency.Thus superheating has two beneficial
effects on the Overall cycle efficiency. First it helps reduce moisture in the exhaust steam and
friction at the turbine blades, thus increasing the internal efficiency of the turbine. Secondly,
superheating increases the thermodynamic mean temperature at which heat is supplied which
in turn increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Also with superheating, the Rankine cycle
thermal efficiency continuously increases with increase in boiler pressure.

3.4. Modifications of simple Rankine cycle :- In a simple Rankine cycle, as the boiler
pressure goes higher and higher, a stage is reached when superheating of steam once to 600 C
is not sufficient to maintain a sufficiently low moisture level in the steam during last stages of
expansion. Further very low condenser pressure will also result in poor quality of steam during
last stages of expansion. Therefore, in order to take the advantages of high boiler pressure and
low condenser pressure in terms of higher work output and higher thermal efficiency, the
simple Rankine cycle is modified by adding additional components. One modification is the
“Reheat cycle” which increases the net work output and the second modification is the
“Regenerative cycle” which increases the thermal efficiency as compared to the simple
Rankine cycle.

3.4.1. Reheat Cycle:- The net work output of a simple Rankine cycle can be increased by
employing multistage expansion with reheating between the stages of expansion. A schematic
diagram of a Reheat cycle employing two stages of expansion with reheating in between the
stages is shown in Fig. 3.7(a). The corresponding T – s and h – s diagrams are shown in Fig.
3.7 (b) and Fig. 3.7 (c) respectively.

88
 wt1

3
wt2

6
4
qs
qc
5
2
Fig.3.7(a) Schematic
1
wp
For a Reheat cycle

Superheated steam at high pressure and temperature (state point 3) enters the first stage turbine
T1 and expands to an intermediate pressure (state point 4) and is then reheated at constant
pressure back to its original temperature (state point 5 ) by passing the steam
through the re-heater coils provided in the boiler. Then the steam is expanded for the second
time from the intermediate pressure to the condenser pressure in the second stage
turbine. It is then condensed in the condenser at constant pressure and pumped back to the
boiler where the water is converted in to superheated steam to complete the cycle.
The pressure at which the steam has to be withdrawn for reheating should be chosen such that
the work output from the turbine is a maximum for the given boiler exit conditions

89
 T Increased work output in a h
2 Reheat Cycle

3 5

4
2
6
1 4’
s
s

1-2-3-4-5-6-1 = Reheat Cycle with two stages of expansion

1-2-3-4’-1= Simple Rankine Cycle

Fig. 3.7(b) : T-s and h-s diagrams for a Reheat Cycle

and the condenser pressure. If this reheating pressure p4 is too high, the benefit obtained by
reheating will be limited; on the other hand, if p4 is too low, the pressure losses occurring in the
pipe line carrying steam to be reheated will be so great as to off-set the advantages gained by
reheating. It is best to choose p4 such that the thermodynamic mean temperature for the entire
heating process, including the boiler, the superheater and the reheater becomes the highest
attainable. If T5 = T3, p4 may be approximated as 25 % of p3.

Expression for net work output and thermal efficiency in terms of enthalpies

Pump work per unit mass = wp = (h2 – h1).

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = wt1 + wt2 = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6)

Net work out put = wn = wt – wp = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6) – (h2 – h1)

Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = q2-3 + q4-5 = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4)

wn [(h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6) – (h2 – h1)]

Thermal efficiency = ηReheat = -------- = --------------------------------------- …….(3.8)
qs [(h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4)]

Example 3.1:- In a simple Rankine cycle, dry saturated steam at 20 bar expands to a pressure
of 1 atmosphere. Determine (i) the pump work, (ii) turbine work, (iii) network output, (iv)
thermodynamic mean temperature at which heat is supplied, (v) thermal efficiency, (vi) quality
of steam entering the condenser, and (vii) specific steam consumption in kg/kWh.

90
 What would be the (i) network output, (ii) cycle efficiency, (iii) specific steam
consumption in kg/kWh and (iv) quality of steam entering the condenser if the condenser
pressure is reduced to 0.06 bar and compare the performance of the two cycles.

Sketch: Refer Fig.3.1

Known: Boiler exit pressure = p2 = p3 = 20 bar; Condenser pressure= p4 = p1 = 1.01325 bar;

Find: (i) wp; (ii) wt ;(iii) wn ; (iv)Tm; (v) ηRankine ; (vi) x4 ; (vii) s.s.c

Solution: Case 1:- When the condenser pressure is 1 atmosphere

T h
p2 = p3
3

3
2 p1 = p4’

2’
1 4 2 4
2’
4’
1’ 1 4’

1’
s s
1-2-3-4-1 = Cycle with higher condenser pressure:
1’-2’-3-4’-1’ = Cycle with lower condenser pressure
Fig.E3.1 :T – s and h – s diagrams for Rankine cycle of different
condenser pressures.

From Mollier chart, h3 = 2798 kJ/kg ; h 4 = 2305 kJ/kg ; x 4 = 0.834 ;

From steam tables: h1 = hf at 1.01325 bar = 419.1 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf = 0.0010437 m3 / kg.

(i) For an isentropic process we have dh – vdp = 0.

p2
Hence wp = h2 – h1 = ∫vdp . For a liquid v = constant.
p1

Therefore wp = h2 – h1 = v1 (p2 – p1) = 0.0010437 x {20 – 1.01325} x 10 5 = 1982 J/kg

Or wp = (h2 – h1) = 1.982 kJ/kg.

(ii) Turbine work = wt = (h3 – h4) = (2798 – 2305) = 493 kJ/kg.

91
(iii) Net work output = wn = wt – wp = 493 – 1.982 = 491.02 kJ/kg

(iv) From steam tables s3 = sg at 20 bar = 6.3408 kJ/(kg-K) ;

s1 = sf at 1 atm = 1.3068 kJ/(kg – K).

h2 = h2 = h1 + wp = 419.1 + 1.982 = 421.08 kJ/kg

qs (h3 – h2) (2798 – 421.08)

Tm = ------------- = ------------- = ------------------------ = 472.2 K.
(s3 – s2) (s3 – s1) (6.3408 – 1.3068)

(v) Hence heat supplied per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) = (2798 – 421.08) = 2376.92 kJ/kg

ηRankine = wn / qs = 491.02 / 2376.92 = 0.2066 = 20.66 %.

Alternatively ηRankine = 1 – T1 / Tm ; T1 = Tsat at 1.01325 bar in K = 100 + 273 =373 K

Hence ηRankine = 1 – (373 / 472.2) = 0.21 = 21 %

(vi) Specific steam consumption in kg/kWh = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 491.02 = 7.332 kg/kWh.

Case 2: When the condenser pressure is 0.06 bar

For this case from Mollier chart h4’ = 1955 kJ/kg ; x4’ = 0.745 ;

(i) h1’ = hf at 0.06 bar = 151.5 kJ/kg ; v1’ = vf at 0.06 bar = 0.0010064 m3 / kg.

Pump work = wp = 0.0010064 x {20 – 0.06} x 105 / 1000 = 2.007 kJ/kg

Turbine work = wt = 2798 – 1955 = 843 kJ/kg.

Net work output = wn = 843 – 2.007 = 841 kJ/kg

(ii) h2 = h1’ + wp = 151.5 + 2.007 = 153.51 kJ/kg

Heat supplied = qs = h3 – h2 = 2798 – 153.51= 2644.5 kJ/kg.

ηRankine = wn / qs = 841 / 2644.5 = = 31.80%.

(iii) Specific steam consumption = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 841 = 4.281 kg/kWh

Comparison between the two cycles

Cycle wn (kJ/kg) qs(kJ/kg) η (%) SSC quality of

92
 (kg/kWh) steam at
condenser
inlet

Cycle with 491.02 2376.92 20.66 7.332 0.834

high condensor
pressure (1 atm)

Cycle with 841.0 2644.50 31.80 4.281 0.745

Low condenser
Pressure (0.06 bar)

From the above table the following conclusions can be drawn:

(i) Decreasing the condenser pressure has resulted in an increase in work output as well as the
heat supplied but increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
(ii) Decreasing the condenser pressure also resulted in decrease in specific steam consumption
an advantage.
(iii) Decreasing the condenser pressure resulted in poor quality of steam during the last stages
of expansion which is a disadvantage.

Example 3.2:- Compare the performance of simple Rankine cycle with boiler exit steam
conditions of 20 bar and dry saturated with that of another simple Rankine cycle with boiler
exit steam conditions of 30 bar and dry saturated in terms of (i) net work output, (ii) heat
supply, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) steam rate and (v) quality of steam entering the condenser.
Assume the condenser pressure to be 0.06 bar for both the cycles.

Case 1: Cycle with low boiler pressure of 20 bar :

Sketch: Refer Fig. 3.3

From Mollier chart : h3 = 2798 kJ/kg; h4 = 1955 kJ/kg; x4 = 0.745

(i) Net work out put = wn = 841 kJ/kg [ see case 2 of example 4.1]

(ii) Heat supply = qs = 2644.5 kJ/kg [ see case 2 of example 4.1]

(iii) Thermal efficiency = 841 / 2644.5 = .3180 = 31.8 %

(iv) steam rate = 3600 / 841 = 4.281 kg/kWh

(v) quality of steam at condenser inlet = x4 = 0.745

Case 2: Cycle with high boiler pressure of 30 bar

From Mollier chart : h3’ = 2800 kJ/kg ; h4’ = 1900 kJ/kg ; x = 0.725 ;

93
h1 = hf at 0.06 bar = 151.5 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf at 0.06 bar = 0.0010064 m3/kg.

(i) Pump work per unit mass = wp = v1(p2 – p1) = 0.0010064 x [30 – 0.06] x 105 / 1000

= 3.013 kJ/kg

Hence h2 = h1 + wp = 151.5 + 3.013 = 154.513 kJ/kg

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = (h3 – h4’) = (2800 – 1900) = 900 kJ/kg.

Net work output = wn = wt – wp = 900 – 3.013 = 897 kJ/kg

(ii) Heat supply per unit mass = qs = (h3’ – h2) = (2800 – 154.513) = 2645.5 kJ/kg

Hence thermal efficiency = η = wn / qs = 897/ 2645.5 = 0.3390 = 33.9 %

(iii) Steam rate = 3600 / 897 = 4.0133 kg/kWh.

Comparison between the two cycles

Cycle wn qs η steam quality of steam

(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (%) rate at condenser
(kg/kWh) inlet

Cycle with
low boiler
pressure (20 bar) 841 2644.5 31.8 4.281 0.745
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cycle with
high boiler
pressure (30 bar) 897 2645.5 33.9 4.013 0.725
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 3.3:- Compare the performance of an ideal reheat cycle with that of a simple Rankine
cycle in terms of (i)net work output, (ii) thermal efficiency, (iii) steam rate, and (iv) quality of
steam entering the condenser assuming the following data. Boiler exit conditions are 15 bar
and 300 C. Condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Reheater pressure is 4 bar. The steam is reheated at
constant pressure back to its original temperature in the reheater.

Solution: Analysis of Reheat cycle:- The h – s diagram for the Reheat cycle is shown in Fig.
E3.3.
Given:- p2 = p3 = 15 bar ; T3 = 300 C ; p4 = p5 = 4 bar ; p6 = 0.1 bar.

From Mollier chart: h3 = 3035 kJ/kg ; h4 = 2750 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3060 kJ/kg ;

94
 T h
2

3 5

4
2
6
1 4’
s
s

1-2-3-4-5-6-1 = Reheat Cycle with two stages of expansion

1-2-3-4’-1= Simple Rankine Cycle

Fig. E3.3 : h –s diagram for example 4.3

h6 = 2405 kJ/kg ; x6 = 0.925.

From steam tables, h1 = hf at 0.1 bar = 191.8 kJ/kg ; v1 = vf at 0.1 bar = 0.0010102 m3/kg.

(i)Pump work per unit mass = wp = v1[p2 – p1] = 0.0010102 x [ 15 – 0.1] x 105/1000

= 1.505 kJ/kg.

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = (h3 – h4) + (h5 – h6)

= [3035 – 2750] + [3060 – 2405] = 940 kJ/kg.

Net work output per unit mass = wn = 940 – 1.505 = 938.5 kJ/kg

(ii) h2 = h1 + wp = 191.8 + 1.505 = 193.305 kJ/kg

Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h6)

= [3035 – 193.305] + [3060 – 2750] = 3151.7 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = η = wn / qs = 938.5 / 3151.7 = 0.2978 = 29.78 %.

(iii) Steam rate = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 938.5 = 3.836 kg/kWh.

(iv) Quality of steam entering the condenser = x6 = 0.925

95
Analysis of simple Rankine cycle:- In Fig. E4.3 cycle 1 – 2 – 3 – 4’ – 1 is the simple Rankine
cycle.

From Mollier chart : h4’ = 2195 kJ/kg ; x4’ = 0.835

(i) Pump work is same as in the Reheat cycle.

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = (h3 – h4’) = 3035 – 2195 = 840 kJ/kg.

Net work out put = wn = 840 – 1.505 = 838.5 kJ/kg

(ii) Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = (h3 – h2) = 3035 – 193.305 = 2841.7 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = η = 838.5 / 2841.7 = 0.2950 = 29.5%

(iii) Steam rate = 3600 / 838.5 = 4.293 kg/kWh.

(iv) quality of steam at condenser inlet = x4’ = 0.835

Comparison:

Cycle wn(kJ/kg) qs(kJ/kg) η (%) SSC quality of steam

(kg/kWh) at condenser
Inlet

Reheat 938.5 3151.7 29.78 3.836 0.925

Rankine 838.5 2841.7 29.50 4.293 0.835

3.5. Deviations of the actual Rankine cycle from the ideal cycle

In analysing the ideal Rankine cycle as well as the ideal reheat cycle it was assumed that (i)
there is no pressure drop during steam flow through pipes, superheater and reheater colis, in the
boiler as well as in the condenser., (ii) the expansion in the turbines and compression in the
pump are isentropic processes, and (iii) all heat transfer processes are internally reversible.
This type of cycle can never be realised in practice. The effect of losses is to distort the cycle
and to reduce the net work output and at the same time increasing the external heat input.

Because of pressure losses in the piping connecting the boiler exit and turbine inlet the
turbine inlet pressure will be less than the boiler exit pressure and this reduces the expansion
ratio for the turbine which in turn reduces the work output from the turbine.Similarly because
of losses in the piping, bends etc between the pump exit and boiler inlet the pressure at which

96
boiling takes place reduces which in turn reduces the expansion ratio and hence the work out
put from the turbine.
Because of frictional losses during expansion the actual work output
from the turbine is reduced. To account for the frictional losses during expansion a parameter
called “isentropic efficiency of turbine” is defined as follows:

Actual work of expansion

Isentropic efficiency of turbine = ηt = ---------------------------------------
Isentropic work of expansion

The effect of frictional losses during expansion is illustrated on the T-s diagram shown in
Fig.3.8. Due to friction pumping process also will not be isentropic and we define a parameter
called “Isentropic efficiency of the pump” to account for the frictional losses in the pump.This
is illustrated inFig. 4.8
With reference to the above diagram , isentropic efficiency for the turbine can be written as:
(wt)actual (h3 – h4)
ηt = ------------------- = ---------------- ……………………………….(3.9)
(wt)Isentropic (h3 – h4’)
And the isentropic efficiency of the pump is given by

(wp)Isentropic (h2’ – h1)

ηp = ------------------ = ------------ ………………………………….(3.10)
(wp)Actual (h2 – h1)

Example 3.4:- In a simple Rankine cycle, steam conditions at the boiler exit are 10 bar and
300 C. In the pipe line between the boiler exit and turbine inlet, there is an energy loss of 50
kj/kg and a drop in pressure of 0.5 bar. The steam expands in the turbine to a pressure of 0.09
bar. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.86 and that of the pump is 0.70. Determine (i)
the condition of steam entering the turbine, (ii) actual pump work per unit mass of water, (iii)
turbine work per unit mass of steam (iv) net work output and thermal efficiency of the cycle,
and (v) quality of steam entering the condenser.

Given: Boiler exit pressure = p3’ = 10 bar; boiler exit temperature = T3’ = 300 C;

q3’-3 = h3’ – h3 = 50 kJ/kg ; p3’ – p3 = 0.5 bar; p4 = 0.09 bar; ηt = 0.86; ηp = 0.70.

To find:- (i) p3 and T3 ; (ii) (wp)Actual ; (iii) (wt)Actual ; (wn)Actual and η Thermal ; (v) x4

Solution:

From Mollier chart ; h3’ = 3050 kJ/kg .

Therefore h3 = 3050 – 50 = 3000 kJ/kg and p3 = 10 – 0.5 = 9.5 bar.

From Mollier chart, T3 = 275 C (by interpolation) ; h4’ = 2220 kJ/kg

97
(i)From steam tables h1 = hf at 0.09 bar = 183.3 kJ/kg,

and v1 = vf at 0.09 bar = 0.0010094 m3/kg.

(wp)Isentropic = v1(p2 – p1) = 0.0010094 x [10 – 0.09] x 10 5 / 1000 = 1.00 kJ/kg.

(wp)Actual = (wp)Isentropic / η p = 1.00 / 0.7 = 1.4286 kJ/kg.

Hence h2 = h1 + (wp)Actual = 183.3 + 1.4286 = 184.73 kJ/kg.

(ii) Now ηt = (h3 – h4) / (h3 – h4’) or h4 = h3 – ηt (h3 − h4’)

Or h4 = 3000 – 0.86 x [3000 – 2220] = 2329.2 kJ/kg.

Therefore (wt)Actual = h3 – h4 = 3000 – 2329.2 = 670.8 kJ/kg.

Heat supply = qs = h3’ – h2 = 3050 – 184.73 = 2865.27 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηThermal = (wn)actual / qs = [670.8 – 1.4286] / 2865.27 = 0.2336

= 23.36 %.

(iii) Since h4 and p4 are known, state point ‘4’ can be located on the Mollier chart and x4 can be
read. Hence from Mollier chart x4 = 0.894.

Example 3.5: In a reheat steam cycle, the boiler exit conditions are 25 bar and 300 C. The exit
pressure of steam at the end of first stage is 5 bar. The steam is then reheated to 300 C before
expanding in the second turbine to 0.05 bar. Assuming the high and low pressure turbines to
have efficiencies of 87% and85 % respectively, find (i) the thermal energy input in the
reheater, (ii) the cycle efficiency, (iii) specific steam consumption and (iv) power output for a
mass flow rate of 2 kg/s.

Given:- Boiler exit pressure =p3 = 25 bar; boiler exit temperature = T3 = 300 C;

Reheater Pressure = p4 = p5 = 5 bar; Temperature of steam after reheating = T5 = 300 C;

Condenser pressure = p6 = 0.05 bar; Turbine efficiency for first stage = ηt1 = 0.87;

.
Turbine efficiency for second stage = ηt2 = 0.85; mass flow rate = m = 2 kg/s.
.
To find:- (i) q4-5 ; (ii) ηthermal ; (iii) SSC ; (iv) Wn

Solution: The h – s diagram for the given problem is shown below.

98
 h
Constant Temperature Line
3 5

4
4’
2
6’ 6

From Mollier chart we have: h3 = 3010 kJ/kg ; h4’ = 2680 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3060 kJ/kg ;

h6’ = 2285 kJ/kg.

(h3 – h4)
(i) Efficiency of I stage turbine = ηt1 = ------------
(h3 – h4’)

Hence h4 = h3 – ηt1 (h3 – h4’) = 3010 – 0.87 x [3010 – 2680]

= 2722.9 kJ/kg.

Also turbine work for I stage per unit mass of steam = wt1 = (h3 – h4)

Or wt1 = [ 3010 – 2722.9] = 287.1 kJ/kg

Similarly,
(h5 – h6)
Efficiency of II stage turbine = ηt2 = ------------
(h3 – h6’)

Hence h6 = h5 – ηt2 (h3 – h6’) = 3060 – 0.85 x [3010 – 2285]

= 2443.75 kJ/kg

Turbine work of II stage = wt2 = (h5 – h6’) = [3060 – 2443.75]

99
 = 616.25 kJ / kg.

Thermal energy input in the reheater per unit mass = q4-5 = (h5 – h4)

Or q4-5 = [3060 – 2722.9]

= 337.1 kJ/kg.

(ii) Total heat supplied per unit mass of steam = qs = q2-3 + q4-5

Or qs = (h3 – h2) + q4-5

Neglecting pump work, h2 = h1 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.8 kJ/kg.

Therefore qs = [3010 – 137.8] + 337.1

= 3209.3 kJ/kg.

Total turbine work per unit mass = wt = wt1 + wt2 = 287.1 + 616.25

= 903.35 kJ/kg.

Since pump work is neglected , wn = wt = 903.3 kJ/kg.

Hence thermal efficiency = ηthermal = wn / qs = 903.3 / 3209.3

= 0.2815 = 28.15 %.

(iii) Specific steam consumption = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 903.3

= 3.985 kg/ kWh.

. .
(iv) Net power output = Wn = m wn = 2 x 903.3 = 1806.6 kW.

Example 3.6:- Steam at 50 bar and 350 C expands to 12 bar in a high pressure stage, and is
dry saturated at the stage exit. This is now reheated to 280 C without any pressure drop. The
reheated steam expands in an intermediate stage and again emerges as a dry saturated steam
at a lower pressure. The steam is once again reheated to 280 C at constant pressure before it is
finally expanded in the low pressure stage to 0.05 bar.
Assuming the work output is the same for the high and intermediate stages, and the
efficiencies of the high pressure stage and low pressure stage are equal, find (i) efficiency of
the high pressure stage, (ii) pressure of steam at the exit of the intermediate stage, (iii) total
power output from the three stages for a mass flow rate of 1 kg/s, (iv) condition of the steam
entering the condenser, and (v) thermal efficiency of the cycle.

100
Solution:

(i) On the Mollier diagram, the state points 3,4,4’ and 5 can be located and the

corresponding enthalpies can be read. Therefore h3 = 3070 kJ/kg ; h4 = 2780 kJ/kg ;

h4’ = 2755 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3000 kJ/kg ; h1 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.8 kJ/kg (from steam tables)

Pump work is neglected. Hence h2 = h1

Now wt1 = h3 – h4 = 3070 – 2780 = 290 kJ/kg.

But wt1 = wt2 = h5 – h6. Hence h6 = h5 – wt1 = 3000 – 290 = 2710 kJ/kg.

Now state point 6 can be located on the Mollier chart since h6 and the steam is dry

saturated at 6. Hence from Mollier chart

p6 = 2.25 bar = p7. Since T7 = 280 C state point 7 can be located on the Mollier chart.

From Mollier chart h7 = 3020 kJ/kg ; h8’ = 2380 kJ/kg .

Efficiency of high pressure stage = η t1 = (h3 – h4) / (h3 – h4’)

= (3070 – 2780) / (3070 – 2755)

= 0.92 = 92 %.

101
Now η t1 = η t3 = (h7 – h8) / (h7 – h8’).

Hence h8 = h7 – η t3 (h7 – h8’)

= 3020 – 0.92 x (3020 – 2380)

= 2431.2 kJ/kg.

Turbine work from the low pressure stage = wt3 = h7 – h8 = 3020 – 2431.2

= 588.8 kJ/kg
. . .
(i) Total power output neglecting pump work = Wn = Wt = m (wt1 + wt2 + wt3)

.
Hence Wn = 1.0 x (290 + 290 + 588.8) = 1168.8 kW.

(iv) Since h8 and p8 are known, the state point 8 can be located on the Mollier digram and

the quality x8 corresponding to point 8 can be read.

Therefore from Mollier chart x8 = 0.9425

(v) Total heat supplied per unit mass of steam = qs = q2-3 + q 4-5 + q 6-7

Or qs = (h3 – h2) + (h5 – h4) + (h7 – h6)

= (3070 – 137.8) + (3000 – 2780) + (3020 – 2710)

= 3462.2 kJ/kg.
.
Net workoutput per unit mass of steam = wn = Wn / m = 1168.8 / 1.0

= 1168.8 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency of the cycle = η thermal = wn / qs = 1168.8 / 3462.2 = 0.3376 = 33.76 %

3.6. Regenerative Vapour Power Cycle

The thermal efficiency of a steam power plant cycle is quite low even with superheating and
reheating as compared to a Carnot power cycle between the same temperature limits. For

102
example, a steam power plant cycle with a maximum temperature of 550 C ,a boiler pressure
of 80 bar and a condenser pressure of 0.08 bar will have a thermal efficiency of about 41 % as
against an efficiency of 63 % for a Carnot power cycle working between the same temperature
limits. By employing regenerative feed water heating, the thermodynamic mean temperature at
which heat is supplied can be increased thereby increasing the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

3.6.1. Theoretical Regenerative Vapour Power cycle :- To illustrate the principle of

regenerative feed water heating, let us consider a simple Rankine cycle as shown in Fig.
3.9.During the heating process 2-2’, the subcooled liquid water at boiler pressure is brought to
the saturation temperature. Hence the mean temperature of the fluid during this process is
lower than the maximum temperature of the cycle, with the result the thermal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle will be lower than that for the Carnot cycle. If the amount of heat required for
this process is supplied internally instead of externally, then the cycle efficiency would
approach that of Carnot cycle. This process of supplying heat internally is called
regeneration.Fig.3.9 also shows the T-s diagram for a theoretical regenerative cycle. If it is
possible to expand the steam in a reversible manner so that the area under the path 3 – 3’ would
be exactly equal to the area under the path 2 – 2’, then we would have all the heat supplied
externally at T3 (T3 = T2’), and all heat rejected another constant temperature T1. Consequently,
the thermal efficiency of the ideal regenerative cycle will be equal to that of a Carnot

1-2-3-4-1 = Ideal Regenerative

2’ 3 Cycle
1-2-3-4’-1 = Rankine Cycle

2 3’

1
4 4’

s
Fig. 4.9 : Theoretical Regenerative Feed Heating Cycle

cycle working between the same temperature limits.

To carry out the ideal regenerative process, the liquid leaving the feed water pump
at state 2 is made to circulate through the coils around a regenerative turbine through which the
steam is expanding from state 3.The feed water is heated regeneratively by absorbing heat from
the expanding steam to reach saturated liquid state at 2’.The feed water then enters the boiler
where it is vapourised to become dry steam.Steam, after non-adiabatic expansion to state 3’ ,
finally expands isentropically to state 4’ before condensing in the condenser.

103
 The ideal cycle described above cannot be achieved in practice because of the
complexities involved in the construction of a regenerative turbine. Also, even if it is possible
to build a regenerative turbine, the quality of steam during the last stages of expansion will be
very poor (x4 < x4’) so that there is considerable decrease in the efficiency and life of the
turbine. Therefore, in practice, the regenerative feed water heating is achieved by bleeding a
small fraction of steam from the turbine and use this steam to heat the feed water in a feed
water heater.
3.6.2. Practical Regenerative Feed Heating Cycle : A schematic diagram of a practical
regenerative cycle employing a single feed water heater is shown in Fig. 3.10 (a). The
corresponding T – s and h – s diagrams are shown in Figures 3.10 (b) and 3.10 (c) respectively.
Superheated steam from boiler (state 3) enters the turbine and undergoes expansion process to
some intermediate pressure (p4). At this state a small fraction of steam (m kg per kg mass of
steam generated in the boiler) is bled out and made to enter a feed water heater, where it gives
out its heat to the incoming feed water from the condenser. This process is represented by line
4 – 1.The remaining steam
(1 – m) kg per kg of steam generated in the boiler undergoes expansion process 4-5 in the
turbine, condensed in the condenser (process 5-6).The condensate (feed water) pressure is
raised to the bled steam pressure (if the heater is an open type as shown in Fig. 3.10(a))by a
pump (process 6 -7) and the high pressure feed water enters the fees water heater where it
absorbs heat from the bled steam (process 7-1). Then the feed water is fed back back to the
boiler using another pump (process 1-2) . The water is then heated at constant pressure to reach
state 3 thus completing the cycle.

. Turbine
m

. 3
Qs Boiler .
WT
4
.
2 m1 5
. .

.
.
(m – m1)
P2 m 1
Wp2 m
Condenser
7
Feed Water Heater
P1 6
Fig. 3.10 (a) : Schematic of a Practical Regenerative cycle employing a
single feed water heater

Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency:

104
Turbine work per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler is given by

wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m) (h4 – h5)

Total pump work per unit mass of steam generated = wp = (h2 – h1) + (1 – m) (h7 – h6)

Net work out put per unit mass of steam generated = wn = wt - wp

Heat supplied in the boiler per unit mass of steam = qs = (h3 – h2)

Thermal efficiency is given by

wn [(h3 – h4) + (1 – m) (h4 – h5)] – [(h2 – h1) + (1 – m) (h7 – h6)]

η = ---- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
qs (h3 – h2)

………………..(3.11)

T
3

2 1 kg

m kg 4
1
7 (1 – m) kg

(1 – m) kg 5
6

Fig. 3.10 (b) : T – s diagram Fig. 3.10 (c): h – s diagram

for regenerative cycle employing a single open type feed water heater

The expression for ‘m’ in terms of enthalpies of bled steam and feed water at entry and exit of
the feed water heater can be obtained by applying the steady flow enrgy equation to the feed
water heater and neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies as follows;

Energy lost by the bled steam = energy gained by the feed water.

Hence m(h4 – h1) = (1 – m) (h1 – h7)

105
 (h1 – h7)
Or m = --------------- ……………………………...(3.12)
(h4 – h7)

3.6.3.Open Type or Direct Contact Type Feed Water Heater:

In the open or direct contact type of feed water heater, the bled steam is mixed directly with the
incoming sub-cooled feed water to produce saturated liquid water at the bled steam
pressure.The amount of bled steam is essentially equal to that which would saturate the
subcooled water entering the heater. If it were much less, it will result in a much lower feed
water temperature there by negating the advantage of feed water heating.If it were more, it
would result in unnecessary loss of turbine work and in a two-phase mixture that would be
difficult to pump.The pressure of feed water entering the heater
(p7) cannot be higher than the bled steam pressure p4 (otherwise reverse flow of feed water
would enter the turbine). A second pump is therefore needed to increase the feed water
pressure to boiler pressure before it enters the boiler.It should be noted that, since the bled
steam loses large amount of heat (roughly equal to its latent heat) while the feed water gains
sensible heat in the heater, the amount of steam bled per unit mass of steam generated in the
boiler is a small fraction.
Open type feed water heaters also act as deaerators because the breakup of water in
the mixing process liberate nondensible gases such as air, O2, H2, CO2 etc that can be vented to
the atmosphere. Therefore these heaters are also called as deaerating heaters.

3.6.4.Analysis of Regenerative Cycle with Two Open Type Feed Water Heaters:

Fig. 3.11 (a) shows a schematic diagram of a regebnerative cycle with two open type feed
water heaters. The Corresponding T – s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. 3.11(b).In order
to analyse the system shown in the Fig. 3.11(a), both a mass balance and an energy balance
must be considered. Since the mixing in each feed water heater is to take place equal to the
bled steam pressure entering the particular heater, it is necessary to use three feed water pumps
as shown. One pump to raise the water pressure from condenser pressure p7 to the bled steam
pressure p5 (p5 = p9) for the low pressure feed water heater, the second pump to raise the feed
water pressure from p9 to the bled steam pressure p4 (p4 = p1) corresponding to the high
pressure feed water heater and the third pump to raise the feed water pressure from the bled
steam pressure corresponding to the high pressure feed water heater to the boiler pressure p2. It
is assumed that the amount of steam bled out for each heater is such that the feed water comes
out as saturated liquid corresponding to the bled steam pressure for that heater.

Applying SFEE to the high pressure feed water heater and neglecting the changes in kinetic
and potential energies we have

m1(h4 – h1) = (1 – m1) (h1 – h10)

or m1 = (h1 – h10) / (h4 – h10) …………………..(3.13)

Similarly applying SFEE to the low pressure feed water heater we get

106
 m2(h5 – h9) = (1 – m1 – m2) (h9 – h8)

(1 – m1) (h9 – h8)

or m2 = ----------------------- ………………(3.14)
(h5 – h8)

1 Kg

Turbine
4 5
6
Boiler m1 Kg
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg
m2 Kg

2 12

Condenser

(1- m1 – m2) kg
1 kg (1 – m1)kg

10
1 9 8

High Pressure Feed Water

Heater

Feed water Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Pumps

Fig. 3.11(a) : Regenerative cycle with two open type feed water heaters.
.

107
 T 3

1 kg
1 kg
2
m1 kg 4
(1 – m1) kg
10 1
5
m2 kg
9
(1 – m1 – m2) kg
8
(1 – m1 – m2) kg 6
7

s
Fig. 3.11(b): T – s diagram for a Regenerative cycle
With two open type feed water heater

Knowing the enthalpies at all the sailient points of the cycle m1 and m2 can be calculated from
Eq. (4.13) and (4.14)

Now Turbine work per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler is given by

wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1)(h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2)(h5 – h6)……….(3.15)

If pump work is neglected then wn = wt, where wn is the network output per unit mass of steam
generated in the boiler.

Heat supplied per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler = qs = (h3 – h2) …….(3.16)

Thermal efficiency = η = wn / qs

108
 (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1)(h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2)(h5 – h6)
Or η = ----------------------------------------------------------------….(3.17)
(h3 – h2)

3.6.5.Regenerative Cycle withClosed-Type Feed Water Heaters With Drains Cascaded

Backward:

This type of feed water is efficient than the open type. But it is the simplest and most common
type used in power plants.This type is a shell and tube heat exchanger with feed water flowing
through the tubes and the bled steam in the shell so that heat transfer from the steam to the
water takes place across the thickness of the tubes.Since the two fluids do not mix, only one
feed water pump is sufficient to raise its pressure from the condenser pressure to the boiler
pressure.
Fig.3.12(a) shows a schematic is diagram of a regenerative cycle employing two
closed type feed water heaters and the corresponding T-s diagram is shown in Fig. 3.12(b). The
condensed steam from the high pressure feed water heater is throlled to the bled steam pressure
of the low pressure feed water heater before it mixes with the bled steam in the low pressure
heater. Similarly the condensed steam from the low pressure feed water heater is throttled to
the condenser pressure before it mixes with steam entering the condenser form the turbine.
Applying SFEE to the high pressure feed water heater we have

m1(h4 – h9) = (h2 – h1)

(h2 – h1)
or m1 = ------------- ……………………………………………(3.18)
(h4 – h9)

Where h4 = enthalpy of bled steam at pressure p4 ;

h9 = enthalpy of saturated liquid water at bled steam pressure p4 ;

h1 = enthalpy of saturated liquid water at temperature T1 ;

h2 = enthalpy of saturated liquid water at temperature T2.

Applying SFEE to the low pressure feed water heater we have

( m2 h5 + m1 h10) – (m1 + m2) h11 = (h1 – h8)

(h1 – h8) – m1(h10 – h11)

Or m2 = -------------------------------------- ………….………………...(3.19)
(h5 – h11)

Where h8 = enthalpy of condensate water leaving the pump;

109
 1 Kg

Turbine
4 5
5 6
Boiler m1 Kg
qs
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg
m2 Kg

2 12

qr
Condenser

7
1 kg (m1+m2)kg
kg 1 Kg

1 8
10
11 12
High Pressure Feed Water Feed water
Heater 9 Pump

Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Throttle Valves
Fig. 3.11(a) : Regenerative cycle with two closed type feed water heaters with
Drains cascaded backwards.

110
 T

s
Fig. 3.11(b): T – s diagram for a regenerative cycle with two closed feed water
heaters with drains cascaded backwards.

h10 = h9 (as the process 9 – 10 is a throttling process);

h11 = enthalpy of saturated liquid water at bled steam pressure p5 ;

h5 = enthalpy of bled steam pressure at p5.

Turbine work per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler is given by

wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h5 – h6) ……………..3.20

Pump work per unit mass of steam generated is given by

wp = (h8 – h7) …………………………………………………………...3.21

Heat supplied in the boiler per unit mass of steam is given by

qs = (h3 – h2) …………………………………………………………….3.22

Thermal efficiency is given by

η = (wt – wp) / qs

111
 [ (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h5 – h6) ] – (h8 – h7)
or η = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ……..3.23
(h3 – h2)

The heat rejected in the condenser can be obtained by applying SFEE to the condenser as

qr = (m1 + m2) (h12 – h7) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h6 – h7) ……………………………3.24

3.6.6. Regenerative Cycle withClosed-Type Feed Water Heaters With Drains Pumped
Forward:

In this arrangement, throttling of condensate is avoided but at the expense of added

complexity because of the inclusion of a small drain pum for each heater. It also allows some
flexibility to the designer of the plant who prefers a mix of feed water heater types that would
be most suitable.
The condensate from the feed water heater, instead of being cascaded backward, is
pumped forward into the main feed water line as shown in Fig. 3.12 (a). The corresponding T –
s diagram is shown in Fig. 3.12 (b).
Applying SFEE to the high pressure feed water heater we have

m1(h4 – h11) = (1 – m1) (h1 – h10)

(h1 – h10)
or m1 = ---------------------------- …………………….3.25
[(h4 – h11) + (h1 – h10)

Similarly application of SFEE to the low pressure feed water heater gives

m2(h5 – h13) = (1 – m1 – m2) (h9 – h8)

(1 – m1) (h9 – h8)

or m2 = -------------------------------- …………………3.26
[(h5 – h13) + (h9 – h8)]

Where h11 = enthalpy of saturated liquid water at bled steam pressure p4;

h13 = enthalpy of saturated liquid water at bled steam pressure p5.

Turbine work per unit mass of steam generated will be the same as given by Eq. (3.20).

Pump work per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler is given by

112
 1 Kg

Turbine
4 5
6 6
Boiler m1 Kg
qs
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg
m2 Kg

12
High Pressure Feed
Water Heater
qr
2 Condenser

1 Kg
1 kg 1 10
12 (1-m1)kg 9 (1-m1-m2)kg 8
14
11 13
Feed water
m1kg m2 kg Pump

Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Drain Pumps

Fig. 3.12(a) : Regenerative cycle with two closed type feed water heaters with
Drains Pumped Forward

wp = (1 – m1 – m2) (h8 – h7) + m2(h14 – h13) + m1(h12 – h11) …………………..3.27

Heat supplied per unit mass of steam generated is given by Eq.3.22. Hence the expression for
thermal efficiency will be

[ (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1) (h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h5 – h6) ]

─ [(1 – m1 – m2) (h8 – h7) + m2(h14 – h13) + m1(h12 – h11)]
η = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(h3 – h2)
…………….3.28

113
3.7 Choice of Feed Water Heaters:

The choice of feed water heater type depends on many factors including the designer
optimization and preference, practical considerations, cost and so on and one can see a variety
of design. However there are certain features which are rather common.

(i) One open type feed water heater, which also acts as de-aerator is used in fossil fuel power
plants.As on today, it is not used in water-cooled nuclear power plants because of the concern
regarding radioactivity release with de-aeration. This type of heater is usually placed near the
middle of the feed water system, where the temperature is most conducive to the release of
non-condensable gases.

(ii) The closed-type feed water heater with drains cascaded backward is the most common
type, used both before and after the deaerator.It usually has integral de-superheating and drain
cooler sections in the high pressure stages, but no de-superheating section in the very low
pressure stages because the bled steam is saturated or wet.

(iii) One closed feed water heater with drains pumped forward is often used as the lowest
pressure feed water heater to pump all accumulating drains back into the feed water line.

(iv) A closed feed water heater requires only a single pump for the main feed water stream
regardless of the number of heaters. The drip pump, if used, is relatively small. But closed
heaters are costly and may not give as high a feed water temperature as an open feed water
heater.

3.7.1.Optimum Bleeding Pressures for Feed Water Heaters (Placement of Feed Water
Heaters):

Higher the number of feed water heaters used, the higher will be the cycle efficiency. If ‘N’
heaters are used, the greatest gain in efficiency occurs wen the overall temperature rise is about
N/(N + 1) times the difference between the condensation temperature and the saturation
temperature corresponding to th boiler pressure. From this the bleeding pressure for each feed
water heater can be determined.

Thus if (Δt)fw = Temperature rise of feed water from all heaters and (Δt)overll = (tbs - tcs) and N
is the number of feed heaters then for optimum efficiency

N
(Δt)fw = --------- (Δt)overll …………………………………………..3.29
(N+1)

3.8. Reheat-Regenerative Cycle : The reheating of steam is employed when the boiler
pressure is high so that the quality of steam during last stages of expansion is quite high.The
effect of reheating the steam alone on cycle efficiency is not very significant. On the otherhand
if the reheat and the regenerative cycles are combined the overall cycle efficiency is further
improved. The reheat-regenerative cycle usually has one stage of reheating and two or three

114
stage of regenerative heating. The staem power plant has to be sufficiently large so that the
increased cost for reaheating will be compensated by the increase in cycle efficiency.
A schematic diagram of a reheat-regenerative cycle employing one stage of reheating and
twostages of renerative feed heating is shown in Fig.3.13.(a).The corresponding T-s diagram is
shown in Fig 3.13(b).The first stage regenerative heating will occur at the same pressure as the
first stage of regenerative feed heating. The extraction pressures are determined by optimizing
the overall cycle efficiency as a function of the extraction pressure.

1 Kg

Boiler 5
4 6 7
qs
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg

5 (1 – m1) kg m2 Kg

High Pressure Feed

Water Heater
qc
2 m1 Kg Condenser
(1-m1-m2)kg
8
4
1 Kg
1 kg (1-m1)kg
1 9
10
Feed water
Pumps

High Pressure Feed water Heater Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Fig.3.13(a): Schematic Diagram for a reheat-regenerative cycle

The turbine per unit of steam generated in the boiler is given by

wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1)(h5 – h6) + (1 – m1 – m2)(h6 – h7)…………………………..(3.30)

Total heat supplied per unit of steam generated in the boiler is given by

115
 qs = (h3 – h2) + (1 – m1)(h5 – h4)………………………………………………….(3.31)

Neglecting pump work, Cycle efficiency is given

wt (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1)(h5 – h6) + (1 – m1 – m2)(h6 – h7)

ηcycle = ------ = ----------------------------------------------------------------- ………………(3.32)
qs (h3 – h2) + (1 – m1)(h5 – h4)

Expressions for m1 and m2 in terms of enthalpies at inlet and exit of the two heaters can be
obtained by applyinf the steady-state steady-flow energy equation first to the high presuure
heater and then to the low pressure feed water heater as shown below.
For the high pressure heater the steady-state steady-flow energy equation gives

m1h4 + (1- m1) h1 = h2

(h2 – h1)
or m1 = ------------- (3.33)
(h4 – h1)

Similarly for the low pressure feed heater the steady-state steady-flow energy equation gives

m2 h6 + (1 – m1 – m2) h9 = (1 – m1) h10

(1 – m1) (h10 – h9)

Or m2 = --------------------------- ………………………..(3.40)
(h6 – h9)

Example 3.7:- Consider a steam power plant operating on a regenerative cycle under ideal
conditions and with one open type feed water heater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and
600 C and the condenser pressure is 10 kPa. If steam is bled at 1.2 MPa to heat the feed
water in the heater determine (i) fraction of steam bled out from the turbine to heat the feed
water and (ii) the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Draw a schematic diagram of the plant and
represent the cyle on a T-s diagram.

Solution: The schematic diagram and the corresponding T-s diagram are shown in Fig.
E3.7(a) and E3.7(b) respectively.

116
 Turbine
1 kg

. 3
Qs Boiler .
WT
4
2 m 5

. (1– m)
P2 1 kg 1
Wp2 kg
m Condenser
7
Feed Water Heater
P1 6
Fig. E3.7(a) : Schematic of a Practical Regenerative cycle employing a
single feed water heater

Given: p3 = 15 MPa ; T3 = 600 C; p4 = 1.2 MPa; p5 = 10 kPa; Pumping process and the
expansion process in the turbine are isentropic; T1 = Tsat at 1.2 MPa.

To find (i) m ; (ii) ηcycle.

From Mollier chart h3 = 3585 kJ/kg ; h4 = 2860 kJ/kg ; h5 = 2115 kJ/kg;

From steam tables: h1 = hf at 1.2 MPa = 798.65 kJ/kg ; h6 = hf at 10 kPa = 191.83 kJ/kg.

Pump work is neglected. Hence h7 = h6 and h2 = h1

(i) Applying steady – flow steady-state energy equation to the open fedd water heater and
neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies we have

Energy lost by the bled steam = energy gained by the feed water.

Hence m(h4 – h1) = (1 – m) (h1 – h7)

(h1 – h7) [798.65 ─ 191.83]

Or m = -------------- = ------------------------- = 0.2274 kg of steam bled / kg of steam generated
(h4 – h7) [2860 ─ 191.83]

117
 T
3

2 1 kg

m kg 4
1
7 (1 – m) kg

(1 – m) kg 5
6

Fig. E3.7 (b) : T – s diagram

for regenerative cycle employing a single open type feed water heater

(ii) Net workoutput per kg of steam generated = wn = wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m)(h4 – h5)

Or wn = (3585 – 2860) + (1 – 0.2274) x (2860 – 2115) = 1300.6 kJ/kg

Heat supplied per kg of steam generated =qs = (h3 – h2) = (3585 – 798.65) = 2786.35

Thermal efficiency of the cycle = ηcycle = wn / qs = 1300.6 / 2786.5 = 0.4668 = 46.68 %

Example 3.8:- In a steam power plant the condition of steam at inlet to the turbine is 20 bar
and 300 C and the condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Two feed water heaters which are of direct
contact type (open type) operate at optimum temperatures. Determine (i) quality of steam at
turbine exhaust, (ii)fraction of steam bled out for each feed water heater, (iii)the steam rate
and (iv) plant efficiency. Sketch the cycle on T-s diagram.

Solution: The schematic diagram for the given cycle is shown in Fig.E 3.8(a) and the T-s
diagram is shown in Fig.E 3.8(b)

118
 1 Kg

Turbine
5 5
6
Boiler m1 Kg
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg
m2 Kg

2 12

Condenser

(1- m1 – m2) kg
1 kg (1 – m1)kg

10
1 9 8

High Pressure Feed Water

Heater

Feed water Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Pumps

Fig. E3.8(a) : Schematic for example E3.8

.
(ΔT)overall = Tb – Tc ;

Tb = Saturation temperature corresponding to boiler pressure,20 bar = 212.42 C(from tables).

Tc = Saturation temperature corresponding to condenser pressure,0.1 bar = 45.81C(from tables)

Hence (ΔT)overall = 212.42 – 45.81 = 166.6 C.

1 1
Therefore temperature rise per heater = (ΔT)fw1 = ------- (ΔT)overall = --------- x 166.6 = 55.5 C
(N+1) (2+1)

Temperature of feed water at the exit of high pressure heater = T1 = Tb - (ΔT)fw1

= 212.42 – 55.5 = 156.9 C.

Hence p1 = p4 = psat at 156.9 C = 5.73 bar.

119
 T 3

1 kg
1 kg
2
m1 kg 4
(1 – m1) kg
10 1
5
m2 kg
9
(1 – m1 – m2) kg
8
(1 – m1 – m2) kg 6
7

s
Fig. E3.8(b): T – s diagram for example E3.8

Similarly temperature of water at the exit of low pressure heater = T9 = T1 - (ΔT)fw1

= 156.9 – 55.5 = 101.4C.

Hence p9 = p5 = psat at 101.4 C = 1.07 bar.

From Mollier chart we have: h3 = 3025 kJ/kg ; h4 = 2715 kJ/kg ; h5 = 2455 kJ/kg ;

h6 = 2145 kJ/kg.

From steam tables h7 = hf at 0.1 bar = 191.83 kJ/kg ; h9 = hf at 1.07 bar = 424.9 kJ/kg ;
h1 = hf at 5.73 bar = 662.5 kJ/kg

Neglecting pump work we have h8 = h7 ; h10 = h9 ; h2 = h1.

Applying steady-state steady-flow energy equation to the high pressure heater we have

120
 m1(h4 – h1) = (1 – m1) (h1 – h10)

(662.5 – 424.9)
or m1 = (h1 – h10) / (h4 – h10) = --------------------- = 0.104 kg / kg of steam generated
(2715 – 424.9)

Applying steady-state steady-flow energy equation to the high pressure heater we have

m2(h5 – h9) = (1 – m1 – m2) (h9 – h8)

(1 – m1) (h9 – h8) (1 – 0.104) x (424.9 – 191.83)

or m2 = --------------------- = --------------------------------------- = 0.0923 kg / kg of steam gen.
(h5 – h8) (2455 – 191.83)

Turbine work per unit mass of steam generated is given by

wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1)(h4 – h5) + (1 – m1 – m2)(h5 – h6)

= (3025 – 2715) + (1 – 0.104) x (2715 – 2455) + (1 – 0.104 – 0.0923) x (2455 – 2145)

= 792.11 kJ/kg = wn as pump work is neglected

Heat supplied per unit mass of steam generated is given by

qs = (h3 – h2) = (3025 – 662.5) = 2362.5 kJ/kg

792.11
Cycle efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = -------------- = 0.335 = 33.5%
2362.5

Steam rate = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 792.11 = 4.545 kg/kWh

Example 3.9:- Consider a steam power plane that operates on an ideal reheat-regenerative
cycle with two open type feed water heaters, and one reheater.Steam eneters the turbine at 15
MPa and 600 C and the condenser pressure is 10 kPa.Some steam is extracted at 4 MPa for
the high pressure feed water heater and the remaining steam is reheated in a reheater at the
same pressure to 600 C.The feed water comes out of the high pressure heater as a saturated
liquid corresponding to the bled steam pressure.Steam for the low pressure open feed water is
extracted from the low pressure turbine at 0.5 MPa . Determine the mass of steam bled out for
each feed water heater per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler and the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.Draw a schematic diagram of the plant and the corresponding T-s
diagram

121
Solution: The schematic diagram and the T-s diagram for the cycle are shown in Fig E3.9(a)
and E3.9(b) respectively.

1 Kg

Boiler 5
4 6 7
qs
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg

5 (1 – m1) kg m2 Kg

High Pressure Feed

Water Heater
qc
2 m1 Kg Condenser
(1-m1-m2)kg
1 kg
8
4
1 Kg

1 (1-m1)kg
11 9
10
Feed water Pumps
Feed water
Pumps

High Pressure Feed water Heater Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Fig.E3.9(a): Schematic Diagram for the Plant of Example 3.9

From Mollier chart we have: h3 = 3585 kJ/kg; h4 = 3155 kJ/kg ; h5 = 3675 kJ/kg ;
h6 = 3015 kJ/kg ; h7 = 2335 kJ/kg ;

From steam tables :h8 = hf at 10 kPa = 191.83 kJ/kg ; h10 = hf at 0.5 MPa = 640 kJ/kg ;
h1= hf at 4 MPa = 1090 kJ/kg ;
Neglecting pump work we have h9 = h8; h11 = h10 and h2 = h1
Energy balance for the closed feed water gives, m1h4 + (1 – m1)h11 = h1.

(h1 – h11) (h1 – h10) (1090 ─ 640 )

Solving for m1 we get m1 = -------------- = -------------- = ----------------------
(h4 – h11) (h4 – h10) (3155 – 640)

122
 T
3 5

1 kg (1 – m1) kg
1 kg
2
6
m1 kg
4
11 1 4
(1 – m1 – m2) kg
m2 kg
7
10
9
(1 – m1 – m2) kg
6
8

s
Fig. E3.9(b): T – s diagram for example E3.9

= 0.179 kg / kg of steam generated

Energy balance for the low pressure feed water gives m2h6 + (1 – m1 ─ m2 )h9 = (1 – m1) h10.

(1 – m1)( h10 – h9) (1 – 0.179) x (640 – 191.83)

Or m2 = ------------------------ = ------------------------------------
(h6 – h9) (3015 – 191.83)

= 0.130 kg / kg of steam generated

Total turbine work per unit mass of steam generated = wt = wt1 + wt2

123
Or wt = (h3 – h4) + (1 – m1)(h5 – h6) + (1 – m1 ─ m2 )(h6 – h7)

= (3585 – 3155) + (1 – 0.179) x (3675 – 3015) + (1 – 0.179 – 0.130) x (3015 – 2335)

= 1441.7 kJ/kg .

Neglecting pump work, wn = wt.

Heat supplied per kg of steam generated is given by

qs = (h3 – h2) + (1 – m1)(h5 – h4) = (3585 – 1090) + (1 – 0.179) x (3675 – 3155)

= 2922 kJ/kg

Cycle efficiency = ηcycle = 1441.7 / 2922 = 0.4933 = 49.33 %.

Example 3.10:- Steam is supplied at 70 bar and 450 C to a turbine with three stages and the
condenser pressure is 0.05 bar. After expansion to 6.5 bar in the first stage, a part of the steam
is bled for feed-water heating in a closed type feed water heater.The rest of the steam is
reheated to 450 C, before admitting to the second stage. After expansion to 0.56 bar in this
stage, some more steam is bled out for feed water heating in a second heater which is also a
closed type.The rest of the steam is expanded in the third stage. The efficienciec of the first,
second and third stage turbine are 0.89, 0.87 and 0.85 respectively.Assuming that at each
heater the feed water is heated to its saturation temperature corresponding to the bled steam
pressure and the bled steam which condenses in the high pressure heater is cascaded back to
thelow pressure heater and the bled steam which condenses in the low pressure heater is
cascaded back to the condenser.Determine (i) total turbine work per kg of steam generated in
the boiler, (ii)the overall cycle efficiency and the specific steam consumption. Draw the
schematic and T-s diagrams for the plantNeglect pump work.

Solution: The T-s diagram and the schematic for the plant are shown in Fig. E3.10(a) and
Fig.E3.10(b) respectively.
From Mollier chart we have

h3 = 3290 kJ/kg ; h4’ = ; h5 = ; h6’ = ;

Now ηt1 = (h3 – h4) / (h3 – h4’). Or h4 = h3 – ηt1(h3 – h4’).

Hence h4 = 3290 – 0.89 x

124
T

Fig. E3.10(a) T-s diagram for Example E3.10

125
 1 Kg

Reheating Coils

T1 T2 T3
5
Boiler 6 7
qs 4 4
(1 – m1 – m2)Kg
(1 – m1) kg m1 Kg
m2 Kg

2
4 Condenser

qr
m1kg 8
(m1+m2)kg
m1kg
kg
1 kg
1 Kg

1 9
11
12 13
High Pressure Feed Water Feed water
Heater 10 Pump

Low Pressure Feed Water Heater

Throttle Valves

Fig. 3.11(a) : Schematic for the plant of Example E3.10

3.9. Charecteristics of an Ideal Working Fluid in Vapour Power Cycles

The properties of a fluid ideally suited for use in a Rankine cycle are as follows:
(i) Since pressure below atmospheric pressure results in leakage of air into the condenser, it
is preferable to have a fluid whose saturation pressure corresponding to ambient temperature
should be above atmospheric pressure.
(ii) The critical temperature of the fluid should be about 100-150 C above the metallurgical
limit. In addition the critical pressure should be much higher than the saturation pressure
corresponding to the metallurgical limit.
(iii) The specific heats of the liquid and vapour should be as low as possible. A low specific
heat ensures that the liquid saturation line approximates an isentropic, while a low vapour
specific heat ensures that the quality of the vapour after expansion remains high. Then the
Rankine cycle approximates a Carnot cycle closely and has a high efficiency.
(iv) The triple-point should be well below possible ambient temperature.
(v) The fluid should have a high enthalpy of vapourization, a high thermal conductivity and
a low viscosity.

126
 (vi) It should be non-toxic, non-corrosive, cheap and easily available.

3.10. Binary Vapour Cycle:

There is not a single fluid which satisfies all the characteristics of an ideal working fluid for
the Rankine cycle.Hence attempts have been made to use two fluids and the fluids which have
been successfully used so far are water and mercury. Water is highly stable,non-corrosive if
proper materials are used, non-toxic, cheap and readily available.These properties have made
the fluid to be used everywhere,though it does not satisfy any of the thermodynamic
requirements for high cycle efficiency.Though highly toxic and expensive, mercury satisfies
most of the thermodynamic requirements laid down above except that its vapour pressure at
ambient temperatures is extremely low and its specific volume is extremely high.It is therefore
impossible to use mercury alone in a vapour cycle with temperatures ranging from
metallurgical limits to the ambient values. A binary-vapour cycle of mercury for the high
temperature region and water for the low temperature region has been tried and used
successfully.
A schematic diagram of a binary vapour cycle is shown in Fig.3.14(a) and the T-s
diagram is shown in Fig.3.14(b).The mercury cycle,a – b – c – d – a is a simple Rankine cycle
with mercury entering the mercury turbine as a dry saturated vapour.Heat is supplied to
mercury in the mercury boiler by an external source. This is represented by process b – c.Dry
saturated mercury expands in the mercury turbine (process c – d) and is then pumped (process
a-b) to the mercury boiler to complete the cycle.

The heat rejected by mercury in mercury condenser cum steam boiler is

absoebed by the feed water and water is heated in this device at constant pressure till it
becomes saturated steam Process 2-3). Dy satururated steam is then expanded in the steam
turbine (process 3 -4), condensed in steam condenser (process 4-1). The condensate is then
pumped (process 1 – 2) to mercury condenser cum steam boiler to complete the cycle.

Expression for Cycle Efficiency:

Let mw = mass flow rate of water in the steam cycle;

mhg = mass flow rate of mercury in the mercury cycle.

Applying steady-stae, steady-flow energy equation to the mercury condenser cum steam boiler
and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies we have

mw(h3 – h2) = mhg(hd – ha)

or mhg / mw = (h3 – h2) / (hd – ha) kg of Hg per kg of water…………(3.41)

(To vapourise one kg of water, seven to eight kg of mercury must condensate)
External heat supply is in the mercury boiler and is given by

(Qs)hg = mhg(hc – hb) ………………………………………………(3.42)

127
 mhg Mercury Turbine

Mercury Boiler (WT) hg

(Qs) hg
Mercury Pump
d

b Mercury condenser cum Steam Boiler

2 3 Steam Turbine

(WT)w
mw

4 Steam Condensor
Feed Water Pump

1
Fig. 3.14(a) Schematic For Mercury – Water Binary Cycle

T T

s s
Fig. 3.14(b): T – s diagrams for Mercury-Water Binary Cycle

128
Total turbine work = Wt = (Wt)hg + (Wt)w = mhg(hc – hd) + mw(h3 – h4)………………(3.43)

Total pump work = Wp = (Wp)hg + (Wp)w = mhg(hb – ha) + mw(h2 – h1)………………(3.44)

Net work out put = Wn = Wt – Wp

Or Wn = [mhg(hc – hd) + mw(h3 – h4)] – [mhg(hb – ha) + mw(h2 – h1)]

= mw [{(mhg/mw)(hc – hd) – (hb – ha)} + {(h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)}]…………….....(3.45)

Cycle efficiency = ηcycle = Wn / (Qs)hg

mw [{(mhg/mw)(hc – hd) – (hb – ha)} + {(h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)}]

= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
mhg(hc – hb).
Substituting for (mhg/mw), we get

[{{(h3 – h2) / (hd – ha)} (hc – hd) – (hb – ha)} + {(h3 – h4) – (h2 – h1)}]
ηcycle = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ….(3.46)
[(h3 – h2) / (hd – ha) ](hc – hb).

The mercury-steam cycle has been in commercial use for more than three decades. One such
plant is in USA. But it has not been accepted widely because mercury is expensive,limited in
supply and highly toxic.

3.11. Thermodynamics of Coupled Cycles:

If two cycles are coupled in series where in the heat lost by one working fluid is absorbed by
the other working fluid as in the case of Mercury-Water binary cycle, it can be shown that the
efficiency of the two cycles coupled in series is equal to the sum of the efficiencies of the
individual cycles minus the product of their efficiencies.Fig. 3.15 shows a schematic of two
cycles coupled in series.

If η1 and η2 are the cycle efficiencies of the topping cycle and bottom cycle respectively then
η1 = 1 – (Q2 / Q1) and η1 = 1 – (Q2 / Q1)

Or Q2 = Q1(1 - η1) and Q3 = Q2(1 – η2)

If η is the efficieciency of the coupled cycle then

Q3 Q2(1 – η2)
η = 1 ─ --------- = ----------------
Q1 Q1

129
 m1

WT1
Q1
Topping Cycle

Q2

m2

WT2

Bottom cycle

Q3

Fig. 3.14(a) Schematic For Mercury – Water Binary Cycle

Q1(1 - η1) (1 – η2)

= 1 ─ --------------------------. Or η = 1 ─ (1 - η1) (1 – η2) = (η1 + η2) ─ η1 η2
Q1

If n cycles are coupled in series it follows that the efficieciency of the

coupled cycle is given by
η = 1 ─ (1 - η1) (1 – η2) (1 – η3) (1 – η2)

n
η = 1 ─ П(1 – ηi)
i=1

130
3.12. Cogeneration Plant:

In all the cycles discussed so far, the sole purpose was to onvert a portion of the heat
transferred to the working fluid to work, which is most valuable form of energy. The remaining
portion of the heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, oceans or atmosphere as waste heat, because its
quality (or grade) is too low to be of any practical use. Wasting a large amount of heat is the
price that has to be paid to produce work, because electrical or mechanical work is the only
form of energy on which many engineering devices can operate.
In many industries like paper mills, sugar industries, textile mills,chemical
industries,etc. require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat.Process heat in
these industries is usually supplied by saturated steam at 5 to 7 atm pressure at the desired
temperature(150 0C to 200 0C) for heating, drying etc. For constant temperature
heating(drying), steam is a good medium because isothermal condition can be maintained by
allowing saturated steam to condense at that temperature and utilizing the latent heat of steam
released for heating purposes. Apart from the process heat the industry also requires power to
drive various machines. Formerly the practice was to generate steam at moderate pressure for
producing power and to generate steam at the required temperature separately for process
heating.This practice of having two separate units to generate steam for two different purposes
was waste ful as a large part of the total heat supplied to generate staem for power purposes
will normally carried away by cooling water in the condenser.

The above disadvantage can be overcome by having a single plant which not
only produces power but also gives out the process steam at the required temperature. Such a
plant is called as a “cogeneration plant”.A schematic diagram of a cogeneration plant
operating on a simple Rankine ccycle is shown in Fig.3.15(a).The exhaust steam from the
turbine

wt Back Pressure Turbine

3 Generator

qs B
P: Feed water pump; B: Boiler; 4 Process Heater

qph
2
wp P 1

Fig.3.15(a): Schematic diagram of a Cogeneration Plant

131
is utilized for process heating , the process heater replacing the condenser of a conventional
Rankine cycle. The pressure at the exhaust from the turbine is the saturation pressure
cooresponding to the temperature desired in the process heater. Such a turbine is called a “back
pressure turbine”.When the process steam is the basic need and the power produced by the
turbine is incidental aa a by-product, the cycle is sometimes refered to as a “by-product power
cycle”. The T-s diagram for this cycle is shown in Fig. 3.15(b)

If qs = Total heat supplied in the boiler per kg of steam generated,

2
Area = qs

1 4
Area = qph

s
Fig. 3.15(b) : T-s diagram for a Cogeneration Plant

wt = Turbine work per kg of steam generated = (h3 – h4)

qph = Process heat required per kg of steam generated = (h4 – h1)

ms = mass of steam generated in kg/h, then

Total power developed neglecting pump work is Wt = ms wt = ms (h3 – h4) kJ/h

Process heat per hour = Qph = ms qh = ms(h4 – h1) kJ/h

Heat supplied per kg of steam generated = qs = (h3 – h2)

Heat supplied per hour = Qs = msqs = ms (h3 – h2) kJ/h

Neglecting pump work, network output = Wn = Wt

Fraction of energy utilized in the form of work output and process heat is given by

132
 (Wn + Qph) ms (h3 – h4) + ms(h4 – h1) (h3 – h1)
--------------- = ------------------------------ = -------------
Qs ms (h3 – h2) (h3 – h2)

In many cases the power available from the back pressure turbine is not sufficient to
drive all the machines in an industry. This may be due to relatively high back pressure or small
heating requirement. Under such circumstances Pass-out Turbines are employed, where a
certain quantiy of steam is continuously bled out at the required pressure and used for process
heating.

3.13. Efficiencies of Steam Power Plant:

In order to account for various losses a number of efficiency terms are defined. They are (i)
Internal efficiency of the turbine, (ii)mechanical efficiency, (iii) brake efficiency, (iv) generator
efficiency, (v) overall efficiency of the plant and (vi) boiler efficiency.

Internal efficiency: This is nothing but the isentropic efficiency of the turbine which has all
ready been defined. This efficiency takes into account the the internal frictional losses in the
flow passages of the turbine.Hence we have

Internal output Wn ms(h3 – h4)

ηinternal = ηt = ---------------------- = ----------------- = ------------------
Isentropic output (Wn)Isentropic ms (h3 – h4’)

Mechanical efficiency: This efficiency is defined to account for external losses in the
bearings.The work output available at the turbine shaft also called as brake output [(Wn)brake]
is less than the internal output due to these losses. Hence
(Wn)brake (Wn)brake
Mechanical efficiency = ηmech = ----------------- = ----------------
Wn ms(h3 – h4)

Brake Efficiency of the Turbine: This efficiency is defined to account for both internal and
external losses. This is defined as th ratio of

(Wn)brake (Wn)brake
Brake efficiency = ηbrake = ------------------- = -----------------
(Wn)Isentropic ms (h3 – h4’)

It follows from the definitions of the above efficiencies that ηbrake = ηinternal x ηmech

Generator Efficiency: This efficiency accounts for losses in the generator and is defined as :

Wgenerator
Generator efficiency = ηgenerator = -----------------
(Wn)brake

133
Boiler Efficiency: In the boiler all the energy available in the fuel used to generate steam will
not be transferred to water to convert it into steam due to heat carried away by the products of
combustion, and other losses. Boiler efficiency takes into account all these losses and is
defined as follows:
Qs Qs
ηboiler = ----------------------------------- = ------------------
Energy available in the fuel mf x CV

where mf = mass of fuel consumed per unit time in the boiler and

CV = Calorific value of the fuel used

Overall Efficiency of the Plant: This is defoned as the ratio of the output of the generaor to the
energy supplied by the fuel in the boiler;i.e.,

Wgenerator ηgenerator x ηinternal x ηmech x ms (h3 – h4’)

Overall efficiency = ηoverall = -------------------- = -----------------------------------------------
mf x CV mf x CV

ηgenerator x ηinternal x ηmech x ηboiler x ms (h3 – h4’)

= ----------------------------------------------------------
Qs

But ms(h3 – h4’) / Qs = ηcycle.

Hence ηoverall = ηgenerator x ηinternal x ηmech x ηboiler x ηcycle.

.
Example 3.11:- In a binary vapour cycle using mercury and steam,saturated mercury vapour
at 4.5 bar enters the mercury turbine and leaves at 0.04 bar.The mercury condenser generates
saturated steam at 15 bar which is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.04 bar.(i) Find the overall
efficiency of the cycle. (ii) If 50,000 kg/h of steam flows through the steam turbine, determine
the mercury mass flow rate. (iii) Assuming that all processes are reversible, determine the
useful work done in the binary cycle for the specified steam flow. The properties of mercury
are as given below.

p(bar) T( 0C) hf hg sf sg vf vg
kJ/kg kJ/(kg-K) m3/kg

4.5 450 62.93 355.98 0.1352 0.5397 79.9x10 -6 0.068

0.04 216.9 29.98 329.85 0.0808 0.6925 76.5x10 -6 5.178

134
Solution: The T-s diagrams for the mercury cycle and the steam cycle are shown separately in
Fig. E3.11.

T
T
Mercury Cycle Steam Cycle

s s

Fig. E3.11 : T-s diagrams for Example 3.11

(i) For the mercury cycle, hc = hg at 4.5 bar = 355.98 kJ/kg ;

sc = sg at 4.5 bar = 0.5397 kJ/(kg-K).

Since process c – d is isentropic, sd = s c. hence sf + xd(sg – sf) = sc.

(sc – sf) (0.5397 – 0.0808)

Or xd = ----------------- = ----------------------- = 0.75
(sg – sf) (0.6925 – 0.0808)

Hence hd = hf + xd(hg – hf) = 29.98 + 0.75 x (329.85 – 29.98) = 254.88 kJ/kg.

(wp)Hg = vf(pb – pa) = 76.5 x 10 -6 x (4.5 – 0.04) x 10 5 = 34.1 J/kg = 0.0341 kJ/kg

Therefore hb = ha + (wp)Hg = hf + (wp)Hg = 29.98 + 0.0341 = 30.01 kJ/kg.

(wt)Hg = (hc – hd) = 355.98 – 254.88 = 101.1 kJ/kg.

(wn)Hg = (wt)Hg - (wp)Hg = 101.1 – 0.0341 = 101.07 kJ/kg of Hg.

Heat supplied to the cycle = qs = (hc – hb) = 355.98 – 30.01 = 325.97 kJ / kg of Hg

135
For the steam cycle from Mollier chart, h3 = 2790 kJ/kg. h4 = 1940 kJ/kg

From steam tables, h1 = hf at 0.04 bar = 121.46 kJ/kg. v1 = vf at 0.04 bar = 0.001252 m3/kg

Feed water pump work = (wp)w = v1(p2 – p1) = 0.001252 x (15 – 0.04) x 10 5/ 1000

= 1.5 kJ/kg
Therefore h2 = h1 + (wp)w = 121.46 + 1.5 = 122.96 kJ/kg.

Staem turbine work = (wt)w = h3 – h4 = 2790 – 1940 = 850 kJ/kg of steam.

Net workout put from steam cycle = (wn)w = (wt)w – (wp)w = 850 – 1.5 = 848.5 kJ/kg of staem

Mass of mercury per unit mass of steam is given by [Eq. 3.41]

(2790 – 122.96)
mHg / mw = (h3 – h2) / (hd – ha) = ---------------------- = 11.86 kg of Hg / kg of steam
(254.88 – 29.98)

Wn mHg (wn )Hg + mw (wn)w (mHg / mw) (wn )Hg + (wn)w

Cycle efficiency = ηcycle = ---------- = ---------------------------- = ----------------------------------
Qs mHg qs (mHg / mw) qs

11.86 x 101.07 + 848.5

= ------------------------------ = 0.5295 = 52.95 %
11.86 x 325.97

(ii) mercury mass flow rate = mHg = 50,000 x 11.86 = 59.3 x 10 4 kg / h.

(iii) Ne tworkout put in kW = Wn = (59.3 x 10 4 x 101.07 + 5 x 10 4 x 848.5 ) / 3600 kW

= 2.84 x 10 4 kW = 28.4 MW.

Example 3.12:- In a cogeneration plant, the power load is 5.6 MW and the heating load is
1.163 MW. Steam is generated at 40 bar and 500 C and is expanded isentropically through a
turbine to a condenser pressure of 0.06 bar. The heating load is supplied by extracting steam
from the turbine at 2 bar which is condensed in the process heater to saturated liquid water at
2 bar and then pumped back to the boiler. Calculate (i) the steam generation capacity of the
boiler in tones/h, (ii) the heat input to the boiler in MW, and (ii) the heat rejected to the
condenser in MW. Dram a schematic of the plant.

Solution: The problem is solved using steam tables only.

The schematic and the T-s diagrams are shown in Fig. E3.12(a) and Fig.3.12(b) respectively.

136
From steam tables : h3 = h at 40 bar and 500 C = 3445.2 kJ/kg ; s3 = 7.09 kJ/(kg-K) ;

s4 = s3 = 7.09 kJ/(kg-K) . At p4 (= 2 bar), sg = 7.1271 kJ/(kg-K).

Since s4 < sg at p4, steam is wet at state 4. Hence s4 = sf + x4sfg, where x4 is the dryness fraction
at state 4.
Turbine
m kg/h

3
qs Boiler
wT
4
2 Mixing Chamber mp kg/h 5
m kg/h
(m– mp)
1
Condenser

Process Heater
7 8
6

Fig. E3.12(a) : Schematic for example E3.12

T
3

1 kg
1
2
7 m kg 4
8
(1 – m) kg

(1 – m) kg 5
6

Fig. E3.7 (b) : T – s diagram for example 3.12

137
 [7.09 – 1.53]
Therefore x4 = (s4 – sf) / sfg = ----------------- = 0.993.
5.5970

h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 504.68 + 0.993 x 2202 = 2691.3.

[7.09 – 0.5163]
Similarly x5 = (s5 – sf) / sfg = ---------------------- = 0.84
7.8213

h5 = hf + x5 hfg = 150.18 + 0.84 x 2416.6 = 2180 kJ/kg.

Neglecting pump work, h7 = h6 = 151.8 kJ/kg and h1 = h8 = 504.68 kJ/kg.

(i)
Qp 1.163 x 103 x 3600
Heating Load = Qp = mp(h4 – h8) or mp = ---------------- = ------------------------- = 1910 kg/h
(h4 – h8) (2691.3 – 504.68)

Net workput = Wn = Wt = m(h3 – h4) + (m – mp)(h4 – h5) = m(h3 – h5) – mp(h4 – h5)

Where m = steam generated in the boiler in kg/h

Wn + mp(h4 – h5) 5.6 x 103 x 3600 + 1910 x (2691.3 – 2180)

Hence m = --------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------
(h3 – h5) (3445.2 – 2180)

= 16706 kg/h = 16.706 t/h.

Applyinf steady-state, steady-flow energy equation to the mixing chamber and assuming the
mixing process to be adiabatic we have

mp h1 + (m – mp )h7 = mh2

mp h1 + (m – mp )h7 1910 x 504.68 + (16706 – 1910) x 151.8)

or h2 = ------------------------- = ------------------------------------------------------ = 192.14 kJ/kg.
m 16706

(ii)Heat input in the boier = Qs = m(h3 – h2)

16706 x (3445.2 – 192.14)

= ------------------------------------ x 10 – 3 = 15.1 MW
3600
(iii) Heat rejected to the condenser = Qcond = (m – mp)(h5 – h6)

138
 = (16706 – 1910)x(2180 – 150.18) x10 -3 /3600 = 8.3425 MW
3.14. Exercise Poblems:

3.1. In a reheat cycle, the initial steam pressure and the maximum temperature are 150 bar and
550 0C respectively. If the condenser pressure is 0.1 bar and the moisture at condenser inlet is 5
%, and assuming ideal processes, determine (i) the reheat pressure, (ii) cycle efficiency, and
(iii) the steam rate.

3.2.In a reheat cycle, steam at 500 0C expands in a H.P.turbine till it is saturated vapour. It is
reheated at constant pressure to 400 0C and then expands in a L.P.turbine to 40 0C. If the
maximum moisture content at the turbine exhaust is limited to 15 %,find (i) the reheat pressure,
(ii) the pressure of steam at inlet to the H.P.turbine, (iii) net specific work output, (iv) cycle
efficiency, and (v) the steam rate. Assume all ideal processes.

3.3. A regenerative cycle operates with steam supplied at 30 bar and 300 0C and the condenser
pressure is 0.08 bar. The extraction points for two feed water heaters (one closed and one open)
are at 3.5 bar and 0.7 bar respectively. Find thw thermal efficiency of the cycle neglecting
pump work.

3.4.The net power output of the turbine in an ideal reheat-regenerative cycle is 100 MW.
Steam enters the HP turbine at 90 bar and 550 0C. After expansion to 7 bar, some of the steam
enters an open type feed water heater and the balance is reheated to 400 0C, after which it is
expanded in the LP turbine to 0.07 bar. (i) What is the steam flow rate at inlet to the HP
turbine?(ii) Find the cycle efficiency. (iii) If the temperature rise of cooling water circulated in
the condenser is 10 0C, what is the mass flow rate of cooling water required in the condenser.

3.5 In a modern high-pressure steam power plant, steam is admitted to a HP turbine at 100 bar
and 450 0C. At the HP turbine exit , where the steam at 10 bar is just dry-saturated, a portion of
it is drawn off for feed water heating and the rest is reheated to 500 0C.This steam now expands
in a LP turbine to 0.01 bar and steam comes out of this turbine as dry-saturated and then
eneters the comdenser.Assuming that the feed water comes out of the heater as a saturated
liquid corresponding to the bled steam pressure, determine (i)mass of bled steam per unit mass
of steam generated in the boiler, (ii) the turbine efficiencies, (iii) power output from the plant
for 50,000 kg/h of steam generated in the boiler, (iv) plant thermal efficiency and (v) specific
steam consumption in kg/kWh.
3.6.In a mercury-steam binary cycle mercury enters the mercury turbine as saturated vapour at
10 bar.Mercury enters ths mercury condenser cum steam boiler at 0.2 barThe steam emerging
from the mercury condenser cum steam boiler is at 40 bar and 400 0C. The steam condenses in
the steam condenser at 40 0C. Calculate (i) mass of mercury required per uunit mass of steam
generated and (ii) cycle efficiency. Assume the following properties for mercury.
p(bar) T( 0C) hf hg sf sg vf vg
kJ/kg kJ/(kg-K) m3/kg

10.0 515.5 72.23 363.0 0.1478 0.5167 80.9x10 -6 0.0333

139
0.20 277.3 38.35 336.55 0.0967 0.6385 77.4x10 -6 1.163

3.7. In an electric generating station, using a binary cycle with mercury in the upper cycle and
steam in the lower, the ratio of mercury flow to steam flow is 10 : 1 on a mass basis. At an
evaporation rate of 1x 10 6 kg/h for the mercury, its specific enthalpy rises by 356 kJ/kg in
passing through the boiler. Superheating of steam in the mercury boiler furnace adds 586 kJ/kg
to the steam specific enthalpy. The mercury gives up 251.2 kJ/kg during condensation and the
steam gives up 2003 kJ/kg in the steam condenser. The overall boiler efficiency is 85 %. The
combined turbine mechanical and generator efficiencies are each 95 % for the mercury and
steam units.The steam auxilaries require 5 % of the energy generated by the units. Find the
overall cycle efficiency of the plant.

3.8.Figure P3.8 shows the arrangement of a steam plant in which steam is also required for an
industrial heating process. Following are the data for the plant.

LP
HP Turbine
Turbine
Boiler

Separator

Process Heater

Condenser

Steam trap

Hot Well Pump

Pump
Fig. P3.8 : Schematic for the problem E3.8

Boiler exit conditions : 30 bar and 320 0C ; Exit pressure of HP turbine: 2 bar ; Efficiency of
HP turbine: 75 % ; Mass of steam entering the process heater: 50 %. The separator removes all
the moisture.Inlet conditions to LP turbine : Saturated steam at 2 bar; Condenser pressure: 0.07
bar;Efficiency of LP turbine : 70 %; The drainage from the separator mixes with the
condensate from the process heater and the combined flow enters the hot well at 80 0C. Traps
are provided at the exit from the process heater and the separator.A pump extracts the
condensate from the condenser and this enters the hot well at 38 0C.

140
 Neglecting the pump work and radiation losses estimate (i) the temperature of water leaving
the hot well which is at atmospheric pressure. Also calculate, as a percentage of heat
transferred in the boiler, (i) the heat transferred in the process heater,and (ii) work done in the
two turbines.

3.9.Steam enters the turbine of a cogeneration plant at 7 MPa and 500 0C.One fourth of the
steam is extracted from the turbine at 600 kPa for process heating. The remaining steam
continues to expand to 10 kPa. The extracted steam is then condensed and mixed with feed
water at con stant pressure and the mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure of 7 Mpa. The
mass flow rate of steam trough boiler is 30 kg/s. Assuming ideal conditions, determine the net
power output from the plant and the utilization factor of the plant.

3.10.Consider a cogeneration plant with regenerative heating of feed water as sown in Fig.
P3.10. Steam enters the turbine at 6 MPa and 450 0C and expands at 0.4 MPa. At this pressure,
60 % of the steam is extracted from the turbine, and the remainder expands to 10 kPa. Part of
the extractd steam is used to heat the feed water in an open type feed water heater. The rest of
the extracted steam is used for process heating and leaves the process heater as a saturated
liquid at 0.4 MPa. It is subsequently mixed with the feed water leaving the feed water heater,
and the mixture is pumped to boiler pressure before it enters the boiler.Assuming ideal
conditions determine the mass flow rate of steam through the boiler for a net power output of
15 MW. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram.

Turbine
Boiler
4
5

Process
2 Heater
9
Condenser
1 8 Feed water 7
Heater
6 Pump

Pump Mixing Chamber

Fig. P3.10 : Schematic for problem 3.10

141
 CHAPTER 4

GAS POWER CYCLES

4.1. Introduction:- Two important applications of thermodynamics are power generation and
refrigeration. Both are usually accomplished by systems that operate on thermodynamic cycles.
Hence thermodynamic cycles are usually divided into two general categories, viz., “power
cycles” and “refrigeration cycles”. Power or refrigeration cycles are further classified as “gas
cycles” and “vapour cycles”. In the case of gas cycles, the working substance will be in
gaseous phase throughout the cycle, where as in vapour cycles, the working substance will be
in liquid phase in one part of the cyclic process and will be in vapour phase in some other part
of the cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles are also classified as “closed cycles” and “open
cycles”. In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to its original state at the end of each
cycle of operation and is recirculated. In an open cycle, the working substance is renewed at
the end of each cycle instead of being re-circulated. In automobile engines, the combustion
gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of each cycle. Though the
engine operates in a mechanical cycle, the working substance does not go through a complete
thermodynamic cycle.

4.2. Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles:- The cycles encountered in
actual devices are difficult to analyse because of the presence of friction, and the absence of
sufficient time for establishment of equilibrium conditions during the cycle. In order to make
an analytical study of a cycle feasible, we have to make some idealizations by neglecting
internal irreversibilities and complexities. Such cycles resemble the actual cycles closely but
are made up totally of internal reversible processes. These cycles are called ideal cycles.

4.3. Carnot Power Cycle:- The T-s and p-v diagrams for a Carnot power cycle are shown in
Fig.4.1. The cycle consists of two reversible adiabatic and two reversible isothermal processes,
The working of the cycle is as follows:

Process 1-2:Reversible isothermal heating of the working substance from state1to state 2.

Process 2-3 :- Isentropic expansion of the working substance from state 2 to state 3. During this
process work is done by the working substance on the surroundings.

Process 3-4:- Reversible isothermal cooling of the working substance from state 3 to state 4.
Process 4-1:- Isentropic compression of the working substance so that it comes back to its
initial state. During this process work is done on the working substance by the surroundings.

142
 p
T
1
1 2
Th 2

Tc 4
4 3
3

s
v

Fig. 4.1: T-s and p-v diagrams for a Carnot power cycle

Expression for Thermal Efficiency of the Cycle

Net work output from the cycle = Wn = ∫ dW .

1-2-3-4-1

2 3 4 1
By first law for a cyclic process we have ∫dW = ∫ dQ = ∫dQ + ∫dQ + ∫dQ + ∫dQ
1-2-3-4-1 1-2-3-4-1 1 2 3 4
2 4

Or Wn = ∫TdS + 0 + ∫TdS + 0 = Th [S2 – S1] + Tc [S4 – S3]

1 3

Since S4 = S1 and S3 = S2, we have

Wn = (S2 – S1)[Th – Tc] ………………………(4.1)

Assuming that the working substance behaves as a perfect gas and since process 1 – 2 is
isothermal we have

S2 – S1 = m R ln(p1 / p2).

Substituting this expression in Eq. (4.1) we have

Wn = m R ln(p1 / p2) [Th – Tc] ……………….(4.2)

2
External heat supplied per cycle = Qs = Q1 – 2 = ∫TdS = Th[S2 – S1]
1

143
 (S2 – S1)[Th – Tc]
Thermal Efficiency = ηCarnot = Wn / Qs = ---------------------------------
Th[S2 – S1]

Or ηCarnot = [Th – Tc] / Tc = 1 – Th / Tc .....................................(4.3)

Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston and cylinder device or in a steady
flow device. It can be seen from Eq. (4.3) that the thermal efficiency depends only on two
temperatures Th and Tc and is independent of working substance. The Carnot cycle is the most
efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source at temperature Th and a heat sink at
temperature Tc. But reversible isothermal heat transfer process is difficult to achieve in
practice, because, it would require very large heat exchangers and it would take a very long
time (a power cycle in a typical engine has to be completed in a fraction of a second).
Therefore it is not practical to build an engine that would operate on a cycle that closely
approximates a Carnot cycle.
The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from the fact that it is used as a
standard against which the actual or other ideal power cycles are compared. It can be seen from
Eq. (4.3) that the thermal efficiency of the Carnot power cycle increases with increase in Th
and with decrease in Tc. Hence in actual or other ideal cycles attempts are made in increasing
the average temperature at which heat is supplied or by decreasing the average temperature at
which heat is rejected. It should also be noted that the source and sink temperatures that can be
used in practice have their limitations. The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by the
maximum temperature the components of the engine can withstand and the lowest temperature
is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium used in the cycle such as the atmospheric
air, ocean, lake or a river.

Example 4.1:- A Carnot cycle using air as the working substance works between temperature
limits of 900 K and 300 K. The pressure limits are 60 bar and 1 bar. Determine (i) pressure at
salient points of the cycle, (ii) the heat supplied per unit mass of air, (iii) net work output per
unit mass of air, (iv)mean effective pressure and (v) thermal efficiency of the cycle

Given:- Refer to T – s diagram shown in Fig. E3.1. Tmax = T1 = T2 = 900 K ;

Tmin = T3 = T4 = 300 K ; pmax = p1 = 60 bar ; pmin = p3 = 1 bar.

For air the following property values are assumed: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg – K; γ = 1.4 ;

Hence Cv = Cp / γ = 1.005 / 1.4 = 0.718 kJ/kg-K ; R = 1.005 – 0.718 = 0.287.kJ/(kg-K)

To find:- (i) p2 ; p4 ; (ii) q 1-2 ; (iii) wn (iv) mep ;(v) η Carnot.

Solution:-

144
 T

q 1-2

T1

T3

q 3-4

Fig. E4.1: T – s diagram for example 3.1

(i) Process 2 – 3 is isentropic. For a perfect gas undergoing isentropic process we have

p2 / p3 = (T2 / T3)γ / (γ – 1)

Or p2 = p3 (T2 / T3)γ / (γ – 1)

= 1 x [ 900 / 300 ] 1.4 / 0.4 = 46.77 bar.

Similarly for process 4 – 1 we have

p4 = p1 (T4 / T1)γ / (γ – 1) = 60 x [ 300 / 900 ] 1.4 / 0.4

= 1.283 bar

(ii) Applying first law for process 1 – 2 we have

q 1-2 − w1-2 = (u2 – u1)

= Cv(T2 – T1) = 0 because T2 = T1.

2
Hence q1-2 = w1-2 = ∫pdv = p1v1 ln(p1/p2), as process 1-2 is isothermal.
1

For a perfect gas p1v1 = RT1. Hence

q1-2 = w1-2 = RT1 ln(p1/p2) = 0.287 x 900 x ln (60 / 46.77)

145
 = 64.34 kJ/kg.

(iii) For process 3 -4 we have q3-4 = w3-4 = RT3 ln (p3 / p4)

= 0.287 x 300 x ln (1 / 1.283)

= − 21.46 kJ/kg.
( negative sign indicates that during this process heat is rejected by air to the surroundings).

Net work output = wn = ∑w = ∑q = q1-2 + q3-4 = 64.34 – 21.46

= 42.88 kJ/kg

(iv) mean effective pressure is given by

Net work output wn
mep = ------------------------------------- = ----------
Stroke volume of the piston (v2 – v1)

Now (v2 – v1) = [(RT2 / p2) – (RT1/p1)] = RT1 [ 1 / p2 – 1/p1]

= 287 x 900 x [ (1/ 46.77) – (1 / 60)] x (1 / 10 5)

= 0.0122 m3/kg.

42.88 x 1000
Hence mep = ----------------- = 35.15 x 10 5 N / m2 = 35.15 bar
0.0122

Example 4.2:- The maximum pressure and temperature in a Carnot gas power cycle are
limited to 20 bar and 400 C. The volumetric ratio of isentropic compression is 6 and
volumetric ratio of isothermal expansion is 1.5. Assuming that air is the working substance and
the volume of air at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 0.1 m3, determine (i) the
minimum temperature in the cycle, (ii) change in entropy during isothermal expansion process,
(iii) thermal efficiency of the cycle, (iv) power output from the cycle if there are 200 cycles per
minute and (v) mean effective pressure.

Solution: The T-s and p-v diagram for the cycle are shown in figure below.

Given:- p1 = 20 bar ; T1 = 400 + 273 = 673 K = T2 ; V4 / V1 = 6 ; V2 / V1 = 1.5 ;

V1 = 0.1 m3; For air Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K); γ = 1.4 ; R = 0.287 kJ/(kg-K); Cv = 0.718 kJ/(kg-K).
.
To find :- (i) T3 ; (ii) S2 – S1 ; (iii) η Carnot ; (iv) Wn ; (v) MEP.

146
 Isothermal
p 1 Process
T 2
Isentropic
process
1 2
T1
4

T3 3
4 3

V
s

(i) Since process 1 – 2 is isothermal and air is assumed to behave as a perfect gas, it follows
that
p1V1 = p2V2 .Hence p2 = (V1 / V2) p1 = (1/1.5) x 20 = 13.33 bar.

Process 4-1 is isentropic. Hence T4= (V1 / V4) (γ – 1) T1 = (1/6) 0.4 x 673 = 328.7 K.

Also T3 = T4 = 328.7 K.

(ii) mass of air = m = (p1V1) / (RT1)

20 x 10 5 x 0.1
= ------------------- = 1.035 kg
287 x 673

Change in entropy for process 1-2 for a perfect gas is given by

S2 – S1 = m [ Cv ln (T2 / T1) + R ln (V2 / V1) ]

= 1.035 x [ 0 + 0.287 x ln (1.5) ] = 0.1204 kJ/kg-K.

(iii) η Carnot = (T1 – T3) / T1 = [673 – 328.7] / 673 = 0.5116 = 51.16 %.

(iv) Heat supplied per cycle = Qs = Q1-2 = W1-2 = mRT1 ln(V2 / V1)

= 1.035 x 0.287 x 673 x ln (1.5)

147
 = 81.06 kJ/cycle.

Net work output per cycle = Wn = η Carnot Qs = 0.5116 x 81.06

= 41.47 kJ/cycle.

Power output = P = Wc Nc, where Nc = Number of cycles executed per unit time.

Hence P = 41.47 x 200 /60 = 138 kJ/s (kW).

Net work output per cycle in J/cycle Wn

(v) MEP = -------------------------------------------- = ---------------------
Swept volume per cycle in m3 / cycle (V3 – V1)

Now for process 2-3 we have

V3 = V2 (T2 / T3) 1 / (γ – 1) = 1.5 x 0.1 x (673 / 328.7) 2.5

= 0.9 m3.

41.47 x 1000
Hence MEP = ---------------- = 51837.5 N / m2
(0.9 – 0.1)

Example 4.3:- In an air-standard Carnot cycle, 110 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to the working
fluid at 1110 K. Heat is rejected at 273 k. The minimum pressure in the cycle is 1 bar. Find (i)
thermal efficiency, (ii) mean effective pressure.

Solution: The T – s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. E3.3.

Given :- T1 = T2 = 1110 K ; T3 = T4 = 273 K; q 1-2 = 110 kJ/kg ; p3 = 1 bar.

To find:- (i) η Carnot ; (ii) MEP

(T1 – T3) (1110 – 273)

(i)η Carnot = ------------- = ----------------- = 0.754 = 75.4 %.
T1 1110
wn
(ii) MEP = ----------------
(v3 – v1)

wn = η Carnot q1-2 = 0.754 x 110 = 82.94 kJ/kg

Applying I law for process 1 – 2 we have q 1-2 = w1-2 = RT1 ln (v2 / v1)

148
Hence v2 / v1 = exp [q1-2 / RT1] = exp [ 110 / (0.287 x 1110)]

= 1.4124.

Also v3 = RT3 / p3 = 287 x 273 / (1 x 10 5)

= 0.7835 m3 / kg.

Process 2-3 is isentropic. Hence T2 v2 (γ – 1) = T3 v3 (γ – 1)

Or v2 = (T3 / T2) 1 / (γ – 1) v3 = (273 / 1110) 2.5 x 0.7835

= 0.0235 m3 / kg

Therefore v1 = 0.0235 / 1.4124 = 0.0166 m3 / kg.

82.94 x 1000
Therefore MEP = -----------------------
(0.7835 – 0.0166)

= 1.082 x 10 5 N/m2 = 1.082 bar.

4.4 Air Standard Cycles: In gas power cycles, the working fluid will be in gaseous phase
throughout the cycle. Petrol engines (gasoline engines), diesel engines and gas turbines are
familiar examples of devices that operate on gas cycles. All these devices are called “Internal
combustion engines” as the fuel is burnt within the boundaries of the system. Because of the
combustion of the fuel, the composition of the working fluid changes from a mixture of air and
fuel to products of combustion during the course of the cycle. However, considering that air is
predominantly nitrogen which hardly undergoes any chemical reaction during combustion, the
working fluid closely resembles air at all times.
The actual gas power cycles are complex. Hence actual gas cycles are approximated by
ideal cycles by making the following assumptions called “air standard assumptions”.

Air standard assumptions:- (i) The working fluid is air which continuously circulates in a
closed loop.
(ii). Air behaves as a perfect gas.
(iii) All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
(iv) The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an external source.
(v) The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the working
substance to its original state.
(vi) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working substance is very small and hence
negligible.

A cycle which is analyzed making use of these assumptions is called an “air standard
cycle”. The air standard assumptions make the thermodynamic analysis very simple

149
without significantly deviating from the actual cycle. This simplified model will help to study
qualitatively the influence of major parameters on the performance of the cycle.

4.5. Air standard Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark ignition engines. The
cycle is named after Nikolaus A Otto, a German who built a four – stroke engine in 1876 in
Germany using the cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.The p – V and T – s
diagrams for an Otto cycle are shown in Fig. 4.2.The cycle consists of the

p
T Constant 3
3 volume
process
2 Isentropic
Process 4

4 2

1 1

V s

Fig. 4.2: p-V and T-s diagrams for Otto cycle.

following processes.

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2 -3 : Constant volume of heating of air from state 2 till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.

Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. During this process work is
done by air on the surroundings.

Process 4 – 1: Constant volume cooling of air till the air comes back to its original state.

150
4.5.1. Expressions for Net work output and thermal efficiency

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1

By I law for the cycle we have w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1 = q1-2 + q 2-3 + q 3-4 + q 4-1.

Also q 1-2 = q 3-4 = 0 as processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic.

Hence wn = q 2-3 + q 4-1. ……………………………..(4.4)

Since both the processes 2-3 and 3-4 are at constant volume, w2-3 and w4-1 are both equal to
zero. Hence I law equation for these two processes can be written as follows:

q2-3 = (u3 – u2) = Cv[T3 – T2] ……………………………(4.5)

and q4-1 = (u1 – u4) = Cv[T1 – T4] ……………………………(4.6)

It should be noted that q4-1 will be negative (T1 < T4) as heat is transferred from the working
substance to the surroundings.

Hence the net work output in terms of temperatures at the four salient points of the cycle is
given by

wn = Cv[T3 – T2] + Cv[T1 – T4] ………………………….(4.7)

Thermal efficiency is given by

Net work output wn
η Otto = ---------------------- = --------
Heat Supplied q2-3

Cv[T3 – T2] + Cv[T1 – T4] [T4 – T1]

η Otto = ------------------------- -------- = 1 − -----------------
Cv[T3 – T2] [T3 – T2]

…………………………(4.8)

Eq. (4.8) gives the expression for thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle in terms of the
temperatures at the salient points of the cycles. It is possible to express the net work output and
thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle in terms two parameters namely (i) the
comprssion ratio, Rc and the maximum cycle temperature ratio, t. The compression ratio is
defined as the ratio of volume of air befor compression to the volume of air after compression;
i.e., Rc = V1 / V2 and the maximum cycle temperature ratio is defined as the
ratio of the maximum temperature in the cycle to the minimum temperature in the cycle; i.e., t
= T 3 / T1 .

Now Process 1 – 2 is isentropic. Hence T1V1(γ – 1) = T2V2(γ – 1)

151
Or T2 / T1 = (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = Rc(γ – 1) ……………………………………….(4.9)

Similarly we have for ptocess 3-4,

T3 / T4 = (V4/V3) (γ – 1) = (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = Rc(γ – 1) ……………………... (4.10)

Therefore T2 T3 [T3 – T2]

---- = ------ = ------------ = Rc(γ – 1)
T1 T4 [ T4 – T1]

Suibstituting this in Eq.(3.8) we have

1
ηOtto = 1 − ------------------- ………………(4.11)
Rc(γ – 1)

It can be seen from Eq. (4.11) that the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle depends only on the
compression ratio Rc. The efficiency increases with increase in Rc. The increase is steep at low
values of Rc , but becomes flatter as Rc exceeds 8 as shown in Fig. 4.3.

ηOtto

0.6

0.4

0.2

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Rc
Fig.4.3: Effect of Rc on thermal efficiency of Otto cycle

For very high compression ratios (Rc >10), the temperature of the air fuel mixture in an actual
petrol engine will be so high as to cause pre-ignition of the fuel leading to
“knocking” of the engine and hence should not be used. Therefore the compression ratio
cannot be increased arbitrarily to have higher efficiency. Between the same temperature limits
the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is less than that for a Carnot cycle.In order to know
how far the Otto cycle deviates from Carnot cycle, a parameter called “relative efficiency” is
defined as the ratio of the thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle to the thermal efficiency of a
Carnot cycle working between the same temperature limits.

152
i.e.,
Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle
Relative efficiency of Otto cycle = ----------------------------------------------- ……..(4.12)
Efficiency of Carnot cycle working
between same temperature limits.

4.5.2. Condition for optimum work output from an Otto cycle

Net work output per unit mass of air is given by Eq. (4.7) :

wn = Cv[T3 – T2] + Cv[T1 – T4] ………………………….(4.7)

= Cv T1 [ T3 / T1 – T2 / T1 – T4 / T1 + 1 ]

T3 / T1 is the ratio of maximum temperature in the cycle to the minimum temperature in the
cycle and is called “maximum cycle temperature ratio” and is denoted by ‘t’.

t
Now T4 / T1 = (T4 / T3) x (T3 / T1) = ---------- ……………………………………(4.13)
Rc(γ – 1)

Hence wn = CvT1 [ t – Rc(γ – 1) – t / Rc(γ – 1) + 1] ………………...(4.14)

For given values of ‘t’ and T1, wn depends only on Rc.

Hence for optimum output, dwn / dRc = 0.

i.e., dwn / dR = Cv T1 [−(γ – 1) Rc(γ – 2) − t (1 – γ)Rc− γ ] = 0

or Rc 2(γ – 1) = t

or Rc = t 1 / 2(γ – 1) = Rc*…………………………………..(4.15)

If this value of Rc is substituted in Eq. (4.14) we get the expression for maximum work output
as

(wn)maximum = CvT1[ t − t ½ - t / t1/2 + 1]

Or (wn)Maximum = Cv T1 [ √ t – 1 ] 2 …………………………….(4.16)

Thermal efficiency corresponding to maximum work output is therefore given by

(ηOtto) * = 1 − 1 / Rc* (γ – 1) = 1 – [1 / √ t ] ………………(4.17)

153
Example 4.4:- An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. The conditions at the
beginning of compression stroke are 100 kPa and 17 C. If the heat added during the cycle is
800 kJ/kg find (i) temperatures and pressures at salient points of the cycle, (ii) net work output
per unit mass of air, (iii)thermal efficiency of the cycle, (iv) mean effective pressure, (v)
compression ratio corresponding to maximum work output, (vi) maximum work output and
(vii) thermal efficiency corresponding to maximum work output.

Solution: The p – V diagram for the cycle is shown below.

Vs = Stroke Volume = V1 – V2.

p
Vc = ClearanceVolume =V2=V3
3
Given:- Rc = V1 / V2 = 8.

T1 = 17 + 273 = 290 K.
2
p1 = 100 kPa.
4
Heat supplied = q2-3 = 800
1 kJ/kg.

To find:- (i) T2, p2, T3,p3, T4, p4

V
Vc Vs = V1 – V2
(ii) wn; (iii) ηOtto; (iv) MEP;

(v) Rc* ; (vi) (wn) maximum

(i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T1V1(γ – 1) = T2V2(γ – 1)

Or T2 = T1 (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = 290 x 8 0.4

= 666 K.

Also p1V1 / T1 = p2V2 / T2 .

Or p2 = p1 (V1/V2) (T2 / T1) = 100 x 8 x (666 / 290)

= 1837.24 kPa = 18.3724 bar.

Now q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) or T3 = T2 + q2-3 / Cv

Hence T3 = 666 + 800 / 0.718 = 1780.2 K.

Also p3V3 / T3 = p2V2 / T2 and V3 = V2.

154
Hence p3 = p2 (T3 / T2) = 18.3724 x (1780.2 / 666)

= 49.11 bar.

Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1) = T3 (V2 / V1) (γ – 1)

= 1780.2 x (1/8) 0.4

= 775 K.

Also p4V4 / T4 = p1V1 / T1 and V4 = V1.

Hence p4 = p1 (T4 / T1) = 100 x (775 / 290)

= 267.24 kPa.

(ii)Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv (T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (290 – 775)

= − 348.23 kJ/kg
(Negative sign for q4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings during this
process).

Hence Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 800 – 348.23 = 451.77 kJ/kg.

(iii)Thermal efficiency = η Otto = wn / q2-3 = 451.77 / 800 = 0.565 = 56.5 %.

Check for thermal efficiency: η Otto = 1 – 1 / Rc(γ – 1) = 1 – 1 / 8 0.4

= 0.565 = 56.5 %
(iv) Volume of air per unit mass at the beginning of compression is given by

v1 = RT1 / p1 = 287 x 290 / (100 x 1000) = 0.8323 m3/kg.

Net work output in J/kg wn 451.77 x 1000

MEP = --------------------------------------- = ---------------- = ----------------------------
Stroke volume in m3 / kg (v1 – v2) [0.8323 – 0.8323 / 8]

= 6.203 x 105 N/m2 = 6.203 bar.

(v) Maximum cycle temperature ratio = t = Tmaximu / Tminimum = T3 / T1 = 1780.2 / 290

= 6.138.

For maximum work output, Rc = Rc* = t 1/ 2 (γ – 1) = 6.138 1 / (2 x 0.4)

155
 = 9.66

(vi) Net work output corresponding to Rc * is maximum and is given by

(wn)maximum = CvT1 [√ t − 1] 2

= 0.718 x 290 x [√ 6.138 – 1] 2

= 454.54 kJ/kg.

Example 4.5:- An air standard Otto cycle is to be designed according to the following
specifications.
Pressure at the start of the compression process = 101 kPa ;
Temperature at the start of compression process = 300 K;
Compression ratio = 8;
Maximum pressure in the cycle = 8.0 MPa;
Find (i) the net work output per unit mass of air, (ii) cycle efficiency, and (iii)MEP.

Solution: Refer to p-V diagram of the cycle shown in example 4.4.

Given:- p1 = 101 kPa ; T1 = 300 K; V1 / V2 = Rc = 8 ; p3 = 8 MPa ;

Assume Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg – K ; γ = 1.4.

To find:- (i) wn ; (ii) η Otto ; (iii) MEP

(i)Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (V1 / V2) (γ – 1) = 300 x (8) 0.4

= 689.2 K.

Also p2 = p1 (V1/ V2) γ = 101 x 8 1.4 = 1856.3 kPa.

For process 2-3 we have p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and V2 = V3.

Hence T3 = T2 (p3 / p2) = 689.2 x (8 x 103 / 1856.3)

= 2970 K.

Process 3 -4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1) = T3 (V2 / V1) (γ – 1)

= 2970 x (1 / 8) 0.4 = 1292.9 K.

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q 2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = 0.718 x (2970 – 689.2)

= 1637.6 kJ/kg.

156
Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (300 – 1292.9)

= − 712.9 kJ/kg.

(Negative sign for q 4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings)

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = ∑q = 1637.6 – 712.9 = 924.7 kJ/kg.

1 1
(ii) Thermal efficiency = η Otto = 1 − ------------- = 1 − --------------
Rc (γ – 1) 8 0.4

= 0.565 = 56.5 %.

Thermal efficiency can also be calculated from the formula

wn 924.7
η Otto = ------------- = -------------- = 0.565 = 56.5 %
q2-3 1637.6

(ii)Specific volume at state 1 = v1 = RT1 / p1 = 287 x 300 / 101 x 10 3

= 0.8525 m3 / kg.

Hence v2 = v1 / 8 = 0.8525 / 8 = 0.10656 m3/kg.

wn 924.7 x 1000
MEP = -------------- = ----------------------
(v1 – v2) (0.8525 – 0.10656)

= 12.396 x 10 5 N/m2 = 12.396 bar.

Example 4.6:- From the p – V diagram of an engine working on Otto cycle, it is found that the
pressure in the cylinder after 1/8th of the compression stroke is completed is 1.4 bar. After 5/8th
of the compression stroke is completed, the pressure is found to be3.5 bar. The maximum cycle
temperature is limited to 1000 C.If the compression process is according to the law pV1.35=
constant, find (i) the compression ratio, (ii) work output per unit mass of air, and (iii) thermal
efficiency. Assume the minimum temperature in the cycle to be 27 C.

Solution: Refer to p – V diagram shown below.

157
 p 3
Given:-
V1 – Va = (1/8)Vs

2 pVn = Const V1 – Vb = (5/8)Vs.

b pa = 1.4 bar; pb = 3.5 bar;
4 T3 = 1000 + 273 =1273 K.
a
1 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Compression index = n =
V 1.35
Vb Va V1

Fig. E4.6: Figure for example 3.6.

To find:- (i) Rc ; (ii) wn ; (iii) η

(i) V1 – Va = (1/8) (V1 – V2) or Va = V1 – (1/8)(V1 – V2)

= (7/8)V1 + (1/8)V2

Hence Va / V2 = (7/8)Rc + 1/8 ………………………..(a)

Similarly Vb / V2 = (3/8)Rc + 5/8 ………………………..(b)

From Eqs. (a) and (b) we have

Va (7/8)Rc + 1/8 7Rc + 1

--- = ----------------- = ----------- ……………….(c)
Vb (3/8)Rc + 5/8 3Rc + 5

For the compression process we have paVan = pbVbn

Or Va / Vb = (pb/pa) 1/n = (3.5 / 1.4) 1/1..35

= 1.971

Substituting this value in Eq. (c) we have

7Rc + 1
--------- = 1.971
3Rc + 5

158
 1.971 x 5 – 1
Or Rc = ------------------- = 8.146.
(7 – 1.971 x 3)

(ii) For process 1-2 we have T2 = T1 Rc(n – 1) = 300 x 8.146 0.35

= 625 K.

q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = 0.718 x (1273 – 625)

= 465.26 kJ/kg.

For process 3-4 we have T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1) = 1273 x (1 / 8.146) 0.4

= 550.1 K.

q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (300 – 550.1)

= − 179.6 kJ/kg.
(Negative sign for q 4-1 indicates that during the process 4-1 heat is transferred from air to the
surroundings)

Since process 1-2 is not isentropic q1-2 is not equal to zero and therefore we have to find q1-2.

Applying first law for process 1-2, we have, per unit mass of air

q1-2 – w1-2 = (u2 – u1) …………………………(d)

Now w1-2 = (p1v1 – p2v2) / (n – 1) = R(T1 – T2) /(n – 1)

And u2 – u1 = Cv(T2 – T1).Substituting these expressions in Eq.(d) we have

R(T1 – T2)
q1-2 = ------------- + Cv(T2 – T1) = (T2 – T1) [Cv – R /(n – 1)]
(n – 1)

Hence q1-2 = (625 – 300) x [ 0.718 – 0.287 / 0.35]

= − 33.15 kJ/kg

wn = ∑w = ∑q = q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1

= − 33.15 + 465.26 + 0 − 179.6

= 252.5 kJ/kg.

159
 Wn 252.5
Thermal efficiency = η = ----------------- = -------------- = 0.5427 = 54.27 %.
q2-3 465.26

Example 4.7:- Derive an expression for thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio and
maximum cycle temperature ratio for a cycle which is similar to Otto cycle except that the
compression process is isothermal.Compare the efficiency and work output of this cycle with
that of an Otto cycle having the same compression ratio of 6 and same maximum cycle
temperature ratio of 5..

Solution: The p – V diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. E4.7.

p 3

Isentropic process

2 Isothemal process
4

1
V

Fig. E4.7: p – V diagram for example 3.7.

Solution:

Net work output per unit mass = wn = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1.

But w2-3 = w4-1 = 0 as both the processes 2-3 and 4-1 are constant volume processes.

Since process 1-2 is isothermal ( for a perfect gas this is equivalent to process according to the
law pv= constant)
w1-2 = p1v1 ln (v2/v1) = − RT1 ln Rc

where Rc = v1/v2.

(p3 v3 – p4v4) R(T3 – T4)

Since process 3-4 is isentropic, w3-4 = ----------------- = ----------------------
(γ – 1) (γ – 1)

160
 RT1 (T3 / T1 – T4 / T1)
= ------------------------------
(γ – 1)

Now T3 / T1 = t = maximum cycle temperature ratio,

And T4 / T1 = (T4/T3) x (T3/T1) = (V3/V4)(γ – 1) t = t / Rc(γ – 1)

RT1 [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ]
Hence w3-4 = ---------------------------
(γ – 1)

RT1 [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ]
Therefore wn = − RT1 ln Rc + ------------------------------
(γ – 1)

={ RT1 / (γ – 1)}{ [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}……………..(a)

Heat supplied = q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = Cv(T3 – T1) = CvT1(T3/T1 – 1)

= CvT1(t – 1)

Thermal efficiency = η = wn / q2-3

{ RT1 / (γ – 1)}{ [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}

= ------------------------------------------------------------
CvT1(t – 1)

Since Cv = R / (γ – 1), the above expression simplifies to

{t [ 1 – 1 / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}
η = -----------------------------------------------------------
( t – 1)

(ii) Given:- Rc = 6 ; t = 5 ; To find (a) wn / (wn)Otto ; and (b) η / ηOtto

(a)Work output for an Otto cycle in terms of T1, Rc and t is given by Eq.(3.14) as

(wn)Otto = CvT1 [t – Rc(γ – 1) – t / Rc(γ – 1) +1]

= 0.718 T1 x [ 5 – 6 0.4 – 5 / 6 0.4 + 1]

= 1.0844 T1

For the given cycle, from Eq. (a)

161
 wn ={ RT1 / (γ – 1)}{ [ t – t / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}

0.287 x T1
= --------------- x { [ 5 – 5 / 60.4] – 0.4 x ln 6 }
0.4

= 1.321 T1

Hence (wn)Otto 1.0844 T1

--------- = --------------- = 0.821.
wn 1.321 T1

(b) Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle = η otto = 1 – 1 / 6 0.4

= 0.5116 = 51.16 %

For the given cycle thermal efficiency is

{t [ 1 – 1 / Rc(γ – 1) ] − (γ – 1) ln Rc}
η = -----------------------------------------------------------
( t – 1)

{ 5 x [ 1 – 1/ 60.4] – 0.4 x ln 6}
= ------------------------------------------ = 0.4603 = 46.03 %.
(5 – 1)

4.6. Diesel Cycle:- The diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression ignition engines (CI
engines). CI engine was first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in 1890. The diesel engine works on
the principle of compression ignition. In such an engine, only air is compressed and at the end
of the compression process, the fuel is sprayed into the engine cylinder containing high
pressure air, so that the fuel ignites spontaneously and combustion occurs. Since only air is
compressed during the compression stroke, the possibility of auto ignition is completely
eliminated in diesel engines. Hence diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher
compression ratios (between 12 and 24). Also another benefit of not having to deal with auto
ignition is that fuels used in this engine can be less refined (thus less expensive).
The p – V and T – s diagrams for an air-standard diesel cycle are shown in
Fig. 4.4. The diesel cycle is similar to Otto cycle except that the heating process takes place at
constant pressure in a diesel cycle. The various processes involved in an ideal diesel cycle are
as follows.

162
 p Constant 3
T Pressure Process
2 3

Isentropic
Process 4

4 2

1
1 Constant volume
process
V
s

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heating of air till the maximum permissible temperature is
reached.
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. during this process work is
done by air on the surroundings.
Process 4-1: Constant volume cooling of air so that air comes back to its original state to
complete the cycle.

4.6.1.Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp (T3 – T2).

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv (T1 – T4)

Net work ouput per unit mass of air = wn = ∑w = ∑q

= q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1.

But q1-2 = q3-4 = 0 as these two processes are isentropic.

Hence w n = q2-3 + q4-1

= Cp (T3 – T2).+ Cv (T1 – T4) ………………(4.18)

Therefore thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle is given by

163
 wn Cp (T3 – T2).+ Cv (T1 – T4)
η Diesel = ---------- = ----------------------------------
q2-3 Cp (T3 – T2).

(Cv/Cp) (T4 – T1)

= 1 − ----------------------- …………………………(4.19)
(T3 – T2).

Temperatures T2, T3 and T4 can be expressed in terms of T1, the compression ratio Rc and the
cut off ratio ρ (ρ = V3 / V2) as follows.

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1(V1/V2)(γ – 1)

= Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 2-3, p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and p2 = p3.

Hence T3 = (V3 / V2) T2

= ρ Rc(γ – 1) T1.

Proocess 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1).

But V4 / V3 = Expansion ratio = (V4 / V2)(V2 / V3) = (V1 / V2)(V2 / V3)

= Rc / ρ.

Therefore T4 = ( ρ / Rc) (γ – 1) T3

= ( ρ / Rc) (γ – 1) ρ Rc(γ – 1) T1

= ρ γ T1.

Substituting the expressions for T2,T3, and T4 in Eq. (3.19)

( ρ γ− 1 )
η Diesel = 1 − ------------------------------
γ [ρ Rc(γ – 1) − Rc(γ – 1) ]

( ρ γ− 1 )
or η Diesel = 1 − ------------------------------ ………………(4.20)
γ Rc(γ – 1) [ρ −1]

Now substituting the expressions for T2,T3, and T4 in terms of T1 in Eq. (4.18) we get

164
 wn = CvT1[γ (ρ Rc(γ – 1) – Rc(γ – 1)) − ρ γ + 1 ]

Or wn = CvT1[ γ Rc(γ – 1) (ρ – 1) − ρ γ + 1] …………..(4.21)

ηDiesel

Rc
1
Fig. 4.5 : Effect of Rc and ρ on efficiency of diesel cycle
It can be seen from Eq. (4.20) that the thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle depends on the
compression ratio Rc and the cut-off ratio ρ. The effect of these parameters on thermal
efficiency is shown in Fig. 4.5. It can be seen from this figure that for a given value of the
cut-off ratio the thermal efficiency increases with Rc and for a given value of Rc, the efficiency
deceases with increase in the cut-off ratio.The increase in cut-off ratio results in decrease in the
expansion ratio which in turn decreases the work done during expansion process. At the same
time increase in cut-off ratio also results in increase in heat supplied. The overall effect is that
the efficiency decreases.

4.6.2.Illustrative examples on diesel cycle

Example 4.8:- An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 14. The air condition at
the beginning of compression is 1 bar and 27 C.The maximum temperature in the cycle is 2500
C. Determine (i) temperature and pressure at salient points of the cycle, (ii) net work output
per unit mass of air, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) specific air consumption in kg/kWh, and (v)
MEP.

Solution:

165
 p Given:- Rc = V1/V2 = 14; p1= 1 bar;

2 3 T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ;

q2-3 T3 = 2500 + 273 = 2773 K ;

Assume:γ = 1.4;Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K

Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K
4
q4-1 To find:- (i) T2,p2, p3, T4, p4 ;

1 (ii) wn ; (iii) η Diesel ; (iv) SAC in

V
kg/kWh ; (v) MEP

(i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (V1/V2) (γ – 1) = 300 x 14 0.4

= 862.13 K.

Also p2 = p1(V1/V2) γ = 1 x 14 1.4

= 40.23 bar

For process 2-3 we have p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and p2 = p3.

Hence cut – off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 2773 / 862.13

= 3.216.

Expansion ratio = V4 / V3 = Rc / ρ = 14 / 3.216 = 4.353.

Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T4 = T3 (V3 / V4) (γ – 1)

= 2773 x (1 / 4.353) 0.4

= 1539.7 K.

Also p3V3 γ = p4V4 γ or p4 = p3 (V3 / V4) γ

Hence p4 = 40.23 x (1/ 4.353) 1.4

166
 = 5.131 bar.

(ii) Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2)

= 1.005 x (2773 – 862.13)

= 1920.4 kJ/kg

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (300 – 1539.7)

= − 890.11 kJ/kg
(Negative sign for q4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings during this
process).

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 1920.4 – 890.11

= 1030 kJ/kg

wn 1030
(iii) Thermal efficiency = η Diesel = --------- = ----------------
q2-3 1920.11

= 0.5364 = 53.64 %.
.
(iv) Let m = mass of air consumed in kg / s.
.
Air consumption in kg/h m x 3600
Then Specific air consumption in kg/kWh = --------------------------------- = --.-----------
Net work output in kW m x wn

3600 3600
= ----------- = -------------- = 3.495 kg/kWh.
wn 1030

(v) Specific volume at the beginning of compression = v1 = RT1 / p1

287 x 300
Hence v1 = --------------- = 0.861 m 3/kg
1 x 10 5

Therefore v2 = v1 / Rc = 0.861 / 14 = 0.0615 m3 / kg.

Wn 1030 x 1000
Mean effective pressure = MEP = ---------------- = -----------------------
(v1 – v2) ( 0.861 – 0.0615)

167
 = 12.883 x 10 5 N / m2 = 12.883 bar

Example 4.9:- A diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16. The temperature before
compression is 300 K and after expansion it is 900 K. Determine (i) Maximum Cycle
temperature (ii)Net work input per unit mass of air, (iii) the air standard efficiency and (iv)
MEP if the minimum pressure in the cycle is 1 bar (v) specific air comsumption in kg/kWh

Given:- Rc = V1 / V2 = 16 ; T1 = 300 K ; T4 = 900 K ;

To find :- (i) T3 (ii) wn ; (iii) η Diesel ; (iv) MEP.

Solution: Refer to p-v diagram of example 3.8.

(i)Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1(V1 / V2) (γ – 1) = 300 x 16 0.4

Or T2 = 909.4 K

Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T3 = T4 (V4/V3) (γ – 1) = T4 [V1/V3] (γ – 1)

Or T3 = T4 [(V1/V2) (V2/V3)] (γ – 1) = T4 Rc(γ – 1) (T2 / T3) (γ – 1)

Or T3γ = T4 [Rc T2](γ – 1)

Or T3 = {T4 [Rc T2](γ – 1) }1 / γ = { 900 x [ 16 x 909.4] 0.4} 1/1.4 = 1993.27 K

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005 x (1993.27 – 909.4)

= 1089.3 kJ/kg.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (900 – 300)

= 430.8 kJ/kg

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 1089.3 – 430.8

= 658.5 kJ/kg.

wn 658.5
(ii) Thermal efficiency = ηDiesel = --------- = --------------- = 0.6045
q2-3 1089.3

= 60.45 %

(iii)Specific volume of air at the beginning of compression = v1 = RT1 / p1

168
 287 x 300
Hence v1 = ------------------- = 0.861 m3 / kg.
1 x 105

Therefore v2 = v1 / 16 = 0.861 / 16 = 0.0538 m3/kg.

wn 658.5 x 1000
MEP = --------------- = ---------------------
(v1 – v2) (0.861 – 0.0538)

= 8.158 x 10 5 N/m2 = 8.158 bar.

Example 4.10:- In an air standard diesel cycle, the pressure at the end of expansion is 240 kPa
and temperature is 550 C. At the end of compression process, the pressure is 4.2 MPa and
temperature is 700 C. Determine (i) the compression ratio, (ii) the cut-off ratio, (iii) heat
supplied per unit mass of air, and (iv) cycle efficiency.

Solution: The p – V diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. E4.10.

Given:- p4 = 240 kPa ; T4 = 550 + 273 = 823 K ; p2 = 4.2 x10 3 kPa ;

T2 = 700 + 273 = 973 K.

To find:- (i) Rc ; (ii) ρ ; (iii) q 2-3 ;(iv) η Diesel

(i) Process 3-4 is isentropic. Hence T3 = T4 (p3 /p4) (γ – 1) / γ = T4 (p2 /p4) (γ – 1) / γ

Or T3 = 823 x (4.2 x103 / 240) 0.286

= 1866 K

Cut-off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 1866 / 973

= 1.92.

(ii) Expansion ratio = Re = V4 / V3 = (p3 / p4) 1 / γ = (4.2 x 103 / 240) 1/ 1.4

= 7.725

Compression ratio = Rc = V1/V2 = Re ρ = 7.725 x 1.92

= 14.832
(iii) Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2)

= 1.005 x (1866 – 973)

= 897.5 kJ/kg.

169
(iv) For process 1-2 we have, T1 = T2 (V2 / V1) (γ – 1) = 973 x (1/14.832) 0.4

= 331 K

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (331 – 823)

= − 353.3 kJ/kg
(Negative sign for q4-1 indicates that heat is transferred from air to the surroundings during this
process).

Net work output = wn = 897.5 – 353.3 = 544.2 kJ/kg.

544.2
Hence thermal efficiency = η Diesel = wn / q2-3 = -------------------
897.5

= 0.6063 = 60.63 %.

Example 4.11:- An oil engine works on diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 20. Heat
addition takes place up to 10 % of the stroke. Initial pressure and temperature of air are 1 bar
and 27 C.The bore and stroke of the engine are 16 cm and 20 cm respectively. The
compression process is according to the law pV 1.32= constant and the expansion process is
according to the law pV 1.30= constant. Find (i) the pressure and temperature at salient points
of the cycle, (ii) the net work output per unit mass of air, (iii) MEP, (iv) thermal efficiency of
the engine, (v) relative efficiency with respect to air standard efficiency.

Solution:

p q2-3
Given:- Rc = V1/V2 = 20
2 3
V3 – V2 = 0.1(V1 – V2)
pV ne = Constant
p1 = 1 bar;
pV nc = Constant
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K;

4 nc = 1.32 ; ne = 1.30

q4-1 bore = d = 0.16 m ;

1 stroke = L = 0.20 m
V
To find:- (i) p2, p3,p4,T2,T3,T4 ; (ii) wn ; (iii) MEP ; (iv) η engine ;
(v) η engine / η Diesel

170
(i) Stroke volume = V1 – V2 = (π / 4) d 2 L = (π / 4) x 0.16 2 x 0.20 = 4.02 x 10 − 3 m3.

Hence 20 V2 – V2 = 4.02 x 10 − 3 Or V2 = 2.116 x 10 − 4 m3.

And V3 = V2 + 0.1 (V1 – V2).

Hence cut-off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = 1 + 0.1 (V1/V2 – 1) = 1 + 0.1 x (20 – 1)

= 2.9.
Expansion ratio = Re = V4 / V3 = Rc / ρ = 20 / 1.9 = 6.9.

Now T2 = T1 Rc (nc – 1) = 300 x 20 0.32 = 782.44 K

T3 = T2 ρ = 782.44 x 2.9 = 2269.1 K

T4 = T3 (1 / Re)(ne – 1) = 2269.1 / 6.9 0.3 = 1271.6 K.

p2 = p1 Rcnc = 1 x 20 1.32 = 52.163 bar = p3.

p4 = p3 (1/Re) ne = 52.163 / 6.9 1.30 = 4.235 bar.

(ii) Since both the compression process 1-2 and the expansion process 3-4 are not isentropic,
the heat transfer during these processes will not be equal to zero.It is therefore necessary to
calculate the heat transfer during these processes to determine the total external heat supplied
during the cycle.

Now (p1v1 – p2v2) R(T1 – T2) 0.287 x (300 – 782.44)

w1-2 = ------------------ = --------------- = -----------------------------
(nc – 1) (nc – 1) (1.32 – 1)

= − 431.2 kJ/kg.

w2-3 = p2 (v3 – v2) = p3v3 – p2v2 = R(T3 – T2)

= 0.287 x (2269.1 – 782.44) = 425.2 kJ/kg.

(p3v3 – p4v4) R (T3 – T4) 0.287 x (2269.1 – 1271.6)

w3-4 = ----------------- = ---------------- = ---------------------------------
(ne – 1) (ne – 1) (1.30 – 1)

= 951.4 kJ/kg.

w4-1 = 0 as process 4-1 is at constant volume.

Hence net work out put = wn = − 431.2 + 425.2 + 951.4 = 945.3 kJ/kg.

171
(iii) specific volume at state 1 = v1 = RT1 / p1 = 287 x 300 / 1 x105

= 0.861 m3/kg.

Therefore v2 = v1 / Rc = 0.861 / 20 = 0.04305 m3/kg.

wn 945.3 x 1000
MEP = --------------- = ----------------------
(v1 – v2) [0.861 – 0.04305]

= 11.597 x 10 5 N/m2 = 11.597 bar.

(iv) q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005 x (2269.1 – 782.440 = 1494 kJ/kg.

q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x ( 300 – 1271.6) = − 698.3 kJ/kg.

Applying I law for process 1-2 we have

q1-2 = w1-2 + (u2 – u1) = w1-2 + Cv(T2 – T1)

= − 431.2 + 0.718 x (782.44 – 300) = − 84.32 kJ/kg

Applying I law for the cycle we have

q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1 = wn

Or q3-4 = wn − (q1-2 + q2-3 + q4-1)

= 945.3 − (− 84.32 + 1494 − 698.3) = 233.92 kJ/kg

Total heat supplied during the cycle = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 = 1494 + 233.92 = 1727.9 kJ/kg

945.3
Thermal efficiency of the engine = η Engine = wn / qs = ------------
1727.9

= 0.547 = 54.7 %.

(v) Air standard efficiency of the diesel cycle is given by

(ργ – 1) (2.9 1.4 – 1)

ηDiesel = 1 – -------------------------- = 1 − ----------------------------
γ Rc(γ – 1) (ρ – 1) 1.4 x 20 0.4x (2.9 – 1)

= 0.6098 = 60.98 %

172
Relative efficiency = η Engine / ηDiesel = 0.547 / 0.6098 = 0.897 = 89.7 %.

Example 4.12:- In an air standard diesel cycle, air is compressed isentropically from 26 C and
105 kPa to 3.7 MPa. The entropy change during heat rejection process is − 0.6939 kJ/kg-K.
Determine (i) heat supplied per unit mass of air, (ii)thermal efficiency, (iii) maximum
temperature in the cycle, and (iv) temperature at the start of the heat rejection process.

Given:- T1 = 26 + 273 = 299 K ; p1 = 105 kPa ; p2 = 3.7 x 10 3 kPa ; s1 – s4 = − 0.6939 kJ/(kg-

K).

To find :- (i) q2-3 ; (ii) η Diesel ; (iii) T3 ; (iv) T4

The p-v and T-s diagram for the air standard diesel cycle are shown in Fig. E3412.

It follows from the T-s diagram that s2 – s3 = s1 – s4

Process 2-3 is at constant pressure. Therefore

s3 – s2 = Cp ln (T3 / T2). Or T3 / T2 = exp {(s3 – s2) / Cp}

Or T3 / T2 = exp {0.6939 / 1.005} = 1.995

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ

= 299 x {3.7 x 10 3 / 105 }0.286 = 828 K

Hence T3 = 1.995 x 828 = 1651.86 K

(i) Heat supplied per unit mass of air = q2-3 = Cp(T3 – T2) = 1.005 x (1651.86 – 828)

= 828 kJ/kg.

(ii)For process 4-1 which is at constant volume we have

s1 – s4 = Cv ln (T1 / T4)

Hence T4 = T1 exp {(s4 – s1) / Cv}

= 299 x exp {0.6939 / 0.718}

= 784.9 K.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q4-1 = Cv(T1 – T4) = 0.718 x (299 – 784.9)

= − 349.4 kJ/kg.

173
Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 828 – 349.4 = 478.6 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηDiesel = wn / q2-3 = 478.6 / 828

= 0.578 = 57.8 %.

(iii) Maximum temperature in the cycle = T3 = 1651.86 K.

(iv) Temperature at the start of heat rejection process = T4 = 784.9 K.

4.7. Dual - Combustion Cycle or Semi-Diesel Cycle or Limited Pressure Cycle: In practice,
the p-V diagrams taken from oil engines indicate that the combustion do not take place at
constant pressure as in a diesel cycle, but is found to take place partly at constant volume and
partly at
constant pressure. Hence for most oil engines the ideal cycle is taken as one in which heating
takes place partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure. Such a cycle is called as
“dual combustion or semi-diesel cycle”. The p-V and T-s diagrams for a dual combustion cycle
are shown in Fig.4.6.

4
p 3 4 Constant
pressure
process 5
s = const. 3
2

5
2
Constant
1 volume
1 process
V

Fig. 4.6 : p-V and T-s diagrams for dual combustion cycle.

Process 1-2:- Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2-3:- Constant volume heating of air from state 2 to state 3.

Process 3-4:- Constant pressure heating of air till maximum permissible temperature is
reached.

174
Process 4-5:- Isentropic expansion of air from state 4 to state 5. During this process work
is done by air on the surroundings.

Process 5-1:- Constant volume cooling of air till the air comes back to its original state to
complete the cycle.

4.7.1.Expressions for net work output and thermal efficiency

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 = Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q5-1 = Cv (T1 – T5)

Net work out put per unit mass of air = wn = ∑w = ∑q = qs + q5-1

Or wn = Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3) + Cv (T1 – T5)

Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3) + Cv (T1 – T5)

Hence thermal efficiency = η Dual = wn / qs = ---------------------------------------------------
Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)

Cv (T5 – T1)
= 1 − ---------------------------------- ……………(4.22)
Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp (T4 – T3)

The temperatures T2, T3, T4, and T5 can be expressed in terms of T1 as follows.

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = (V1 / V2) (γ – 1) T1 = Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 2-3, p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3, and V2 = V3.

Hence T3 = (p3 / p2) T2 = Rp Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 3-4, p3V3 / T3 = p4V4 / T4, and p3 = p4.

Hence T4 = (V4 / V3) T3 = ρ Rp Rc(γ – 1) T1.

For process 4-5 we have T5 = (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) T4 = {(V4 / V3)(V3 / V1)} (γ – 1) T4

= {ρ / Rc}(γ – 1) ρ Rp Rc(γ – 1) T1

= ρ γ Rp T1

Substituting these expressions in Eq. (3.22) we have

175
 T1 [ρ γ Rp − 1]
η Dual = 1 − -----------------------------------------------------------------------
T1[{Rp Rc(γ – 1) − Rc(γ – 1) } + γ{ ρ Rp Rc(γ – 1) − Rp Rc(γ – 1)}]

[ρ γ Rp − 1]
η Dual = 1 − --------------------------------------------- ……………………….(4.23)
Rc (γ – 1) [ (Rp – 1) + γ Rp (ρ – 1) ]

It can be seen from Eq. (3.23) that the air standard efficiency of the dual combustion cycle
depends on the compression ratio Rc, the pressure ratio Rp and the cutoff ratio ρ.
The effect of these parameters on efficiency is shown in Fig.3.7. It can bessen from this figure
that for given values of Rp and ρ , the efficiency increase with Rc, rapidly for small values of
Rc, but gradually for higher values of Rc. For a given value of Rc and Rp, the
efficiency decreases with increase in the cut – off ratio and for given values of Rcand ρ, the
efficiency increases with increase in Rp.

η Dual

Rp

Rc

Fig. 4.7: Effect of Rc, Rp and ρ on efficiency of dual cycle

It can also be seen from Eq.(4.23) that this expression reduces to that of the diesel cycle if Rp
= 1 and to that of Otto cycle if ρ = 1. It is also clear from this expression that the efficiency of
the dual combustion cycle is intermediate between those of an Otto cycle and a Diesel cycle
which have the same compression ratio and same cut-off ratio.

Example 4.13:- The compression and expansion ratios of an oil engine working on a dual
cycle are 9 and 5 respectively. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 30 C. The
heat added at constant pressure is twice that added at constant volume. Determine the thermal
efficiency and the mean effective pressure.

Given : Rc = V1 / V2 = 9 ; Re = V5 / V4 = 5 ; p1 = 1 bar ; T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K ;

176
q 3-4 = 2 q 2-3 ;

To find :- (i) η Dual ; (ii) MEP

Solution: Refer to p – V diagram shown in Fig. E4.13.

(i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 Rc (γ – 1) = 303 x 9 0.4 = 729.7 K.

Compression ratio (V1 / V2) 9

Cut off ratio = V4 / V3 = ---------------------------- = ----------------- = -------
Expansion ratio (V5 / V4) 5

= 1.8.

For process 3-4, p3V3 / T3 = p4V4/T4 and p3 = p4.

Hence T4 = (V4 / V3) T3 = 1.8 T3 …………………………….(a)

Also q3-4 = 2 q 2-3

i.e., Cp (T4 – T3) = 2Cv(T3 – T2)

or (γ / 2) [1.8 T3 – T3] = T3 – T2

T2 729.7
Or T3 = ------------------ = ----------------------
[1 – 0.8(γ / 2)] [1 – 0.8 x 1.4 / 2]

= 1658.7 K.

Hence T4 = 1.8 x 1658.7 = 2985.4 K

Process 5-1 is isentropic. Hence T5 = T4 (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) = 2985.4 x (1 / 5) 0.4

= 1568.2 K.

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 = 3q 2-3 = 3 Cv (T3 – T2)

= 3 x 0.718 x (1658.7 – 729.7)

= 2003.85 kJ/kg.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q5-1 = Cv(T1 – T5) = 0.718 x (303 – 1568.2)

= − 909.7 kJ/kg.

177
(Negative sign for q5-1 indicates that during the process heat is transferred from air to the
surroundings).

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 2003.85 – 909.7 = 1094.15 kJ/kg

wn 1094.15
Thermal efficiency = η Dual = ------------ = ------------------ = 0.546 = 54.6 %.
qs 2003.85

287 x 303
Specific volume of air before compression = v1 = RT1 / p1 = ------------------------
1 x 10 5

= 0.8666 m3 / kg.

Specific volume after compression = v2 = v1 / Rc = 0.8666 / 9

= 0.0963 m3 / kg.

wn 1094.15 x 1000
Mean effective pressure = MEP = ----------------- = -----------------------
(v1 – v2) (0.8666 – 0.0963)

= 14.2 x 10 5 N/m2 = 14.2 bar.

Example 4.14:- The maximum and the compression pressures in a dual cycle are 64 bar and
32 bar respectively. The compression curve is polytropic with index n = 1.35. The pressure in
the cycle after 1/3rd of the compression stroke is completed is 1.65 bar. If 60 percent of the
energy addition occurs at constant volume while 40 percent occurs at constant pressure, find
(i) the compression ratio, (ii) the suction pressure, (iii)work output if the expansion index is
1.34, and (iv) thermal efficiency.

178
 p Given:- p3 = p4 = 64 bar
3 4
p2 = 32 bar; nc = 1.35 ; ne = 1.34 ;
pVne = const
pVnc = const pa = 1.65 bar ; q2-3 = 0.6 qs;
2
q3-4 = 0.4 qs ;

V1 – Va = (1/3) (V1 – V2)

5 To find:- (i) Rc ; (ii) p1 ; (iii) wn ;

a
1 (iv) η Dual

V
Va V1

Solution: (i) V1 – Va = (1/3) (V1 – V2) or Va = V1 – (1/3) (V1 – V2)

Hence Va / V2 = (2/3)(V1/V2) + 1/3 ……..(a)

Now paVanc = p2V2nc or Va / V2 = (p2/pa) 1 / nc

Or Va / V2 = (32 / 1.65) 1 / 1.35 = 8.99

Substituting this in Eq.(a) and solving for (V1 / V2) we have

(8.99 x 1/3)
Compression ratio = V1 / V2 = ---------------- = 13
(2/3)

(ii)For process 1-2 we have p1 = (V2 / V1) nc p2 = (1 /13) 1.35 x 32

= 1.003 bar.

(iii) It is not possible to calculate the temperatures at staes 2, 3, 4 and 5 unless temperature at
state 1 is known. Since T1 is not given it is assumed as 300 K.

Hence for process 1-2, T2 = T1 (V1 / V2) (nc – 1) = 300 x 13 0.35

= 736.21 K.

For process 2-3 we p2V2 / T2 = p3V3 / T3 and V2 = V3.

179
Hence T3 = T2(p3 / p2) = 736.21 x (64 / 32)

= 1472.42 K.

q2-3 0.6 qs
Now ---------------- = ----------- = 1.5
q3-4 0.4 qs

Therefore q2-3 = 1.5 q3-4 Or Cv (T3 – T2) = 1.5 Cp (T4 – T3)

Or T4 = T3 + (1/ 1.5)(1 / γ) [T3 – T2]

= 1472.42 + (1/1.5) x (1/ 1.4) x [1472.42 – 736.21]

= 1823 K.

Cut off ratio = ρ = V4 / V3 = T4 / T3 = 1823 / 1472.42 = 1.24

Compression ratio 13
Expansion ratio = V5 / V4 = ----------------------- = --------- = 10.5
Cut-off ratio 1.24

For the expansion process 4-5 we have, T5 = T4 (V4/V5) (ne – 1)

= 1823 x (1/10.5) 0.34

= 819.6 K.

Since the index for compression process and expansion process are not equal to γ, these
processes are not isentropic. Therefore there will be heat transfers during these processes
which have to be determined to know the total heat supplied during the cycle.

(p1v1 – p2v2) R (T1 – T2) 0.287 x (300 – 736.21)

Now w1-2 = ----------------- = ----------------------- = -----------------------------
(nc – 1) (nc – 1) 0.35

= − 356.5 kJ/kg.

w2-3 = 0 as the process is at constant volume.

w3-4 = p3(v4 – v5) = p4v4 − p5v5 = R(T4 – T5) = 0.287 x (1823 – 1472.42)

= 100.3 kJ/kg.

180
 (p4v4 – p5v5) R (T4 – T5) 0.287 x (1823 – 819.6)
w4-5 = ----------------- = ----------------------- = -----------------------------
(ne – 1) (ne – 1) 0.34

= 844 kJ/kg.

w5-1 = 0 as the process is at constant volume.

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-5 + w5-1

= − 356.5 + 0 + 100.3 + 844 + 0

= 587.8 kJ/kg.

(ii) Now for process 4-5 by I law q4-5 = w4-5 + Cv(T5 – T4)

= 844 + 0.718 x (819.6 – 1823) = 122.55 kJ/kg.

Total heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-5

= Cv(T3 – T2) + Cp(T4 – T3) + q4-5

= 0.718 x(1472.42 – 736.21)

+ 1.005 x(1823 – 1472.42) + 122.55

= 1004.25 kJ/kg

587.80
Thermal efficiency = η Dual = wn / qs = --------------- = 0.5853 = 58.53 %
1004.25

Example 4.15:- . A diesel engine works between the temperatures of 1250 C and 25 C. The
energy addition during combustion is 550 kJ /kg. A dual combustion cycle operates between
the same temperature limits, and has the same total energy addition as for diesel cycle except
that this energy is equally divided between the constant volume and constant pressure
processes. Compare the efficiencies of the two cycles. Hence show using T-s diagram that the
diesel cycle is more efficient than the dual cycle under the same maximum and minimum
temperatures as well as the same amount of heat addition.

181
 p p
2 3 3 4

4 5

1 1
V
V
Diesel Cycle Dual combustion cycle

(i) Analysis of diesel cycle:- Given: Tmax = T3 = 1250 + 273 = 1523 K ;

Tmin = T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K ; qs = q 2-3 = 550 kJ/kg.

To find: η Diesel and compare it with η Dual.

Solution: q2-3 = Cp (T3 – T2). Or T2 = T3 – q2-3 / Cp = 1523 – 550 / 1.005

= 975.74 K .

Cut – off ratio = ρ = V3 / V2 = T3 / T2 = 1523 / 975.74 = 1.56.

Compression ratio = Rc = V1 / V2 = (T2 / T1) 1 / (γ – 1) = (975.74 / 298) 1 / 0.4

= 19.4
1 [ρ γ – 1]
Thermal efficiency = η Diesel = 1 − ------------------- x -------------
γ Rc(γ – 1) [ρ – 1]

1 [ 1.56 1.4 – 1]
= 1 − ----------------- x ------------------
1.4 x 19.4 0.4 [ 1.56 – 1]

= 0.6635 = 66.35 %

(ii) Analysis of Dual combustion cycle: Given:- q2-3 = q3-4 = (1/2) x550 = 275 kJ/kg ;

182
 Tmax = T4 = 1523 K ; Tmin = T1 = 298 K ;

To find: η Dual and compare it with η Diesel

q 3-4 = Cp(T4 – T3) or T3 = T4 – q3-4 / Cp = 1523 – 275 / 1.005

= 1249.4 K

Similarly T2 = T3 – q2-3 / Cv = 1249.4 – 275 / 0.718

= 866.5 K.

Compression ratio = V1 / V2 = (T2 / T1) (γ – 1) = (866.5 / 298) 0.4

= 14.4

Cut-off Ratio = V4 / V3 = T4 / T3 = 1523 / 1249

= 1.22

Compression ratio 14.4

Expansion ratio = V5 / V4 = ------------------------ = ------------
Cut –off ratio 1.22

= 11.8

For expansion process 4-5 we have T5 = T4 (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) = 1523 x (1/11.8) 0.4

= 567.4 K.

Heat rejected per unit mass of air = q5-1 = Cv (T1 – T5) = 0.718 x (298 – 567.4)

= − 193.7 kJ/kg

( 550 – 193.7)
Thermal efficiency = η Dual = ------------------- = 0.6478 = 64.78 %.
550

Comparing the two efficiencies we have η Diesel > η Dual

The comparison is shown on the T-s diagram below.

183
 T

Example 4.16:- In a dual cycle, two thirds of the total energy added occurs at constant
volume.. If the compression ratio is 15, and the maximum pressure in the cycle is 53 bar,
compute(i)the temperatures at the salient points of the cycle, and (ii) thermal efficiency.
Assume standard conditions of air at the start of the compression process. Assume the
minimum temperature and pressure in the cycle to be 27 C and 1 bar.

p 3 4 Given:- q2-3 = (2/3) qs ;

q3-4 = (1/3) qs ; V1 / V2 = 15 ;

pmax = p3 = p4 = 53 bar ;
2
Tmin = T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ;

pmin = p1 = 1 bar.

To find:- (i) T2, T3, T4, T5

5
(ii) η Dual
1

Solution: (i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (V1 / V2) (γ – 1)

Or T2 = 300 x 15 0.4 = 880.3 K.

184
Also p2 = p1(V1/V2) γ = 1 x 15 1.4 = 44.3 bar.

For process 2-3 we have T3 = T2 (p3 / p2) = 880.3 x (53 / 44.3)

= 1053.2 K.

q2-3 = Cv(T3 – T2) = 0.718 x (1053.2 – 880.3) = 123.85 kJ/kg.

Hence qs = (3/2) x 123.85 = 185.775 kJ/kg.

Therefore q3-4 = (1 / 3) x 185.775 = 61.925 kJ/kg

Now q3-4 = Cp (T4 – T3). Or T4 = T3 + q3-4 / Cp = 1053.2 + 61.925 / 1.005 = 1114.82 K

Cut – off ratio = V4 / V3 = T4 / T3 = 1114.82 / 1053.2 = 1.06

Expansion ratio = V5 / V4 = 15 / 1.06 = 14.15.

Hence T5 = T4 (V4 / V5) (γ – 1) = 1114.82 x (1 / 14.15) 0.4

= 386.3 K.

Heat rejected = q5-1 = Cv(T1 – T5) = 0.718 x (300 – 386.3)

= 61.96 kJ/kg

Net work out put = wn = 185.775 – 61.96 = 123.815 kJ/kg.

Thermal efficiency = η Dual = 123.815 / 185.775 = 0.6665

= 66.65 %.
4.8. Comparison between Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles:- The important
variables which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles are compression ratio, peak
pressure, heat supplied, heat rejected and the net work output. In order to compare the
performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles some of these variables have to be
fixed.

4.8.1. Comparison with same compression ratio and heat supply: The comparison of these
cycles for the same compression ratio and same heat supply are shown in Fig. 4.8 on both p –
V and T – s diagrams.In these diagrams, cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents Otto

185
 T 3
p
3’’
3’
2’’
3 4’
2’’ 3’’ 4”
3’ 4
2
4’
4’’ 2
4
1
1
V s
5 6 6” 6’
Fig.4.8: Comparison with same compression ratio and heat supply

Cycle, cycle 1-2-3’-4’-1 represents diesel cycle and cycle 1-2”-3”-4”-1 represents the dual
combustion cycle for the same compression ratio and heat supply.

From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that area 5236 = area 522”3”6” = area
523’6’ as this area represents the heat supply which is same for all the cycles.All the cycles
start from the same initial point 1 and the air is compressed from state 1 to state 2 as the
compression ratio is same. It is seen from the T-s diagram, that for the same heat supply, the
heat rejection in Otto cycle (area 5146) is minimum and heat rejection in Diesel cycle (area
514’6’) is maximum. Consequently Otto cycle has the highest work output and efficiency.
Diesel cycle has the least efficiency and dual cycle has the efficiency between the two.

4.8.2:- Same compression ratio and heat rejection:- Fig. 4.9 shows the comparison between
the Otto cycle and Diesel cycle on p-V and T-s diagrams.Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents the Otto
cycle and cycle 1-2-3’-4-1 represents the Diesel cycle.

186
 T
p 3
3
3’

2 3’
4
2
4

1 1
5 6
V
s
Fig. 4.9: Same compression ratio and same heat rejection

Since both the cycles start from the same state point 1 and the heat rejection is same for both
the cycles state 4 is same for both the cycles. Also since the compression ratio is same for both
the cycles the state after compression process (state 2) is same for both the cycles.It can be
seen from the T-s diagram that the area representing the Otto cycle (area 1234) is more than
that representing the Diesel cycle (area 123’4). Hence the work output for the Otto cycle is
more than that for the Diesel cycle.Thermal efficiency of any power cycle can be expressed as

Heat supply – Heat rejection Heat rejection

Thermal efficiency = ----------------------------------- = 1 − -----------------------
Heat supply Heat supply

Since the heat rejection is same for both the cycle and heat supply for Otto cycle (area 2365) is
more than that for the Diesel cycle (area 23’65), thermal efficiency for the Otto cycle is higher
than that for the diesel cycle.

4.8.3:Same peak pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection: Fig. 4.10 show the
comparison, on p-V and T-s diagrams, between Otto and Diesel cycles with same peak
pressure, peak temperature and heat rejection.Cycle 1-2-3-4-1 represents the Otto cycle,

187
 p
T
3

2’ 3 4

2’
2
4
2
1 1
5 6
V s

Fig. 4.10: Same peak pressure, same peak temperature and same
heat rejection

Cycle 1-2’-3-4-1 represents the Diesel cycle. It can be seen from the T-s diagram that area
representing the Diesel cycle (area 12’34) is more than that representing the Otto cycle (area
1234) and hence Diesel cycle has higher work output than Otto cycle.It can also be seen that
the heat supply for Diesel cycle (area 52’36) is more than that for Otto cycle (area 5236). Since
the heat rejection is same for both the cycles, it follows that the thermal efficiency for the
Diesel cycle is more than that for the Otto cycle for the same peak pressure, peak temperature
and same heat rejection.

4.9. Stirling Cycle The Carnot power cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of its
low work output. Hence one of the modified forms of the cycle to produce higher mean
effective pressure with the efficiency equal to Carnot efficiency is the Stirling cycle. The
Stirling cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant volume processes. The heat rejection
and addition take place at constant temperatures. The p-V and T-s diagrams for the Stirling
cycle are shown in Fig. 4.11. It is clear from the T-s diagram that the amount of heat addition
and rejection during constant volume processes is same.Hence the thermal efficiency of the
cycle is given as:

∑w ∑q
ηStirling = ------------------ = -------------------
qs q3-4

q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q-41

= -------------------------------------
q3-4

Now q2-3 = −q4-1.

188
 q1-2 + q3-4 RT3 ln(V4/V3) + RT1 ln(V2/V1)
ηStirling = ----------------- = --------------------------------------
q3-4 RT3 ln(V4/V3)

Since V4 = V1 and V3 = V2, the above expression for efficiency reduces to

T3 – T1
ηStirling = ------------
T3

This expression is same as that for a Carnot cycle working between the same temperature
limits.
The Stirling cycle was used for hot air engines and became obsolete as Otto and Diesel
cycle came into use. The design of stirling engines involves a major difficulty in the design of
a heat exchanger to achieve the heat transfer processes at constant volume and to operate at
high temperature continuously. However, with the development of new materials and intensive
research on this engine, Stirling engine has staged a come back. Since the heat exchanger
cannot have 100 % efficiency in practice, the thermal efficiency of a practical Stirling engine
will be less than that for a Carnot engine working between the same temperature limits.

Fig. 4.11 : p-v and T-s diagram for the Stirling Cycle

189
 4.10. Gas Turbine Cycles
4.10.1. Assumptions for analysis of Ideal Gas Turbine Cycles :- Following assumptions are
made to analyse ideal gas turbine cycles:
(i) The working substance is air and air behaves as a perfect gas
(ii) Expansion and compression processes are isentropic.
(iii) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components as well as in
the heat exchangers.
(iv) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the fluid are negligible
(v) Flow through various components is one dimensional, steady and uniform

4.10.2. Brayton Cycle (Simple Gas Turbine Cycle):- Brayton cycle is the basic cycle for the
simple gas turbine power plant.The p-v and T-s diagram for this cycle is shown in Fig.4.12.It
can be seen from these diagrams that the cycle consists of two isentropic processes and two
constant pressure processes. The schematic for the cycle is shown in Fig. 4.13.

p
T 3

2 3
4

1 4 1
s
v

Fig.4.12: p-v and T – s diagrams for a Brayton cycle

Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.

Process 2 – 3: Constant pressure heating of air in the heater till the maximum permissible
temperature is reached.

Process 3 – 4: Isentropic expansion of air in the turbine. During this process work is done by
air on the surroundings. Part of this work is used to drive the compressor.

Process 4 – 1: Constant pressure cooling of air in the intercooler till the air comes back to its
original state.(Process 4-1 is executed only in a closed cycle gas turbine plant, where as in an

190
open cycle plant air is exhausted from the turbine and fresh air is drawn in from the
atmosphere by the compressor)

.
Qs
.
m

2 3
. .
Wc T Wt
C

1 4
C: Compressor
T: Turbine
CC: Combustion
IC Chamber
.
Qr IC: Inter cooler

Fig. 4.13: Schematic for Brayton cycle

Expression for thermal efficiency in terms of the pressure ratio Rp :

Applying steady flow energy equation to the compressor and neglecting the changes in kinetic
and potential energies we have

Energy entering the compressor = Energy leaving the compressor

. . .
Or W c + m h 1 = m h2
. . .
Or Wc = m (h2 – h1) = m Cp[T2 – T1] ...................................4.24
. .
Compressor work per unit mass = wc = Wc / m = Cp[T2 – T1] …………………...4.25

Similarly applying steady flow energy equation to the turbine we have

. . .
Wt = m (h3 – h4) = m Cp[T3 – T4] ...................................4.26
. .
And turbine work per unit mass = wt = Wt / m = Cp [T3 – T4] …………………..4.27

The heat supplied in the heater similarly is given by

. . .
Qs = m (h3 – h2) = m Cp[T3 – T2] ....................................4.28
. .
And heat supply per unit mass = qs = Qs / m = Cp[T3 – T4] ……………………….4.29

191
Net work out put per unit mass = wn = wt – wc

= Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

Thermal efficiency of the cycle = η = wn / qs

Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

= -----------------------------------
Cp[T3 – T2]

[T4 – T1] T1[(T4 / T1) − 1]

Or η = 1 − ------------------- = 1 − --------------------- ..........................................4.30
[T3 – T2] T2[(T3 / T2) − 1]

Process 1-2 is isentropic and the working substance is assumed to behave as a perfect gas.

Hence T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ

Similarly for process 3-4 we have T3 / T4 = (p3 / p4) (γ – 1) / γ

Since it is assumed that there are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various
components and in the heat exchangers

p2 / p1 = p3 / p4 = Rp ……………………….4.31

Therefore it follows that T2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = Rp(γ – 1) / γ ……………………………4.32

Substituting this expression in equation 4.30 we get after simplification

1
η = 1 − ------------------- ………………………4.33
Rp(γ – 1) / γ

Equation 4.33 indicates that the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle depends on the
pressure ratio Rp. The effect of Rp on the efficiency is shown in Fig 4.14(a).It can be seen from
this figure that initially the efficiency rapidly increases with the pressure ratio but as Rp
increases the rate of increase of efficiency decreases.

Expression for net work output in terms of pressure ratio Rp and the maximum cycle
temperature ratio t:

Net work output per unit mass = wn = Cp[(T3 – T4) – (T2 – T1)]

= CpT1 [(T3 / T1) – (T4 / T1) – (T2 / T1) + 1] ………….4.34

192
 80

60
η
40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rp

Fig.4.14(a) : Effect of pressure ratio on efficiency of a Brayton cycle

T3 / T1 is the ratio of maximum temperature in the cycle to minimum cycle temperature and it
is normally denoted by ‘t’.
t
T4 / T1 = (T4 / T3) (T3 / T1) = -----------------
Rp(γ – 1) / γ.

Substituting these expressions in Eq.3.34 we get

wn = CpT1[ t – {t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ} – Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]

Or wn* = wn / (CpT1) = [ t – {t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ} – Rp (γ – 1) / γ + 1]……………4.35

In Eq. 4.35 wn* represents dimensionless net work output and depends
not only on the pressure ratio but also on the maximum cycle temperature ratio t. This is
illustrated in Fig. 4.14(b).

193
 1.4 wn*

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
Rp
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fig. 4.14(b): Effect of Rp and t on net work output for Brayton cycle

For a given value of t we can find the pressure ratio Rp which gives maximum net work output
by differentiating the expression for wn* with respect to Rp and equating it to zero. Thus

dwn*
---- = CpT1[ 0 – {t (1 – γ) / γ}Rp{(1 - γ ) / γ } – 1 - {(γ – 1) / γ}Rp{(γ – 1)/ γ } – 1 ] = 0
dRp

Or t Rp(1 - 2γ) / γ = Rp- (1 / γ)

Or Rp = t γ / 2 (γ – 1) ………………………………4.36

It also follows from Eq. (4.36) that for maximum work output

√t = Rp(γ – 1) / γ = T2 / T1 = T3 / T4.

Hence (T2 / T1) x (T3 / T4) = (√t) x (√t) = t.

But T3 / T1 = t and consequently it follows that T2 = T4. Thus the specific work output is a
maximum when the pressure ratio is such that the compressor and turbine outlet temperatures
are equal.
If this value of Rp is substituted in the expression for wn we get the expression for maximum
work output from a Brayton cycle as follows:

(wn)max = CpT1[t – (t / √t) – (√ t) + 1] = CpT1[ t – 2 √t + 1]

Or (wn) max = CpT1[√ t – 1]2 ……………………..4.37

194
The efficiency corresponding to the maximum work output is given by
1
η* = 1 − ------------------- ………………….4.38
√t

4.10.3. Brayton Cycle with Regenerator (Exhaust Heat Exchanger) :- The thermal efficiency
of a Brayton cycle can be increased by incorporating an heat exchanger to heat the air coming
from the compressor internally before it enters the combustion chamber. By so doing the
external heat supplied is decreased without any change in the
net work ouput from the cycle. A schematic of a gas turbine cycle employing an exhaust heat
exchanger is shown in Fig. 4.15 (a) and the corresponding T-s diagram is shown in
Fig.4.15(b).
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor. During this process work is done
on air by the surroundings.
Process 2-5: Constant pressure heating of air in the regenerator. During this process the air
absorbs heat from the exhaust gases coming out of the turbine.
Process 5-3: Constant pressure heating of air in the combustion chamber using an external
source till the maximum permissible temperature is reached.

Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of air in the turbine. During this process work is done by air
on the surroundings. Part of this work is used to drive the compressor.
Process 4-6: Constant pressure cooling of exhaust from the turbine in the regenerator. During
this process heat is transferred from the exhaust gases to the incoming air from
the compressor.

Regenerator .
Qs
6
4
. .
Wc 2 5 3 Wt

Fig. 4.15 (a): Schematic for Brayton cycle with regenerator

195
 3
T
1-2-5-3-4-6-1 = cycle
with exhaust heat
exchanger.
5 4
1-2-3-4-1 = Brayton
2 cycle
6

Fig. 4.15(b): T-s diagram for Brayton cycle with exhaust exchanger

Expression for Thermal Efficiency:- While deriving the expression for thermal efficiency it is
assumed that the effectiveness of the exhaust heat exchanger is 100
percent i.e. the incoming air from the compressor is heated to the temperature of the exhaust
gases entering the exchanger(T5 = T4).The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as
follows:
Actual heat transferred to air in the regenerator
Effectiveness = ε = ---------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum possible heat transfer in the regenerator

Cp [ T3 – T5] [ T3 – T5]
ε = ------------------ = ------------- .............................................4.39
Cp [T3 – T4] [T3 – T4]

Net work ouput per unit mass = wn = wt – wc = Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1]

External heat supply per unit mass = qs = Cp[T3 – T5] = Cp[T3 – T4]

wn Cp[T3 – T4] – Cp[T2 – T1] [T2 – T1]

Thermal efficiency = η = ------- = ---------------------------------- = 1 − ---------------
qs Cp[T3 – T4] [T3 – T4]

T1[(T2 / T1) − 1]
= 1 − -----------------------
T4[(T3 / T4) − 1]

Since T2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = Rp(γ – 1) / γ, it follows that

196
 η = 1 − (T1/T4) = 1 − (T1/T3) (T3/T4)

Rp(γ – 1) / γ
Or η = 1 − ------------------ ............................................4.40
t

It can be seen from Eq. 3.40 that the thermal efficiency of this cycle depends both on the
pressure ratio Rp and the maximum cycle temperature ratio t. The effects of these two
parameters on efficiency are shown in Fig. 4.16. The efficiency curve for simple cycle is also
shown in this figure for comparison.

It can be seen from the figure and it is evident from Eq. 4.39, that for a given
value of “t”, the thermal efficiency decreases with increase in Rp and for a given value of Rp
the efficiency increases with increase in t.The efficiency curves for different values of t have
been drawn upto a value of Rp where the curve intersects the curve for simple cycle. Beyond
this value of Rp , for any Rp, the temperature of the exhaust gases from the turbine will be less
than that for air coming out of the compressor and therefore adding an exhaust heat exchanger
will deteriorate the performance of the cycle.

80

60
η

40

20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fig. 4.16: Effects of pressure ratio and maximum cycle temperature

ratio on efficiency for a cycle with exhaust heat exchanger
4.10.4. Gas Turbine Cycle With Multi-Stage Expansion:- The net work out put from a
Brayton cycle can be increased either by employing multi-stage compression with intercooling
between the stages or by using multi-stage expansion with reheating in between the stages. By
employing multi-stage expansion with reheating in between the stages, the total turbine work
as compared to single stage expansion is increased resulting an increase in the net work
output.A schematic of an ideal gas turbine cycle employing

197
two stages of expansionwith reheating in between the stages is shown in Fig. 4.16(a). The
corresponding T-s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig.4.16 (b).

q2-3
q4-5 Heater H2 Heater H1

4 2
5
3 wc
T2 T1 C

wt1 wt2

1
6

Fig. 4.16(a): Schematic for a gas turbine cycle with multi stage expansion

Air from atmosphere is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2 in the compressor C .It
is then heated at constant pressure in the heater H1 till the maximum permissible temperature
T3 is reached. Then the air is expanded isentropically in the first stage turbine T1 from state 3 to
state 4. It is then heated at constant pressure in the second heater H2 till the maximum
permissible temperature T5 (T5 = T3) is reached. The air is finally expanded isentropically in
the second stage turbine from state 5 to state 6.In the open cycle the air from the turbine is
exhausted to the atmosphere and fresh air is drawn in by the compressor for the next cycle of
operation, where as in the closed cycle the exhaust from the turbine is cooled back to its
original temperature in another heat exchanger and fed to the compressor for the cycle to be
repeated.

198
 3 5
T

4 6

Fig. 4.16(b): T – s diagram for a gas turbine cycle with two stage expansion
It can be seen from the T-s diagram that by employing multi-stage compression with inter
cooling the area representing the cycle has increased as compared to the area for a Brayton
cycle. Since area of a closed curve on a T-s diagram represents the net work transfer during the
cycle, it follows that the net work output from a cycle with multi stage compression is more
than that for a Bray ton cycle working between the same pressure limits and the same
maximum cycle temperature. As far as heat supply is concerned, it is evident from the T-s
diagram that in the case of the cycle with multi-stage compression the air has to be heated from
a lower temperature (T4 < T2’) than for Brayton cycle. Therefore more heat has to be supplied
in the cycle with multi-stage compression than that required for Brayton cycle. The overall
effect is that the thermal efficiency of the cycle with multi-stage compression will be lower
than that for a simple cycle.

Expressions for Net Work Output and Condition for Maximum Work output:- For the cycle
with multi-stage compression net work output per unit mass of air is given by

wn = (wt1 + wt2) − wc = [Cp (T3 – T4) + Cp (T5 – T6)] – Cp(T2 – T1)

= CpT1[(T3 / T1) – (T4 / T1) + (T5 / T1) – (T6 / T1) − (T2 /T1) + 1] ...........4.41

Assuming the gas is reheated back to its original temperature after I stage expansion (i.e. T5 =
T3) , the above expression reduces to

wn = = CpT1[2(T3 / T1) – (T4 / T1) – (T6 / T1) − (T2 /T1) + 1]

Let p2/p1 = Rc = Pressure ratio for compression,

P3/p4 = R1 = Pressure ratio for first stage expansion

199
and p5 / p6 = R2 = Pressure ratio for second stage expansion.

Now process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ = Rc(γ – 1) / γ

Similarly for expansion process 3-4 we have T4 / T3 = (p4/p3) (γ – 1) / γ = 1 / R1(γ – 1) / γ

And for expansion process 5 -6 we have T6 / T5 = (p6 / p5) (γ – 1) / γ = 1 / R2(γ – 1) / γ

p5 / p6 = p4 / p1 = (p4/p3) (p3 / p1) = (p4 / p3) (p2 / p1)

Hence R2 = Rc / R1 ………………………………….4.42

T3 / T1 = T5 / T1 = maximum cycle temperature ratio = t.

t t R1(γ – 1) / γ
T6 / T1 = (T6 / T5)(T5 / T1) = ------------------ = -------------------
R2(γ – 1) / γ Rc (γ – 1) / γ
t
T4 / T1 = (T4 / T3) (T3 / T1) = -------------------------
R1(γ – 1) / γ

Substituting the expressions for temperature ratios in Eq. 3.41 we have

wn = CpT1[ 2t –{t / R1(γ – 1) / γ } − {tR1 / Rc} (γ – 1) / γ – Rc (γ – 1) / γ + 2] ……………4.43

It can be seen from Eq. 4.43 that for given values of T1 (Atmospheric temperature) and the
overall pressure ratio, Rc wn depends only on R1. Therefore for maximum work output dwn /
dR1 = 0.

i.e. d / dR1({t / R1(γ – 1) / γ } − {tR1 / Rc} (γ – 1) / γ ) = 0

[ (1 – γ) / γ] R1{(1 – γ)/γ} – 1 − {1 / Rc(γ – 1) / γ}{ (γ – 1) / γ}R1 {(γ – 1) / γ} −1 = 0

Or R1 = √ Rp ……………………………………4.44

and R2 = Rp / R1 = √ Rp …………………………..4.45

Therefore, for maximum work out put from a cycle with two stages of compression with inter
cooling in between the stages, the pressure ratio has to be same for both the stages and it
should be equal to the square root of the overall pressure ratio for the cycle.
Since R1 = R2 = √Rp it follows that the intermediate pressure p2 = √(p1p6) i.e. the intermediate
pressure is the geometric mean of the maximum and minimum pressures in the cycle for

200
maximum work output.If this condition is substituted in Eq. 4.43 we get the expression for
maximum work output as :

[wn]max = CpT1[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – 2Rp (γ – 1) / 2γ + 2] …………………………….4.46

Since R1 = R2 and T1 = T3, it follows, that the exit temperature from the second stage is same
the exit temperature from the first stage compression, which means that the work input for the
first stage is same as that for the second stage.

Thermal Efficiency:- Heat supply per unit mass of air is given by

qs = Cp[T5 – T4] = CpT1[(T5 / T1) – (T4 / T1)]

= CpT1[(T5 / T1) – (T4 / T3)] = CpT1[ t – R2(γ – 1) / γ]

Substituting the condition for maximum work output (R2 = √Rp) we get

qs = CpT1[t – Rp (γ – 1) /2 γ ]

Hence thermal efficiency is given by

wn CpT1[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – 2Rp (γ – 1) / 2γ + 2]

η = -------- = --------------------------------------------------------
qs CpT1[t – Rp (γ – 1) /2 γ ]

[ t –{t / Rp(γ – 1) / γ } – 2Rp (γ – 1) / 2γ + 2]

or η = -------------------------------------------------- ...............................4.47
[t – Rp (γ – 1) /2 γ ]

201
 80

60 Fig. 4.17 : Effects

η of Rp and ‘t’ on
thermal efficiency
40 of a cycle with
multi-stage
20 expansion

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rp

The effect of multistage expansion with reheating on efficiency (Eq.4.47) is shown in Fig.4.17.
The efficiency of the simple cycle is also shown in the figure.

4.10.5.Gas Turbine Cycle with Multi-Stage compression and inter cooling:- The net work out
put can also be increased by splitting the compression process and intercooling the gas back to
its original temperature after compression in low pressure stage compressor. It can be shown
that for a cycle with two stages of compression the compressor work input will be a minimum
and hence the work output will be maximum if the pressure ratio is same for both the stages of
compression and equal to the square root of the overall pressure ratio. Since the gas is cooled
after first stage compression the heat supply in this cycle is more than that for a simple cycle
and the overall effect is that the thermal efficiency of this cycle is less than that for a simple
cycle for the same pressure ratio and maximum cycle temperature ratio.

Example 4.17:- An air standard Brayton cycle has air entering the compressor at 100 kPa and
27 0C. The pressure ratio is 10 and themaximum allowable temperature in the cycle is 1350 K.
Determine (i)temperatures at salient points of the cycle, (ii) compressor and turbine work per
unit mass of air, (iii)net work output and work ratio, (iv)thermal efficiency of the cycle, (v)
specific air consumption in kg/kWh, and (vi) improvement in the thermal efficiency of the cycle
if a regenerator with 100 % effectiveness is incorporated in the cycle.

202
 Given: T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; T 3

T3 = 1350 K; p2/p1 = p3/p4 = 10

Assume: γ = 1.4 ; Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K);

5 4
To find : (i) T2 and T4; (ii) wc and wt ;

(iii) wn and wn / wt ; (iv) ηcycle ;

2 6
(v) S A C in kg/kWh
1
(vi) ηcycle for cycle with regenerator
s

Solution:- (i) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 / T1 = (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ

Or T2 = T1 (p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 300 x 10 (1.4 – 1) / 1.4 = 579.6 K

Similarly T4 = T3 (p4/p3) (γ – 1) / γ = 1350 x (1 / 10) (1.4 – 1) / 1.4 = 698.8 K

(ii)compressor work per unit mass = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [579.6 – 300]

= 281 kJ/kg.

Turbine work per unit mass = wt = Cp[T3 – T4] = 1.005 x [1350 – 698.8]

= 654.5 kJ/kg

(iv) Net work output per unit mass = wn = wt – wc = 654.5 – 281

= 373.5 kJ/kg

Work ratio = wn / wt = 373.5 / 654.5 = 0.57

(v) Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = Cp[T3 – T2] = 1.005 x [1350 – 579.6]

= 774.25 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = 373.5 / 774.25 = 0.4824 = 48.24 %

(v) Specific air consumption = SAC = 3600 / wn = 3600 / 373.5 = 9.64 kg / kWh

203
(vi) when a regenerator is incorporated in the cycle then air has to be heated from 5 to 3 (see T-
s diagram) where T5 = T4. Then heat supplied per unit mass of air is given by

qs = Cp[T3 – T5] = 1.005 x [1350 – 698.8]

= 654.5 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = wn / qs = 373.5 / 654.5 = 0.57 = 57 %

Example 4.18:- If the simple gas turbine cycle of example 3.17 is modified such that there are
two stages of compression with intercooling in between the stages, determine the net work
output per unit mass of air and the thermal efficiency of the modified cycle. Assume the
pressure ratio for each stage is such that the work output from the cycle is maximum.Assume
the overall pressure ratio, the minimum cycle temperature and the maximum cycle temperature
to be same as that in example 3.17.

Given: T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; T5 = 1350 K; p5 / p6 = 10

Since the cycle is designed for maximum work output, p2/p1 = p4/p3 = √(p5/p6)

and T3 = T1. Assume γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg –K)

T
5

4 2

3 1

To find: (i) wn ; (ii) ηcycle

Solution: p2/p1 = p4/p3 = √10 = 3.162

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1 (p2 / p1) (γ - 1) /γ

= 300 x (3.162) 0.286

204
 = 417 K.

Similarly T4 = T3 (p4/p3) (γ - 1) /γ
= 300 x (3.162) 0.286 = 417 K

Total compressor work = wc = wc1 + wc2 = 2wc1 = 2 Cp[T2 – T1] = 2 x 1.005 x [417 – 300]

= 235.17 kJ/kg

Turbine work = wt = same as in example 3.17 = 654.5 kJ/kg

(i) net work output = wn = 654.5 – 235.17 = 419.33 kJ/kg

(ii) Heat supplied per unit mass = qs = Cp[T5 – T4] = 1.005 x [1350 – 417]

= 937.7 kJ/kg

ηcycle = wn / qs = 419.33 / 937.7 = 0.447 = 44.7 %

Example 3.19:- An ideal gas turbine cycle has an overall pressure ratio Rp. The compession
takes place in two stages with intercooling in between the stages. If R1 and R2 are the pressure
ratios for the first and second stages of compresion show that for maximum work output from
the cycle
R1 = R2 = √Rp.
Also obtain expressions for the maximum net work output and for the corresponding thermal
efficiency in terms of Rp and the maximum cycle temperature ratio ‘t’.Also draw the schematic
and T-s diagrams for the cycle

Solution:

205
 INTER COOLER qs2
CC
Coolant out
Coolant in

4 5
wc1 2 3
C2 wt
C1 T

1 6
wc2

Fig. :E4.19(a) Schematic for a gas turbine cycle with two stage compression
& Intercooling

T
5

4 2

3 1
s
Fig:E4.19(b) T-s diagram for a gas turbine cycle with multi stage compression
& intercooling

206
Example 4.20:- Determine the net work output and thermal efficiency of an ideal gas turbine
cycle having two stages of compression with intercooling in between the stages and two stages
of expansion with reheating in b

etween the stages. The overall pressure ratio for the cycle is 4 and the maximum cycle
temperature is 900 0C Assume that the atmospheric temperature is 15 0C and the cycle is
designed for maximum work output.
Draw the schematic and T-s diagrams for the cycle.What would be the improvement in the
thermal efficiency if an ideal regenerator is incorporated in the cycle?

Given: Overall pressure ratio = p4 / p1 = p5 / p8 = 4; T5 = T7 = 900 + 273 = 1173 K;

T1 = T3 = 15 + 273 = 288 K; Cycle is designed for maximum work output i.e.

p2 / p1 = p4 / p3 = √ 4 = 2 ; p5 / p6 = p7 / p8 = √4 = 2 ;

Assume γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)

To find:- (i) wn ; (ii) ηcycle ; (iii) improvement in efficiency when an exhaust heat

exchanger is incorporated in the cycle.

qs1

2 3 8
4 5 wt1
C1 C2 T1 T2
wc1 wc2 wt2
1 6 7

qs2

Fig. E4.20(a) : Schematic diagram for Example E4.20

Solution: Process 1-2 is isentropic. Hence T2 = T1(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 288 x 2 0.286

207
 = 351.1 K
Since T3 = T1 and p2/p1 = p4/p3, T4 = T2 and wc1 = wc2.

Therefore total compressor work per unit mass = wc = 2 wc1 = 2Cp[T2 – T1]

T 5 7

9
6 8

4 2

3 1
s
Fig. E4.20 (b): T – s diagram for example E 4.20

Or wc = 2 x 1.005 x [351.1 – 288] = 126.8 kJ / kg.

For expansion process 5-6 we have T6 = T5 (p6/p5) (γ – 1) / γ = 1173 x 2 0.286

208
 = 962 K

Since T7 = T5 and p7/p8 = p5/p6 we have T8 = T6 and wt1 = wt2.

Therefore total turbine work per unit mass = wt = 2 wt1 = 2 Cp[T5 – T6]

Or wt = 2 x 1.005 x [1173 – 962] = 424 kJ/kg

Hence net work output = wn = wt – wc = 424 – 126.8 = 297.2 kj?kg

Total heat supplied per unit mass = qs = qs1 + qs2 = Cp[T5 – T4] + Cp[T7 – T6]

= 1.005 x [1173 – 351.1 + 1173 – 962]

= 1038.1 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = 297.2 / 1038.1 = 0.2863 = 28.63 %

When an ideal exhaust heat exchanger is incorporated in the cycle then air is heated in the heat
exchanger up to a temperature T9 = T8.

Hence total heat supply = qs = Cp[T5 – T9] + Cp[T7 – T6] = 2 Cp{T5 – T9]

= 2 x 1.005 x [1173 – 962 ] = 424.11 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = 297.2 / 424.11 = 0.70 = 70 %.

4.10.7. Practical Gas Turbine Cycles:

Deviations of Practical cycles from Ideal Cycles:

1. It was assumed in the analysis of ideal cycles that the compression and expansion processes
are isentropic (reversible adiabatic). But in actual cycles because of friction the actual
processes will not be isentropic. Therefore in the analysis of practical cycles the frictional
losses during these processes are accounted by defining a parameter called “isentropic
efficiency”. Fig. 4.18 illustrates the actual and isentropic processes on the T-s diagram. For the
compression process the isentropic efficiency is defined as follows:

Isentropic work of compression

Isentropic efficiency of compressor = η c = ----------------------------------------
Actual work of compression

209
 T

2’

Fig. 4.18: Representation of isentropic and actual compression processes

The isentropic efficiency in terms of enthalpies is given by

[h2’ – h1] Cp [T2’ – T1]

ηc = ------------- = -------------------
[h2 – h1] Cp [T2 – T1]

[T2’ – T1]
Or ηc = ------------- ...........................................................................4. 47
[T2 – T1]

Fig 3.19 illustrates the actual and isentropic expansion processes on the T-s diagram. The
isentropic efficiency for an expansion process is given by

Actual work of expansion

Isentropic efficiency of expansion = --------------------------------------------
Isentropis work of expansion

[h3 – h4] Cp [T3 – T4]

i.e. ηt = ------------- = --------------------
[h3 – h4’] Cp [T3 – T4’]

210
 T

4
4’

Fig.4.19: Actual and isentropic expansion processes on the T-s diagram

[T3 – T4]
Or ηt = ---------------- ..........................................................4.48
[T3 – T4’]

Because of frictional losses in the compressor and in the turbine, the actual work of
compression is more than that required for ideal compression and the actual work output from
the turbine is les than that from an ideal turbine and therefore the net work output
from the actual cycle is less than that from an ideal cycle. For the same heat supply the thermal
efficiency of the actual cycle will be less than that for the ideal cycle.

2. In the practical cycle, there will be pressure losses in the piping connecting the various
components as well as in the heat exchanger. Therefore the pressure at inlet to the turbine will
be less than that at the exit of the compressor and the pressure at the exit of the turbine will be
more than that at the inlet to the compressor with the result the pressure ratio for expansion
process is reduced which in turn decreases the turbine work and hence the net work output
from the cycle.

3. In the practical cycle only air is compressed in the compressor where as the products of
combustion undergoes expansion in the turbine. Our assumption of constant specific heat
throughout the cycle is not valid while analyzing the actual cycle. Therefore for practical
cycles it is assumed that γ = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) for the compression process whereas
γ = 1.33 and Cp = 1.148 kJ/(kg-K) for heating and expansion processes.

4. Air-Fuel Ratio: In an actual cycle,because fuel is mixed with air in the combustion
chamber, the mass flow rate during combustion and expansion will be more than the mass flow
rate during compression. An expression for air fuel ratio by mass can be

211
obtained by applying the steady flow energy equation to the combustion chamber as follows

Fuel (mf)

Air (ma) CC Products of

2 3 combustion (ma + mf)

mah2 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) h3 ,

where hf is the calorific value of the fuel and η comb is the combustion efficiency.ηcomb is
introduced in the above equation as all the energy in the fuel will not be released in an
actual combustion process. Assuming that both air and the products of combustion behave as
perfect gases the above equation can be written as

ma CpT2 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) Cp T3

Dividing throughout by mf and solving for the air-fuel ratio ma/mf we have

ma [ ηcomb hf – CpT3]
----- = --------------------- ........................................4.49
mf Cp[T3 – T2]

since hf >> CpT3, the above equation can be approximated as follows:

ma ηcomb hf
----- = --------------------- ........................................4.50
mf Cp[T3 – T2]

Example 4.21:-The pressure ratio of an open cycle gas turbine cycle is 6. The compressor inlet
conditions are 1 bar and 15 0C. The maximum temperature in the cycle is 800 0C. The
isentropic efficiency of compressor is 85 % and that of the turbine is 90 %. The combustion
efficiency is 95 %. There is a pressure drop of 2 % of the inlet pressure in the combustion
chamber. The calorific value of the fuel used is 42,000 kJ/kg.Assuming that the values of γ and

212
Cp remain same throughout the cycle and equal to 1.4and 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) respectively
determine (i)net work output per unit mass of air, (ii) air-fuel ratio, (iii) thermal efficiency of
the plant, (iv) specific fuel combustion in kg/kWh, and (v) power output from the plant for a
mass flow rate of air of 1.0 kg/s.

Given :

p2/p1 = 6 ; T1 = 15 + 273 =288 K ; T

3
ηc = 0.85 ; ηt = 0.90 ; ηcomb = 0.95 ;

T3 = 800 + 273 = 1073 K ;

2 4
p2 – p3 = 0.02 p2 ; p1 = 1 bar ; 4’
2’
hf = 42,000 kJ/kg ; γ = 1.4

Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)

To find: (i) wn; (ii) ma/mf; (iii) ηcycle 1

.
(iv) SFC; (v) Wn if ma = 1 kg / s. s

Solution: Process 1-2’ is isentropic. Hence T2’ = T1(p2/p1) (γ – 1) / γ

Or T2’ = 288 x 6 0.286 = 480.8 K.

(T2’ – T1)
ηc = --------------.
(T2 – T1)
Or T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc = 288 + (480.8 – 288) / 0.85

= 514.8 K

Compressor work per unit mass of air = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [514.8 – 288]

= 227.96 kJ / kg

Pressure at inlet to the turbine = p3 = p2 – 0.02(p2 – p3)

Or p3 = (1- 0.02)p2 / (1 +0.02) = .98 x 6 / 1.02

= 5.765 bar

213
Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Hence T4’ = T3 (p3 / p4’) (γ – 1) / γ = 1073 x (1/ 5.765) 0.286

= 650.15 K

Now ηt = (T3 – T4) / (T3 – T4’) or T4 = T3 – ηt(T3 – T4’)

= 1073 – 0.90 x (1073 – 650.15)

= 692.75 K

(ii) To find air – fuel ratio: Using Eq. 4.49 we have

ma [ ηcomb hf – CpT3]
----- = --------------------- .
mf Cp[T3 – T2]

[ 0.95 x 42,000 – 1.005 x 1073]

= ---------------------------------------
x [1073 – 514.8]

= 69.2

(i) Turbine work per unit mass of air = wt = (ma + mf)Cp (T3 – T4) / ma

= (1 + mf / ma) Cp[T3 – T4]

= (1 + 1 / 69.2) x 1.005 x [1073 – 692.75]

= 387.7 kJ/kg

Net work out put per unit mass of air = wn = wt – wc = 387.7 – 227.96

= 159.74 kJ/kg

(iii)Heat supplied per unit mass of air =qs = (1 + mf / ma) Cp[T3 – T2]

= (1 + 1 / 69.2) x 1.005 x [1073 – 514.8]

Or qs = 569.1 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = wn / qs = 159.74 / 569.1= 0.281 = 28.1 %

Mass of fuel in kg /h
(iv) Specific fuel consumption in kg/kWh = ----------------------------------
Net work output in kW

214
 3600 mf 3600
= ------------------ = -------------------
ma wn 69.2 x 159.74

= 0.326 kg / kWh
.
(v) Power out put = Wn = ma wn = 1.0 x 159.74 = 159.74 kW

Example 4.22:-The isentropic discharge temperature of air flowing out of a compressor is 195
0
C, while the actual temperature is 240 0C. The conditions of air at compressor inlet are 1 bar
and 170C. If the air fuel ratio in the combustion chamber is 75:1 and net power output is 650
kW, compute (i)the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine and (ii) the overall
cycle efficiency. Assume that the plant consumes 5.2 kg/min of fuel and the calorific value of
the fuel used is 42,000 kJ/kg. Assume Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) and γ = 1.4 for air and Cp = 1.148
kJ/(kg-K) and γ = 1.33 for products of combustion.

3
Given: T2’ = 195 + 273 = 468 K ;

T2 = 240 + 273 = 513 K ; p1 = 1 bar ;

T1 = 17 + 273 = 290 K ; ma / mf = 75; 4

. 4’
Wn = 650 kW ; hf = 42,000 kJ / kg ; 2

mf = 5.2 / 60 = 0.087 kg / s ; 2’

For compression γa = 1.4 ;

1
Cpa = 1.005 kJ / (kg – K)

For heating & expansion γg = 1.33

and Cpg = 1.148 kJ / (kg – K) ;

To find : (i) ηc ; ηt ; (ii) ηcycle

\Solution :

[T2’ – T1] ( 468 – 290 )

(i) ηc = ------------- = ----------------- = 0.798 = 79.8 %
[T2 – T1] (513 – 290)

215
 [T3 – T4]
ηt = -------------
[T3 – T4’]

To find T3 :- Energy balance equation for the combustion chamber gives

ma Cpa T2 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) Cpg T3

(ma / mf) Cpa T2 + ηcomb hf

Or T3 = -----------------------------------
Cpg [ma / mf + 1]

75 x 1.005 x 290 + 1.0 x 42,000

= ----------------------------------------
1.148 x [75 + 1]

= 924.6 K

To find T4’:- Pressure ratio for expansion = p3 / p4 = p2 / p1 = (T2’ / T1) γ / (γ – 1)

Hence p3 / p4 = [468 / 290] 1.4 / 0.4 = 5.34

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Therefore T4’ = T3 [p4 / p3] (γ – 1 ) / γ =

Or T4’ = 924.6 x [1 / 5.34] (1.33 – 1 ) / 1.33

= 608.4 K

.
To find (T3 − T4):- Compressor work per unit time = Wc = ma Cpa [T2 – T1]
.
Or Wc = 0.087 x 75 x 1.005 x [513 – 290] = 1462 kW

. . .
Hence Turbine work per unit time = Wt = Wn + Wc = 650 + 1462

= 2112 kW
.
But Wt = (ma + mf) Cpg [T3 – T4]

. .
Wt Wt
Or (T3 – T4) = ------------------ = ---------------------------
(ma + mf) Cpg mf (ma / mf + 1) Cpg

216
 2112
= ---------------------------------
0.087 x ( 75 + 1 ) x 1.148

= 278.2 K

[T3 – T4] 278.2

Therefore ηt = -------------------- = ---------------------
[T3 – T4’] [924.6 – 608.4]

= 0.879 = 87.9 %

(iii) Thermal efficiency is given by

.
Wn
ηcycle = -----.-------
Qs
.
Qs = mf hf = 0.087 x 42,000 = 3654 kW.

650
Therefore ηcycle = ------------- = 0.1778 = 17.78 %
3654

Example 4.23:- Determine the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine cycle having two stages of
compression and two stages of expansion with an overall pressure ratio of 4 and a maximum
cycle temperature of 900 0C. The compressor inlet temperature is 15 0C. The compression
stages have efficiencies of 80% each and the turbine stages have efficiencies of 85% each.
Assume that the pressure ratio for the two stages of compression and expansion are chosen for
maximum work output from the cycle.
What would be the improvement in thermal efficiency if a regenerator of 85% effectiveness is
incorporated in the cycle? Draw the schematic and T-s diagram for the cycle.

Given: Overall pressure ratio = p4 / p1 = p5 / p8 = 4 ; T5 = 900 + 273 = 1173 K ;

T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K ; ηc1 = ηc2 = 0.80 ; ηt1 = ηt2 = 0.85 ; Cycle designed for maximum
thermal efficiency i.e. p2 / p1 = p4 / p3 = √(p4 / p1) = √ 4 = 2 ;

P5 / p6 = p7 / p8 = √ (p5 / p8) = √ 4 = 2 ; T3 = T1 ; T7 = T8 ; ε = 0.85

To Find : (i) ηcycle ; (ii) Improvement in cycle efficiency when a regenerator is

Incorporated in the cycle.

Solution: For schematic diagram see Fig.4.20(a). The T –s diagram for the given cycle is
shown in Fig. E 4.23

217
 T

Fig. E 4.23: T – s diagram for example 4.23

For isentropic process 1 – 2’ we have T2’ = T1(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 288 x 2 0.286

= 351.1 K.
[ T2’ – T1]
ηc1 = ------------- Or T2 = T1 + [ T2’ – T1] / ηc1 = 288 + [351.1 – 288] / 0.80
[T2 – T1]

Or T2 = 366.9 K.

Since p2 / p1 = p4 / p3 and T3 = T1, it follows that T4’ = T2’.Further since ηc1 = ηc2

andT3 = T1 it follows that T4 = T2 = 366.9 K

Also work is equally divided between the two compressor stages. Hence

Total compressor work per unit mass = wc = 2 wc1 = 2 Cp [T2 – T1]

= 2 x 1.005 x [366.9 – 288]

= 158.6 kJ/kg.
For expansion process 5 – 6’ we have T6’ = T5 (p6 / p5) (γ – 1) / γ

= 1173 x (1 /2 0.286)

= 962 K

218
 (T5 – T6)
Now ηt1 = ------------------. Or T6 = T5 - ηt1(T5 – T6’ )
(T5 – T6’ )

Or T6 = 1173 – 0.85 x [1173 – 962]

= 993.65 K

Since the pressure ratio for the two stages of expansion are same, the inlet temperatures for
both stages are same and the efficiencies of the two stages are same, it follows that the exit
temperature of gas for both the stages are same and the work output from both the stages are
equal;

i.e. T8 = T6 = 993.65 K.

and wt = 2 Cp [T5 – T6] = 2 x 1.005 x [1173 – 993.65]

= 360.5 kJ/kg

Hence net work output = wn = 360.5 – 158.6 = 201.9 kJ/kg

Total heat supply per unit mass = qs = Cp[T5 – T4] + Cp[T7 – T6]

= 1.005 x [1173 – 366.9 + 1173 – 993.65]

= 990.4 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 201.9 / 990.4 = 0.204 = 20.4 %

When a regenerator is incorporated in the cycle:- When a regenerator is incorporated in the

cycle then the total heat supplied per unit mass of air is given by

qs = q9-5 + q6-7 = Cp[T5 – T9] + Cp[T7 – T6}

[T9 – T4]
Now effectiveness of the regenerator = ε = --------------
[T8 – T4]

Therefore T9 = T4 + ε [T8 – T4] = 366.9 + 0.85 x [993.65 – 366.9] = 899.6 K

Hence qs = 1.005 x [1173 – 899.6] + 1.005 x [1173 – 993.65]

= 452.75 kJ/kg

Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 201.9 / 452.75

219
 = 0.446 = 44.6 %

Example 4.24:- Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle
efficiency for a gas turbine power plant using a regenerator and having the following
specifications:
Compressor pressure ratio = 4.0
Turbine inlet temperature = 1100 K;
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 0.85;
Isentropic efficiency of the turbine = 0.87;
Mechanical transmission efficiency = 0.99;
Combustion efficiency = 0.98;
Heat exchanger effectiveness = 0.80;
Combustion chamber pressure loss = 2 % of compressor delivery pressure;
Heat exchanger air side pressure loss = 3 % of compressor delivery pressure;
Heat exchanger gas side pressure loss = 0.04 bar
Calorific value of the fuel used = 42,000 kJ/kg
Compressor inlet conditions = 1 bar and 300 K

Given: p2 / p1 = 4 ; T3 = 1100 K ; ηc = 0.85 ; ηt = 0.87 ; ηTrans = 0.99 ; ηcomb = 0.98 ;

ε = 0.80 ; p5 – p3 = 0.02 p2 ; p2 – p5 = 0.03 p2 ; p4 – p6 = 0.04 bar ; p1 = p6 = 1 bar ;

T1 = 300 K ; hf = 42,000 kJ /kg .

To find : (i) work output per unit mass of fuel ; (ii) SFC ; (iii) ηc

Solution:

220
 T

For process 1-2’ we have T2’ = T1(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ = 300 x 4 0.286 = 446 K .

ηc = (T2’ – T1) / (T2 – T1) or T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc

or T2 = 300 + (446 – 300) / 0.85 = 471.8 K.

Compressor work per unit mass of air = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [471.8 – 300]

= 172.7 kJ/kg.
Because of transmission losses, actual compressor work per unit mass of air is

(wc)actual = wc / ηTrans = 172.7 / 0.99

= 174.4 kJ/kg

Turbine inlet pressure = p3 = p5 – 0.02p2 = (p2 – 0.03p2) – 0.02p2 = 0.95 p2

= 0.95 x 4 = 3.8 bar

Turbine exit pressure = p4 = p6 + 0.04 = 1 + 0.04 = 1.04 bar.

Hence pressure ratio for turbine = p3 / p4 = 3.8 / 1.04 = 3.654

For process 3 – 4’ we have T4’ = T3 (p4 / p3) (γ – 1) / γ = 1100 x (1 / 3.654) 0.286= 759.3 K.

Therefore T4 = T3 – ηt[T3 – T4’] = 1100 – 0.87 x [1100 – 759.3]

221
 = 803.6 K

Turbine work per unit mass of air = wt = Cp[T3 – T4] = 1.005 x [1100 – 803.6]

= 297.9 kJ/kg

Net work output per unit mass of air = wn = 297.9 – 174.4 = 123.5 kJ/kg

Effectiveness of the regenerator = ε = (T5 – T2) / (T4 – T2)

Hence T5 = T2 + ε (T4 – T2) = 471.8 + 0.80 x (803.6 – 471.8)

= 732.2 K

Energy balance equation for the combustion chamber can be written as :

ma Cp T5 + mf ηcomb hf = (ma + mf) Cp T3

[ ηcomb hf – Cp T3] [0.98 x 42,000 – 1.005 x 1100]

Or ma / mf = ----------------------- = --------------------------------------------
Cp [T3 – T5] 1.005 x [1100 – 732.2]

= 108.4
mf ηcomb hf 0.98 x 42,000
Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = ------------------ = -------------------- = 379.7 kJ/kg
ma 108.4
Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 123.5 / 379.7 = 0.325 = 32.5 %

Specific work out put = work output per unit mass of fuel = ma wn / mf

= 123.5 x 108.4 = 13387.4 kJ / kg of fuel

mf x 3600 3600
Specific fuel consumption in kg / kWh = ---------------------- = ------------------
ma wn 108.4 x 123.5

= 0.269 kg / kWh.

Example 4.25:- In a closed cycle gas turbine plant, the compressor inlet and exit pressures
are 5 bar and 32.5 bar respectively. After passing through a regenerator with an effectiveness
of 0.83, the air is heated in a nuclear reactor to a temperature of 945 K. the pressure drop in
the regenerator and the reactor reduces the air pressure at turbine inlet to 31.5 bar. After
expansion to5 .25 bar in the turbine with an efficiency of 0.88, the air passes through the

222
regenerator and a cooler before being ready to enter the compressor whose efficiency is
0.80.The temperature of air at compressor inlet is 20 0C. Calculate (i) cycle thermal efficiency,
(ii) the turbine and compressor power, (iii) the heat transfer in the reactor and the mass flow
rate of air if the net power output from the plant is 650 kW. Draw the schematic diagram for
the plant.

C : Compressor;
T : Turbine;
NR:Nuclear Reactor:
1 R : Regenerator;
coolant out IC : Inter cooler

C T .
IC . .
Wt
Wc Qs
4
coolant in 2 5
NR 3
R
6

Given : p1 = 5 bar ; p2 = 32.5 bar ; p3 = 31.5 bar ; p4 = 5.25 bar ; ε = 0.83 ; ηc = 0.80 ;
.
ηt = 0.88 ; T3 = 945 K ; T1 = 20 + 273 = 293 K ; Wn = 650 kW ;
.
To find : (i) ηcycle ; (ii) wc and wt; (iii) Qs and ma

Solution:

223
For process 1 – 2’, T2’ = T1 (p2 / p1) (γ – 1 ) / γ = 293 x (32.5 / 5) 0.286 = 500.45 K.

Hence T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc = 293 + (500.45 – 293) / 0.80

= 552.3 K.

For process 3 – 4’, T4’ = T3 (p4 / p3) (γ – 1 ) / γ = 945 x (5.25 / 31.5) 0.286 = 566.1 K.

Hence T4 = T3 – ηt [T3 – T4’] = 945 – 0.88 x [945 – 566.1]

= 611.5 K

T5 = T2 + ε [T4 – T2] = 552.3 + 0.83 x [611.5 – 552.3] = 601.44 K.

Compressor work per unit mass of air = wc = Cp[T2 – T1] = 1.005 x [552.3 – 293]

= 260.6 kJ/kg

Turbine work per unit mass of air = wt = Cp[T3 – T4] = 1.005 x [945 – 611.5]

= 335.17 kJ/kg

Net work out put = wn = 335.17 – 260.6 = 74.57 kJ/kg

Heat supplied per unit mass of air = qs = Cp[T3 – T5] = 1.005 x [945 – 601.44]

= 345.3 kJ/kg

224
(i) Thermal efficiency = ηcycle = 74.57 / 345.3 = 0.2159

= 21.59 %
.
Mass flow rate of air = ma = Wn / wn = 650 / 74.57

= 8.72 kg /s
.
(ii) Hence Turbine power = Wt = ma wt = 8.72 x 335.17 = 2922.7 kW
.
Compressor Power = Wc = ma wc = 8.72 x 260.6 = 2271.6 kW
.
(iv)Heat supplied in the reactor per unit time = Qs = ma qs = 8.72 x 345.3

= 3011 kW

4.11.Gas Turbine cycle for jet propulsion: Gas turbine engines are widely used to power
aircraft because they are light and compact and have a high power to weight ratio. Aircraft
engines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion cycle.The ideal jet propulsion cycle
differs from the simple ideal brayton cycle in that the gases are not expanded to the ambient
pressure in the turbine. Instead, they are expended to a pressure such that the work output from
the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor and other auxiliary equipments such as a
small generator and hydraulic pumps. That is, the net work output from a jet-propulsion cycle
is zero. The gases that come out of the turbine at a relatively high pressure are subsequently
accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft.Also aircraft gas turbine
engines operate at higher pressure ratios (typically between 10 and 25). The fluid passes
through a diffuser first, where it is decelerated and its pressure is increased before it enters the
compressor. Aircrafts are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion.
This is achieved by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid (propeller-driven engine)
or greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid (turbo-jet engine) or both (turbo-prop engine).

The T-s diagram of an ideal turbojet engine is shown in Fig. 4.21.The pressure of
air rises slightly as it is decelerated in the diffuser (process 1-2). Then the air is compressed in
the compressor(process 2-3). It is mixed with the fuel in the combustion chamber, where the
mixture is burnt at constant pressure (process 3-4).The high pressure-high temperature
products of combustion coming out of the combustion chamber is partially expanded in the
turbine (process 4-5) producing enough power to drive the compressor and other equipment.
Finally, the gases expand in the nozzle to the ambient pressure and leave the aircraft at a high
velocity.

In the ideal case the turbine work is assumed to be equal to the work required to
drive the compressor.Also the processes in the diffuser, compressor, turbine and the nozzle are
assumed to be isentropic.But in the analysis of actual cycles , the irreversibilities associated
with these devices should be considered.The effect of these irreversibilities is to reduce the
thrust developed by the turbo-jet engine.

225
 The thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the unbalanced force that is due to the

5
Qs
6
3

2
QR
1

Fig.4.21:T-s diagram for ideal turbojet cycle

Difference in momentum of the air entering the engine and the exhaust gases leaving the
engine. The pressures at the inlet and exit of the engine are equl to the ambient pressue. Hence
by Newton’s second law the net thrust is given by
. _ . _
F = (m V)exit – (m V)inlet

. _ _
F = m [Vexit – Vinlet]…………………………..(4.51)
_
In Eq. (4.51) Vexit is the exit velocity of the exhast gases and Vinlet is the inlet velocity of the
_
air, both relative to the aircraft. Thus for an air craft cruising in still air, Vinlet is the velocity of
the aircraft. Actually, the mass flow rates of the gases at the engine exit and the inlet are
different, the difference being equal to the combustion rate of the fuel. But, the air-fuel mass
ratio in jet propulsion engines is usually very high, making this difference very small.
The power developed from the thrust of the engine is called propulsive power, Wp
Which is nothing but the work done due to the thrust. Hence
. _ _ _
Wp = F Vaircraft = m [Vexit – Vinlet] Vinlet ……….(4.52)
Since the net work done by the jet engine is zero, it is not possible to define the thermal
efficiency of the engine.Instead we define propulsion efficiency as the ratio of propulsive
power to the enrgy input.
Wp
Thus ηp = ------------ …………………………………….(4.53)
Qs

226
Propulsion efficiency is a measure of how efficiently the energy released during combustion
process is converted into propulsive power.The remaining part of the energy released during
combustion will show up as the kinetic energy energy of the exhaust gases relative to a fixed
point on the ground and as an increase in the enthalpy of the gases leaving the engine.

Example 4.26:- A turbojet aircraft flies with a velocity of 259 m/s at an altitude where the air
is at 34.5 kPa and – 400C. The compressor has a pressure ratio of 10, and the temperature of
the gases at the turbine inlet is 1093 0C. Air enters the compressor at a rate of 45.36
kg/s.Dtermine (a) the temperature and pressure at theturbine exit, (b) the velocity of the gases
at the nozzle exit, and (c) the propulsion efficiency.

Solution: Following assumptions are made: (i) air behaves a s a perfect gas; (ii) all the
compression and expansion processes are isentropic; (iii) the changes in kinetic and potential
energies of air in the compressor and turbine are negligible;(iv) all the work output from the
turbine is used to drive the compressor

(a) Applying steady-flow, steady-state energy equation to the diffuser and neglecting the
changes in potential energies we have
_ _
h1 + V1 / 2 = h2 + V22 / 2
2

_ _
CpT1 + V1 / 2 = Cp T2 + V22 / 2
2

_
Ideally the air leaves the diffuser with negligible velocity: i.e. V2 = 0.
_
Hence T2 = T1 + V12 / (2 Cp) = (- 40 + 273) + 259 2 / ( 2 x 1005)

= 266 K

Therfoer p2 = p1(T2 / T1) γ / (γ – 1) = 34.5 x (266 / 233) 1.4 / 0.4

= 548.5 kPa.

Process 2-3 is isentropic. Hence T3 = T2 (p3 / p2)(γ – 1) /γ = 266 x (10) 0.286 = 513.6 K.

Compressor work = Turbine work i.e. Cp(T3 – T2) = Cp(T4 – T5)

Hence T5 = T4 – T3 + T2 = (273 + 1093) – 513.6 + 266

= 1118.4 K.

Process 4-5 is isentropic. Therefore p5 = p4 (T5 / T4) γ / (γ – 1)

= 548.5 x (1118.4 / 1366) 3.5

= 272.4 kPa.

(b) Expnasion process in the nozzle is isentropic.

227
Hence T6 = T5 (p6 / p5) (γ – 1) /γ = 1118.4 x (34.5 / 272.4) 0.286 = 620 K
_ _ _
Velocity at the exit of the nozzle = V6 = √ [2(h5 – h6) + V5 ] = √ [2Cp (T5 – T6) + V52 ]
2

__________________________
= √ [ 2 x 1005 x (1118.4 – 620) + 0]

= 1000.9 m/s
. _ _ _ . __ __ __
(c) Propulsive power = Wp = m [Vexit – Vinlet] Vinlet = m [V6 – V1] V1

= 45.36 x (1000.9 – 259) x 259 = 8716 kW

. .
Energy supplied in the combustion chamber = Qs = m (h4 – h3) = mCp(T4 - T3)

= 45.36 x 1.005 x (1366 – 513.6) = 38,858 kW

Wp 8716
Propulsion efficiency = ηp = ----------- = ------------ = 0.224 = 22.4 %
Qs 38858

228
 CHAPTER 5

REFRIGERATION CYCLES
5.1. Introduction:- Refrigeration is a term used to denote the process of maintaining a space
or a body at a temperature lower than that of its surroundings. To produce and maintain the low
temperature, it is necessary to transfer heat from the space to be refrigerated or the cold body.
A refrigerator is a device that is employed to accomplish refrigeration by the expenditure of
external energy in the form of work or heat or both. For the refrigerator to operate
continuously, it must reject heat to an external sink, usually the atmosphere. The working
substance used in the refrigerator, which absorbs the heat from the refrigerated space and
rejects to the sink, is called a refrigerant.

5.2. Capacity and Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator:- The heat removed from the
refrigerated space or the cold body is called “refrigeration effect” or “ capacity of the
refrigerator”. The refrigeration effect is normally expressed in tons of refrigeration. The term
“ton” is derived from the old British system of units and it means the amount of heat that has
to be removed from 1 ton of water at 32 0F to convert it into ice at 32 0F in 24 hours. In SI
system of units this will be equal to 211 kJ/min or 3.517 kW. Thus
1 ton of refrigeration = 3.517 kW………………….5.1

The performance of a refrigerator is also expressed in terms of power required to produce 1 ton
of refrigeration and expressed in kW / ton.

The “coefficient of performance” is another parameter used to measure the effectiveness of a

refrigerator and is defined as the ratio of the heat removed from the refrigerated space to the
external energy input; that is
Refrigeration effect
COP = -------------------------------- ……………………………5.2
External energy input

5.3. Refrigeration Cycles:- The cyclic process executed by the refrigerant to produce the
required refrigeration effect is called the refrigeration cycle / heat pump cycle. Refrigeration
cycles are classified into two types; namely (i) gas refrigeration cycles and (ii) vapour
refrigeration cycles. As the name suggests, in the case of a gas refrigeration cycle the working
substance will be in gaseous phase throughout out the cyclic process, where as in vapour
refrigeration cycles the working substance will undergo a change of phase from liquid phase to
vapour phase in one pert of the cycle and from vapour phase to liquid phase in another part of
the cycle. Vapour refrigeration cycles are further classified into two types, namely (a) Vapour
compression cycle and (b) vapour absorption cycle.

229
5.4. Gas Refrigeration Cycles

5.4.1. Carnot Gas Refrigeration Cycle (Carnot Refrigerator):- Fig.5.1(a) and 5.1 (b)
represent the schematic diagram and T – s diagram for a Carnot refrigeration cycle.

Compressor
qIC
Inter cooler
Expander

wc
we

Cold Chamber
qR
Fig. 5.1 (a): Physical layout for a Carnot refrigerator

qIc
3 2
TH

we
wc
TL
4 1
qR
s

Fig. 5.1 (b) : T – s diagram for a Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

230
Process 1-2 :- Isentropic compression of the working substance from state 1 to state 2. During
this process work is done on the substance by the surroundings.

Process 2-3:- Reversible isothermal cooling of the working substance in the intercooler. During
this process(process 2-3), heat is rejected by the working substance to the sink at temperature
TH.
Process 3-4:- Isentropic expansion of the working substance from state 3 to state 4. During this
process work is done by the working substance on the surroundings.

Process 4-1 :- Reversible isothermal heating of the working substance from the place to be
refrigerated (cold chamber) maintained at temperature TL.

Expression for Refrigeration effect and COP

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = Heat removed from the refrigerated space = qR = q 4-1
1
q R = ∫ Tds = TL (s1 – s4)
4

Similarly heat rejected in the intercooler = q2-3 = TH(s3 – s2)

Net work input per unit mass = w N = w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1

By first law for the Carnot cycle we have

w1-2 + w2-3 + w3-4 + w4-1 = q1-2 + q2-3 + q3-4 + q4-1

and q1-2 = q3-4 = 0 as both the processes are isentropic.

3 1
Therefore wN = q2-3 + q4-1 = ∫Tds + ∫Tds
2 4

= TH(s3 – s2) + TL(s1 – s4)

TL(s1 – s4)
Therefore (COP)Carnot = qR / wN = --------------------------------
TH(s3 − s2) + TL(s1 – s4)

But s1 – s4 = s2 – s3

TL
Therefore (COP)Carnot = ------------- ………………………………5.3
TH - TL

Eq.5.3 indicates that COP increases as TH – TL decreases. For a given cold body temperature,
the lower the temperature at which heat is rejected, greater will be the COP.

231
Disadvantages of a Carnot Refrigerator:- The Carnot refrigeration cycle is the most efficient
refrigeration cycle operating between the two specific temperature levels.But it is not a suitable
model for refrigeration cycles because of the following reasons.
It is difficult to maintain isothermal conditions during heat absorption and heat rejection
processes. Further both the expansion process and the compression process must take place
very slowly if the processes have to be quasi-static with the result the time required to
complete each cycle of operation is very large and hence impracticable. Nevertheless, the
Carnot refrigerator is valuable as a standard of comparison, since it represents perfection.

5.4.2. Ideal Air Refrigeration Cycle ( Reversed Brayton Cycle or Bell – Coleman Cycle)

Assumptions made in the analysis of the ideal cycle

(i) The working fluid is air

(ii) Air behaves as a perfect gas.

(iii) All processes that the working substance undergoes are internally reversible.

(iv) There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components and
also in the heat exchangers.
(v) Flow is steady and one dimensional.

(vi) Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working substance are negligible.

Description of an ideal air refrigeration cycle:

Figure 5.2 (a) and 5.2 (b) shows the schematic and T – s diagram for an air refrigeration cycle.

Process 1-2:- Isentropic compression of air from state 1 to state 2. During this process work is
done on air by the surroundings.
Process 2-3:- Constant pressure cooling of air in the intercooler.
Process 3-4:- Isentropic expansion of air from state 3 to state 4. During this process work is
done by air on the surroundings.
Process 4-1:- Constant pressure heat removal by air in the cold chamber so that it comes back
to original state to complete the cycle.

Expressions for Refrigeration effect and COP

.
Let QR = Refrigeration effect per unit time = Heat removed from the cold chamber per
unit time

Applying steady-state steady- flow energy equation to the cold chamber and noting that
changes in kinetic and potential energies are assumed to be neglected we have

232
 QIC T
Inter 2
Cooler
2 3 p = const

3
Wc We 1

1 4 4
s

QR Cold Chamber

Fig. 5.2 : Schematic and T-s diagrams for air refrigeration cycle
. .
ṁ h4 = QR + ṁ h1, where ṁ is the mass flow rate of refrigerant
through the cold chamber.
.
or QR = ṁ (h1 – h4) = ṁcp(T1 – T4) …………….5.4
.
Similarly Compressor Work input = Wc = ṁ (h2 – h1) = ṁcp(T2 – T1) ………….5.5
.
And Expansion work = We = ṁ (h3 – h4) = ṁcp(T3 – T4)…………..……………5.6
. . .
Therefore net work input to the cycle = Wn = Wc − We
.
Or Wn = ṁcp(T2 – T1) – ṁcp(T3 – T4) ……………5.7

. .
Coefficient of performance = COP = QR / Wn

ṁcp(T1 – T4)
= -------------------------------------
[ṁcp(T2 – T1) – ṁcp(T3 – T4)]

1
or COP = ------------------------------------ ………………..5.8
(T2 – T3)
----------- − 1
(T1 – T4)

Process 1-2 is isentropic. Therefore T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ.

233
Similarly, T3 / T4 = (p3 / p4)(γ – 1) / γ = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ

Therefore T2 / T1 = T3 / T4 = (T2 – T3) / (T1 – T4) = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ.

Substituting this in Equation 5.8 we get

1
COP = ---------------------------- …………………….5.9
[ (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ − 1 ]

It can be seen from equation 5.9 that COP for an ideal gas refrigeration cycle depends only on
the compressor pressure ratio. The variation of COP with respect to the pressure ratio is shown
in Fig.5.3. as well as is given in table 5.1.

COP

1.0
p2 /p1

Fig. 5.3 : Variation of COP with pressure ratio for an ideal gas refrigeration cycle

Table 5.1 : COP for an ideal air(γ = 1.4) refrigeration cycle for different compressor
pressure ratios

___________________________________________________________________
Pressure
Ratio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
___________________________________________________________________
COP ∞ 4.56 2.71 2.05 1.72 1.5 1.34

234
 It should be noted that the pressure ratio p2 / p1 have limitations on account of the
operating temperatures, viz.,
(i) T1 as the highest refrigeration temperature and
(ii) T3 as the lowest ambient temperature.
The effect of discharge pressure p2 on the performance of an ideal gas refrigeration
cycle is illustrated on the T-s diagram shown in Fig. 5.4. Point 1 on the diagram is fixed
by the temperature T1 and pressure p1 (p1is generally atmospheric). Point 3 is fixed because of
the limitations of the ambient temperature T3 to which the gas can be cooled in the intercooler.
The discharge pressure can however be varied within wider limits, starting from a minimum
discharge pressure p2,min onwards as shown in the figure. With
the compressor discharge pressure equal to p2,min the refrigeration effect is zero. The air is
alternately compressed and expanded between points 2min and 1. The net work input is also
zero and hence the COP is indeterminate. However as p2 is increased, though the

T 2’
p2’ 2
p2 2”
p2”

3’ 3 3” 2 min

4” pmin Ambient Temp, T3

4
4’ p1

Fig. 5.5. Effect of Discharge pressure p2 on the performance of ideal cycle

refrigeration effect (area under curve 4-1) increases, the discharge pressure also increases. For
example when the discharge pressure is p2, the refrigeration effect is equal to the area under the
curve 4-1 and the net work input is area 1-2-3-4-1. Whenthe discharge pressure is increased to
p’2, the refrigeration effect is equal to the area under the curve 4 ’-1 and the net work input will
be equal to the area 1-2’-3’-4’-1. It is evident that the increase in work input is much more than
the increases in refrigeration effect and hence the COP decreases as the pressure ratio
increases.

235
5.4.3. Comparison between Carnot cycle and Ideal Refrigeration Cycle

The comparison between the Carnot cycle and the ideal gas refrigeration cycle is illustrated on
the T-s diagram shown in Fig. 5.6. It can be seen from this diagram, that, for the same
compressor inlet conditions (state 1) and same ambient conditions (state 3), the ideal air
refrigeration cycle requires an additional work input of Δwn and there is a decrease in the
refrigeration effect by an amount ΔqR, thereby decreasing the COP of the cycle

p = const.
Area = + ΔWN

3
2’
4’
1 p = const.
Area = − ΔqR
4

s
Fig.5.6 : Comparison between Carnot Refrigeration cycle and air
Refrigeration cycle

Example 5.1:- A reversed Carnot cycle is used for heating and cooling. The work supplied is
10 kW. If the COP is 3.5 for cooling determine (a) the ratio of maximum temperature to
minimum temperature in the cycle , (b) refrigeration effect in tons and (c) COP if the cycle is
used as a heat pump.

Solution: The schematic for this example is shown in Fig. E6.1

(a) If the cycle is used for cooling purpose, then

. .
(COP)Ref = QR / WN = TL / (TH – TL) = 1 / (TH / TL – 1)

Therefore 3.5 = 1 / (TH/TL – 1)

Or TH / TL = 1 + 1 / 3.5 = 1.286
. .
(b) Refrigeration effect = QR = (COP)Ref WN = 3.5 x 10 / 3.517 ton

= 9.952 ton

236
(c) (COP)HP = (COP)Ref + 1 = 3.5 + 1 = 4.5

High Temperature reservoir at TH K

Q1

Q2

Low Temperature reservoir at TL K

Fig. E5.1: Schematic for example 5.1

Example 5.2:- An ideal air refrigeration cycle has the following specifications:

Pressure of air at compressor inlet = 101 kPa;

Pressure of air at turbine inlet = 404 kPa;
Temperature of air at compressor inlet = −6 C;
Temperature of air at turbine inlet = 27 C;
Determine (i) The COP of the cycle, (ii) Power required to produce 1 ton of refrigeration, and
(iii) air circulation rate per ton of refrigeration.

Solution: The T-s diagram for the example is shown in Fig. E5.2

Data:- p1 = p4 = 101 kPa ; p2 = p3 = 404 kPa ; T1 = − 6 + 273 =266 K;

cp = 1.005 kJ / kg (assumed)

T3 = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; Refrigeration effect = QR = 1 ton = 3.9 kW.

(i) For the ideal cycle, COP = 1 / [(p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ − 1]

1
= --------------------------------- = 2.055
[ (404 / 101)(1.4 − 1) / 1.4 − 1 ]
. .
(ii) Power input = WN = QR / COP = 3.517 / 2.055 = 1.711 kW / ton

237
 T

3 1

Fig. E5.2: T-s diagram for example 5.2

(iii) Applying steady state steady flow energy equation to the cold chamber and neglecting the
kinetic and potential energies of the fluid we have
. . .
QR = m(h1 – h4) = mcp(T1 – T4)
. .
Therefore m = QR / cp(T1 – T4) ……………………….(1)

Now, process 3-4 is isentropic. Therefore T4 = T3(p4 / p3)(γ – 1) / γ

= 300 x [101 / 404 ](1.4 – 1) / 1.4

= 201.8 K

Substituting in equation (1) we get

. 1 x 3.9
m = ---------------------------
1.005 x ( 266 – 201.8)

=0.0545 kg / s.

238
Example 5.3:- In an air refrigerating machine, the compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 10 C.
After compression to 5.5 bar, the air is cooled to 30 C before expanding it back to 1 bar.
Assuming ideal conditions, determine (i) refrigeration effect per unit mass of air,(ii)heat
rejected by air per unit mass in the intercooler, and (ii) COP of the cycle,
In an actual plant using the above cycle, the air flow rate is 1700 kg / h and the relative
COP of the actual plant is 0.65. Determine the power required for the actual plant for the same
refrigerator

Solution:

T
2

3
1

Fig. E5.3 : T-s diagram for example 5.3

Data :- T1 = 10 + 273 = 283 K; T3 = 30 + 273 = 303 K; p1 = p4 = 1 bar; p2 = p3 = 5.5 bar

Cp = 1.005 kJ / kg (assumed)

(6) Process 1-2 is isentropic. Therefore T2 = T1 (p2 / p1)(γ − 1) / γ

or T2 = 283 x [5.5 / 1](1.4 – 1) / 1.4

= 460.82 K

Similarly T4 = T3(p4 / p3)(γ – 1) / γ

= 303 x (1 / 5.5)(1.4 – 1 ) / 1.4

= 18 6.0 K

239
 . .
Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = QR / m = cp(T1 – T4)

= 1.005 x (283 – 186 )

= 97.5 kJ / kg.

(ii) Heat rejected in the intercooler per unit mass = qc = cp (T2 – T3)

= 1.005 x (460.82 – 303)

= 158.61 kJ / kg.

(iii) Net work input per unit mass = wN = qc – qR = 158.61 – 97.50

= 61.11 kJ / kg.

COP = qR / wN = 97.50 / 61.11

= 1.595

For the actual plant, (COP)actual = Relative COP x (COP)ideal

= 0.65 x 1.595 = 1.0335

. .
QR = m qR

= (1700 / 3600) x 97.50 = 46.04 kW

. .
Therefore (WN)actual = QR /(COP)actual

= 46.04 / 1.0335 = 44.55 kW

5.4.5. Practical Air Refrigeration Cycles

Deviations of Practical cycles from an Ideal Cycle:- (i) In any practical air refrigeration cycle,
there will always be pressure drops as the air flows through the various components. There
will also be pressure drops in the piping connecting the various components. Because of these
pressure drops, the pressure ratio for expansion process , p3 / p4 will be less than that for the
compression process, p2 / p1.This results in the reduction of the expansion work, which in turn
increases the net work input thereby decreasing the COP of the cycle.
(ii)The compression and expansion processes in a practical cycle are not isentropic but
adiabatic with frictional losses. This results in an increase in compression work and a decrease
in expansion work, thereby increasing the net work input to the cycle. Hence the there will be a
decrease in the COP of the cycle.

240
 T 2
2’

3’ 3
1

4
4’

4”
s

Fig.5.7: T-s diagram for a practical refrigeration cycle

The frictional losses in compression and expansion processes are taken into account in the
analysis by using a parameter called “Isentropic efficiency”. The isentropic efficiency for
compression process is defined as the ratio of the isentropic work of compression to the actual
work of compression for the same inlet conditions and exit pressure and the isentropic
efficiency of expansion is defined as the ratio of the actual work of expansion to the isentropic
work of expansion for the same inlet conditions and the exit pressure.

The deviations of the actual cycle from the ideal cycle is shown on the T-s diagram
in Fig. 5.7, where 1 – 2’ – 3’ −4” − 1 represents the ideal cycle and 1–2–3– 4–1 is the actual
cycle.

Expression for COP of a Practical Air Refrigeration Cycle

Let ηc = Isentropic efficiency of the compressor,

ηt= Isentropic efficiency of the turbine,

Δp1 = pressure loss in the cold chamber = p4 – p1,

Δp2 = pressure loss in the inter cooler = p2 – p3.

(p2 − Δp2) p2[1 − Δp2 / p2]

Now expansion ratio = p3 / p4 = ---------------- = ----------------------
(p1 + Δp1) p1 [1 + Δp1 / p1]

241
 p2 [1 − Δp2 / p2] [1 − Δp1 / p1]
or p3 / p4 = ----- -----------------------------------
p1 [ 1 − (Δp1 / p1)2 ]

Since (Δp1 / p1)2 << 1, the above expression for the expansion ratio can be written as

p3 / p4 = (p2 / p1) ( 1 − Δp2 / p2) ( 1 − Δp1 / p1) …………… 5.10

Δp / p is normally referred to as “ the relative pressure drop” for the heat exchanger circuit.
Defining ‘β’ as the pressure drop factor equal to ( 1 – Δp / p ), the expansion ratio given in
equation 6.10 can be written as

P3 / p4 = β23 β41 (p2 / p1) …………………………………..5.11(a)

Where β23 = ( 1 − Δp2 / p2), ………………………………….5.11(b)

And β41 = ( 1 − Δp1/ p1)……………………………………5.11(c)

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T4)

Net work input per unit mass = wN = wc – wt = cp(T2 – T1) – cp(T3 – T4)

Therefore COP = qR / wN

cp(T1 – T4)
= ---------------------------------------
cp(T2 – T1) – cp(T3 – T4)

(T1 – T4)
or COP = ------------------------------ ………………….5.12
(T2 – T1) – (T3 – T4)

The above expression for COP can be expressed in terms of (p2 / p1), ηc,ηt, β23, β41, and

T3 / T1 as follows.

T1(1 – T4 / T1)
COP = -------------------------------------------
T1(T2 / T1 – 1) – T3(1 – T4 / T3)

242
 (1 – T4 / T1)
= ----------------------------------------------- ……..
(T2 / T1 – 1) – (T3 / T1) [1 – T4 / T3]

{ 1 − (T4 / T3)(T3 / T1)}

= ---------------------------------------------------- …5.13
(T2 / T1 – 1 ) – (T3 / T1) { 1 – (T4 / T3)}

(T2’ – T1) (T2’ / T1 – 1 )

Now ηc = ------------------ = -----------------------
(T2 – T1) (T2 / T1 – 1)

(T2’ / T1 – 1)
Therefore T2 / T1 = 1 + --------------------
ηc

Process 1-2’ is isentropic. Therefore T2’ / T1 = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ

Therefore T2 / T1 = 1 + (1/ ηc) [(p2 / p1)(γ – 1) /γ – 1 ]………….5.14(a)

(T3 – T4) (1 – T4 / T3)

ηt = ------------- = ------------------
(T3 – T4’) (1 – T4’ / T3)

Therefore T4 / T3 = 1 – ηt (1 – T4’ / T3)

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Therefore T4’ / T3 = (p4’ / p3)(γ – 1) /γ

= [β23 β41 (p2 / p1)](γ – 1) / γ …………..5.14(b)

Substituting the expressions for T2 / T1 and T4 / T3 from equations 5.14 (a) and 5.14 (b) in
equation 5.13 we get

1
1 − (T3 / T1) [ 1 − ηt { 1 − ------------------------------- }
{β23 β41(p2 / p1)}(γ – 1) / γ
COP = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
(1/ ηc) [(p2 / p1) (γ – 1) / γ − ] − ηt(T3 / T1) [ 1 − ------------------------------ ]
{β23 β41(p2 / p1)}(γ – 1) / γ

……………………..5.15

243
Example 5.4:- An air refrigeration system is to be designed according to the following
specifications:
Pressure of air at compressor inlet = 101 kPa;
Pressure of air at compressor exit = 404 kPa;
Temperature of air at compressor inlet = − 6 C;
Temperature of air at turbine inlet = 27 C;
Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 85 %;
Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 85 %;
Relative pressure drop in each heat exchanger = 3 %
Capacity of the plant = 1 ton
Determine (a) COP of the cycle, (ii) Power required in kW, and (iii) air circulation rate

Solution: The T-s diagram for the given cycle is shown in Fig. E5.4.

T
2’ 2

3
Δp2
1

4’ 4

Δp1

Fig.E5.4 : T-s diagram for example 5.4

Data:- p1 = 101 kPa; p2 = 404 kPa; T1 = − 6 + 273 = 266 K; T3 = 27 + 273 = 300 K;

.
ηc = 0.85; ηt = 0.85; Δp2 / p2 = Δp1 / p1 = 0.03; QR = 1 ton = 3.517 kW.

The first step is to know the temperature at the salient points of the cycle, namely, T1, T2,T3
and T4. T1 and T3 are given and T2and T4 are determined as follows.

Process 1-2’ is isentropic. Therefore T2’ = T1(p2 /p1)(γ – 1) / γ

= 266 x (404 / 101)0.4 / 1.4

244
 = 395.4 K

T2’ – T1
ηc = ----------------
T2 – T1

Therefore T2 = T1 + (T2’ – T1) / ηc

(395.4 – 266)
= 266 + -------------------
0.85

= 418.2 K

Δp2 / p2 = (p2 – p3) / p2 = 0.03.

Therefore p3 = (1 – 0.03) p2 = 0.97 x 404 = 391.9 kPa.

Similarly, Δp1 / p1 = (p4 – p1) /p1.

Therefore p4 = (1 + 0.03) p1 = 1.03 x 101 = 104.03 kPa

Hence expansion ratio for the turbine = p3 / p4 = 391.9 / 104.03 = 3.77

Process 3-4’ is isentropic. Therefore T4’ = T3 (p4 / p3)(γ -1) / γ

= 300 x (1 / 3.77 )0.4 / 1.4

= 205.2 K.

(T3 – T4)
ηt = -------------
(T3 – T4’)

Therefore T4 = T3 – ηt (T3 – T4’) = 300 – 0.85 x (300 – 205.2)

= 219.4 K.

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T4) = 1.005 x (266 – 219.4)

= 46.83 kJ / kg.

Net work input per unit mass of air = wN = wc – wt = cp(T2 – T1) – cp(T3 – T4)

Or wN = 1.005 x (418.2 – 266 ) – 1.005 x (300 – 219.2)

245
Or wN = 152.96 – 81.2

= 71.76 kJ / kg.

COP = qR / wN = 46.83 / 71.76

= 0.6526

. . 1 x 3.517
(ii) Power Required = WN = QR / COP = -----------
0.6526
= 5.389 kW
. .
(iii)Mass flow rate of air = m = QR / qR = 1 x 3.517 / 46.83 = 0.0751 kg / s

Example 5.5:- An air refrigerator unit uses a reciprocating compressor and a reciprocating
expander. 5 kg / min of air at 30 C (ambient temperature is 25 C) and 4.8 bar expand behind a
piston to 1 bar. The expansion is according to the law
pv1.35= constant. After expansion, the air enters a cold chamber where its temperature rises to
0 C and the it is compressed back to 4.8 bar according to the law
pv1.28 = constant. Determine (a) the power required to drive the unit if the mechanical
efficiencies of the expander and the compressor are both equal to 85 %, (b) capacity of the
refrigerator in tons, (c) energy rejected by air to the ambient during the cooling process at 4.8
bar and (d) the actual COP of the plant.

Solution: A schematic for the example is shown in Fig. E5.5(a) and the T-s diagram in Fig.
E5.5(b).
.
Data:- m = 5 kg / min = (1 / 12) kg /s ; T3 = 30 + 273 = 303 K ; p3 = p2 = 4.8 bar ;

p1 = p4 = 1 bar ; ne = index for expansion process = 1.35 ; T1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K ;

nc = index for compression process = 1.28 ; (ηm)comp = (ηm)exp = 0.85 ;

For compression process 1-2 we have T2 = T1(p2 / p1)(nc – 1) / nc

= 273 x (4.8/1)(1.28 – 1) / 1.28 = 384.75 K

Similarly for process 3-4 we get T4 = T3 (p3 / p4) (ne – 1) / ne

= 303 x (1/4.8) 0.35 / 1.35

= 201.75 K.

246
Actual compression work per unit mass = (wc)actual = (wc)ideal / (ηm)comp
nc
= {1 / (ηm)comp} ----------- RT1 [(p2 / p1)(nc – 1) / nc − 1]
(nc – 1)
nc
= {1 / (ηm)comp} ----------- R[T2 – T1] = (1/ 0.85) x (1.28 / 0.28) x 0.287 x {384.75 – 273}
(nc – 1)

Or (wc)actual = 172.49kJ / kg.

Similarly (we)actual = (ηm)e (we)ideal

ne
= (ηm)e ------------ RT3 [ 1 – (p4 / p3)(ne − 1) / ne ]
( ne – 1 )

ne
= (ηm)e ------------ R[T3 – T4]
(ne – 1)

= 0.85 x (1.35 / 0.35) x 0.287 x [ 303 – 201.75]

= 95.27 kJ/kg

Therefore (wN)actual = 172.49 – 95.27

= 77.22 kJ / kg.
. .
(a) Actual power required = (WN) = m (wN)actual = (1 / 12 ) x 77.49 kW

= 6.46 kW

(b) Capacity of the refrigerator = QR = mcp (T1 – T4) = (1 / 12) x 1.005 x (273 – 201.75)

= 5.97 kW = 5.97 / 3.517 = 1.6975 ton

. .
(c) Energy rejected by air in the intercooler = QIC = mcp (T2 – T3)

247
 Intercooler
2
3

compressor expander
Cold chamber

1 4

Fig. E5.5 : Figure for example 5.5(a)

For compression process we have T2 = T1 (p2 / p1)(nc – 1) / nc

= 273 x (4.8 / 1.0 )0.28 / 1.28

= 384.75 K
.
Therefore QIC = (1 / 12) x 1.005 x (384.75 – 303)

= 6.85 kW

(d) (COP)actual = QR / (WN)actual = 5.97 / 6.46 = 0.924

Example 5.6:- In an ideal air refrigeration cycle, air after compression in the compressor
is first cooled in an intercooler and then passed through a regenerative heat exchanger. It
is then expanded in a turbine and after expansion the air flows through the regenerative
heat exchanger where it exchanges heat with the air coming from the intercooler. Then the
cold air is passed through the cold chamber before it enters the compressor.(a) Draw the
schematic layout of the plant.(b) obtain an expression for the COP of the cycle in terms of
the pressure ratio of the compressor
and the temperature ratio of the compressor inlet temperature to the turbine inlet
temperature.

Solution: The schematic for the given example is shown in Fig. E5.6(a) and the
corresponding T-s diagram is shown in Fig. E5.6(b).

248
 Assumption:- The regenerator is perfect i.e., its effectiveness is 100 % (T3 = T1,
and T6 = T4).

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T6) = cp(T1 – T4)

= cpT1( 1 – T4 / T1) ………………………(1)

Net work input per unit mass = wN = wc − wT = cp(T2 – T1) − cp(T4 – T5)

= cpT1[(T2 / T1) – 1 – (T4 / T1) + (T5 /. T1)] ………………………(2)

Now process 1-2 is isentropic. Therefore T2 / T1 = (p2 / p1)(γ – 1) /γ

T5 / T1 = (T5 / T4) (T4 / T1)

= (p1 / p2)(γ – 1) /γ (T4 / T1)

Substituting these expressions in Eq.(2) we have

wN = cpT1[(p2 / p1)(γ – 1) / γ – 1 – (T4 / T1) + (T4 / T1)(p1 / p2)(γ – 1) / γ ] ………………..(3)

cpT1{1 – (T4 / T1) }

Therefore COP = qR / wN = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
CpT1{(p2 / p1)(γ − 1) / γ − 1 − (T4 / T1) + (T4 / T1)(p1/p2)(γ − 1)/γ }

249
 3 4
qH
2
6 5

wc wT

qR

Fig. E5.6(a): Schematic diagram for example 5.6

T 2

3 1

4 6

5
s

Fig. E5.6(b): T-s diagram for example 5.6

Example 5.7 :- An air refrigeration unit takes in air from a cold chamber at 5 C and
compresses it from 1 bar to 6.5 bar. The index of compression is 1.25. The compressed air is
cooled to a temperature which is 10 C above the ambient temperature of 30 C

250
before being expanded isentropically in an expander. Neglecting the clearance volume of the
compressor and expander find the COP and the amount of air circulation per minute
if 2000 kg of ice at 0 C is to be formed per day from water at 25 C. What will be the tonnage of
the unit?

Solution: Data:- T1 = 5 + 273 =278 K ; p1 = p3 = 1 bar ; p2 = p4 = 6.5 bar ;

T3 = 40 + 273 = 313 C ; compression index = nc = 1.25 ; expansion index = ne = γ = 1.4

Mass of ice to be formed = m = 2000 kg ; Time duration for making the ice = t = 24 h ;

Temperature of water available = Tw = 25 C.

we
wc

qR

Fig. E5.7: Schematic for example E5.7

Refrigeration effect = Amount of heat to be removed from water at 25 C to convert it

into ice at 0 C
.
Or QR ={mcp(Tw – 0) + m x latent heat of ice} / t

2000 x{ 4.192 x (25 – 0) + 335.35}

= ------------------------------------------
24 x 3600

251
 = 10.2 kW = 10.2 / 3.517 = 2.9 ton

For compression process 1-2, we have T2 = (p2 / p1)(n – 1)/ n T1

= (6.5 / 1)(0.25 / 1.25 x 278

= 404.23 K.

For expansion process 3-4, we have T4 = (p4 / p3)(γ – 1) / γ T3

= (1 / 6.5)0.4 / 1.4 x 313

= 183.3 K

n
Compression work per unit mass = wc = ------------ RT1 {(p2 / p1)(n – 1) / n – 1 }
(n–1)

= {n / ( n – 1)}R [ T2 – T1]

= (1.25 / 0.25) x 0.287 x [404.23 – 278]

= 181.14 kJ / kg.

γ
Expansion work per unit mass = we = ---------------- RT4 {(p3 / p4)(γ – 1 ) / γ – 1 }
(γ–1)

= [γ / (γ – 1) ] R [T3 – T4] = Cp[T3 – T4]

= 1.005 x [313 – 183.3]

=130.36 kJ / kg

Net work input = wN = wc – we = 181.14 – 130 .36

= 50.78 kJ / kg.

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = cp(T1 – T4)

= 1.005 x (278 – 183.3)

= 95.17 kJ / kg.

252
 COP = qR / wN = 95.17 / 50.78 = 1.87.
. .
Mass flow rate of air required = m = QR / qR = 10.2 / 95.17 = 0.1072 kg / s.

5.4.6. Practical Applications of Gas Refrigeration Cycles :- The gas refrigeration cycle is
exclusively used in air conditioning systems of military and commercial aircrafts. It is more
appropriate to call it as “air cycle refrigeration”, since only air has found application as a
working substance in this cycle. The COP of this cycle is lower than that of the vapour
compression cycle between the same temperature limits. Nevertheless, the air cycle continues
to be favoured for aircraft refrigeration because of its many advantages. The present day jet
aircrafts have very high cooling loads because of their
large occupancy, electronic equipment and high velocity and consequent heat generation due to
skin friction.

The air cycle can either work as an open system or as a closed system. A
closed system also called as a “dense air machine” has many thermodynamic advantages. It
can work at a suction pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. This reduces the volume
handled by the compressor and expander. Also the operating pressure ratio can be reduced
resulting in higher COP. In an open air-cycle system, the air after expansion is directly led to
the conditioned space. It is therefore necessary to expand air to one atmospheric pressure. This
requires larger volumes to be handled. The open air system has an advantage over the closed
system, in respect that, it does not require a heat exchanger for the refrigeration process. This
saves the weight and cost of the equipment. But it has one disadvantage, viz., when the air
drawn from the refrigerated space is humid, it might produce fog and ice at the end of the
expansion process and clog the line. A drier in the circuit is required in such a case.

5.5. Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

5.5.1. Limitations of Carnot Refrigeration Cycle With Vapour as a Refrigerant:- The

Carnot refrigeration cycle ( The T-s diagram for the cycle is shown in Fig. 6.7) can be used as a
practical cycle with certain modifications. Though the isothermal process of

253
 T

3 2

1
4

Fig. 5.7 : T – s diagram for Carnot Refrigeration cycle with vapour as a

refrigerant

heat rejection (process 2-3) and heat absorption (process 4-1) can be achieved in practice, it is
extremely difficult to achieve isentropic compression (process 1-2) and isentropic
expansion (process 3-4) in practice when the vapour is wet. Therefore in a mechanical vapour
compression refrigeration cycle, the isentropic expansion is replaced by a throttling expansion
or by an expansion through a capillary and the compression of wet vapour is avoided for
reasons explained later in this chapter.

5.5.2. Analysis of an Ideal Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Assumptions:- (i) The compression process in the compressor is isentropic

(ii) The refrigerant enters the compressor as a dry saturated vapour.
(iii)There are no pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components as well as in
the heat exchangers, viz., the condenser and the evaporator.
(iv)The flow of the refrigerant is steady and one dimensional.
(v)Changes in kinetic and potential energies of the refrigerant, as it flows through the various
components, are negligible.

A schematic diagram of a mechanical vapour compression refrigeration cycle is shown in

Fig. 5.8(a). The corresponding T – s and p – h diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.8(b).
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of the refrigerant from state 1 to state 2. During this
process work is done on the refrigerant by the surroundings.At the end of the process the
refrigerant will be in superheated vapour state.

254
 Coolant In Coolant out

Condenser

qc
Throttle valve

wc

Compressor

qR
Evaporator

Fig. 5.8 (a) : Schematic for a vapour compression refrigeration cycle

Process 2-3: Constant pressure condensation of the refrigerant in the condenser till it becomes
a saturated liquid.

Process 3-4: Throttling expansion of the refrigerant from condenser pressure to the evaporator
pressure.

Process 4-1: Constant pressure vapourisation of the refrigerant in the evaporator till it
becomes a dry saturated vapour. During this process heat is absorbed by the refrigerant from
the place to be refrigerated.

Expression for Refrigeration effect and COP in terms of Enthalpies

Applying steady flow steady state energy equation to the evaporator and neglecting the
changes in kinetic and potential energies we have
. .
Refrigeration effect = QR = m (h1 – h4) …………………………………(5.16)

Since process 3-4 is a throttling process, h4 = h3.

. .
Hence QR = m (h1 – h3) …………………………………(5.17)

Similarly, by applying steady flow, steady state energy equation to compressor we get

255
 T p

3 3 2

4 1

4 1

s h

Fig. 5.8. (b): T-s and p-h diagrams for a vapour compression refrigeration cycle

. .
Compressor work input = Wc = m (h2 – h1) ………………………………(5.18)
.
QR (h1 – h4)
Hence COP = -----.------ = ------------ …………………(5.19)
Wc (h2 – h1)

5.5.3. Effect of sub-cooling the refrigerant on the performance of a Vapour Compression

Cycle

The effect of sub cooling the refrigerant before it enters the expansion valve on the
performance of a vapour compression refrigeration cycle is shown on the T-s diagram in Fig.
5.9. In this diagram 1-2-3-4-1 represents the ideal cycle without sub-cooling, while 1-2-3’-4’-1
is the cycle with sub-cooling. It can be seen form the T-s diagram that by sub-cooling the
refrigerant say up to 3’, the refrigeration effect per unit mass has increased from (h 1 – h4) to (h1
– h4’). Therefore, theoretically, it is desirable to sub-cool the refrigerant before it enters the
throttle valve. But for almost all refrigerants, the constant pressure line in the sub-cooled liquid
region almost coincides with the saturated liquid line. Therefore it is sufficient to compress the
refrigerant up to 2’ (p2’ is the saturation pressure corresponding to T3’) and then cool it in the
condenser till it becomes a saturated liquid at state 3” (h3’ ≈ h3”). Therefore it is not necessary
to compress the refrigerant up to 2 and then sub-cool it to 3’.

256
 T p

3’ 3 1
3

3” 2’

4’ 4 1
4 1

s h

Fig. 5.9:Effect of subcooling on the performance of vapour compression

cycle

But in practice, the condensers are always designed assuming certain amount of sub-cooling of
the refrigerant to ensure that the refrigerant coming out of the condenser is at least in saturated
liquid state.

5.5.4. Dry compression versus Wet compression:

In the analysis of the ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle it was assumed that the
refrigerant enters the compressor as a dry saturated vapour.As the compression process
proceeds the vapour becomes a superheated vapour. In the case of wet compression it will be
assumed that the refrigerant leaves the compressor as a dry saturated vapour.The comparison
of these two compression processes are shown on the T-s diagram in Fig. 6.10. When a
reciprocating compressor is used for compression, wet compression is not found suitable due to
the following reasons.
(i) Liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the compressor cylinder because, the speed
of the compressor is quite high and the liquid present in the wet vapour cannot readily
evaporate. If enough liquid is collected in the compressor, then the compression may not be
possible and the system may break down.

(ii) Liquid refrigerant droplets may wash away the lubricating oil from the walls of the
compressor cylinder thus increasing wear.

It is therefore desirable to have compression with refrigerant in dry saturated

vapour state or even slightly in superheated vapour state at entry to the compressor.This type of

257
 T

2
Superheat horn
3 2’ 2”
Cycle 1-2-3-4-1: Cycle with dry
compression;

Cycle 1’-2’-3-4-1’: Cycle with wet

4 1’ 1 compression

s
Fig. 5.10: Comparison between dry and wet compression processes

compression is known as dry compression. In dry compression the state of refrigerant at the
end of compression will therefore be at 2, pressure at 2 being the saturation pressure
corresponding to the condensing temperature T2’. For wet compression the state point after the
end of compression will be at 2”, which would be the state point if Carnot cycle were to be
employed. Because of dry compression, the discharge temperature T2 will be higher than the
condensing temperature.Because of dry compression, the work of compression increases by an
amount shown by the shaded area and this area is normally referred to as “superheat horn”.

In some cases, wet compression is indeed desirable and also practicable with the use
of screw compressor instead of a reciprocating compressor.

5.5.5. Practical Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Deviations of Practical Cycle from ideal cycle:- (i)In the ideal cycle it has been assumed that
the refrigerant leaving the compressor is in dry saturated vapour state. Since the cooling load is
not constant, it is extremely difficult to ensure that the fluid is dry at compressor inlet.
Moreover in high speed reciprocating compressors, the compression occurs so fast that the
liquid in the vapour cannot readily evaporate and may collect inside the compressor. If enough
liquid collects, vapour compression will not be possible and the system may break down. The
practice, therefore, is to design the evaporator to superheat the vapour emerging from it as
shown by state point 1’ on T-s diagram in Fig. 5.11.With this arrangement, the net work input
increases to achieve the same compression ratio, the volumetric efficiency decreases and the
overall COP of the cycle also decreases.

258
(ii) In the ideal cycle analysis it was assumed that the compression process is isentropic. But in
a practical cycle, the process will not be isentropic but adiabatic with frictional losses.
Therefore, in the practical cycle, the frictional losses during compression are

Fig. 5.11: T-s diagram for a practical vapour compression refrigeration cycle

accounted by using a parameter called “isentropic efficiency of compressor”. This efficiency

is defined as the ratio of isentropic work of compression required to the actual work of
compression between the same pressure limits. Because of frictional losses the net work input
increases, which in turn decreases the overall COP.
(iii) For a reciprocating compressor, there will be pressure drop across the inlet and delivery
valves. This increases the operating pressure ratio for the compressor, thereby increasing the
net work input to the compressor and hence the COP decreases.
(iv) Because of the pressure losses in the piping connecting the various components, the
pressure at inlet to the compressor is less than at the exit of the evaporator and the pressure at
the exit of the compressor should be more than that at inlet to the condenser. This will increase
the pressure ratio for the compressor for theactual cycle which inturn increases the work
required to drive the compressor thereby decreasing the COP of the actual cycle.

5.5.6. Desirable properties of refrigerants to be used in a vapour compression cycle

Following are the desirable properties for refrigerants to be used in a vapour compression
cycle.
(i) When the evaporator works under vacuum conditions, it is difficult to make the system
completely leak-proof. Hence the saturation pressure corresponding to the evaporator
temperature should be close to the atmospheric pressure. Infact it is preferable to have the
evaporator pressure slightly above atmospheric pressure in order to prevent air leaking into the
system. Even the presence of a small amount of air in the evaporator reduces the heat transfer
coefficient, which in turn decreases the refrigeration effect.

259
(ii) The pressure difference between the evaporator and condenser should be moderate to
reduce the leakage losses. Also if the pressure difference is large then it will be necessary
to use multi-stage compression with inter cooling in order to have a high compression
efficiency.

(iii) The triple point and the critical point of the refrigerant should be far away from the
operating range of the refrigerating system.

(iv) The density of the vapour should be as high as possible to avoid large flow velocities
which result in high pressure drops in pipe lines. For a vapour with low density it is preferable
to use centrifugal compressors.

(v) Higher the enthalpy of vapourization of the refrigerant lower will be the mass flow rate of
refrigerant required to achieve the desired refrigeration effect.

(vi) The refrigerant should have a high thermal conductivity and low viscosity so that the
evaporator and condenser can be reasonably small in size.A low viscosity ensures a low
pressure drop.

(vii) The specific heats of the liquid and vapour refrigerant should be as low as possible. A
fluid, which has a low specific heat, will have nearly vertical sides for the saturation dome in
the T – s diagram. In that case the real cycle approaches towards Carnot cycle.

(viii) The refrigerant should be easily available and safe to handle.

(ix) The refrigerant vapour should be inert, stable and should not react with materials of the
compressor, condenser, evaporator coils and the valves.

(x) The vapour should be insoluble in water.

Example 5.8:- In an ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle using ammonia, the
evaporator temperature is – 15 0C and the condensation temperature is 30 0C. The refrigerant
is in dry saturated vapour state at entry to the compressor. If there is no subcooling of the
refrigerant, determine (i) The COP of the unit, (ii) power required to drive the compressor per
ton of refrigeration, and (iii) heat transfer from the refrigerant in the condenser per ton of
refrigeration.

Solution: Refer to the T-s diagram shown in Fig. E5.8.

Given: T1 = T4 = - 15 0C ; T2’ = T3 = + 30 0C; QR = 1 Ton = 3.516 kW

To find: (i) COP ; (ii) Wc ; (iii) QC

260
 T p

3 3 2

4 1

4 1

s h

Fig. E5.8: T-s and p-h diagrams for example E5.8

Solution using Refrigerant Table of properties:

From tables of properties of ammonia we have: h1 = hg at – 15 0C = 1425.7 kJ/kg ;

s1 = sg at – 15 0C = 5.55 kJ/(kg-K);

h3 = hf at 30 0C = 322.9 kJ/kg; h2’ = hg at 30 0C = 1467.9 kJ/kg;

s2’ = sg at 30 0C = 4.9805 kJ/(kg-K); p2 = p2’ = psat at 30 0C = 11.6649 bar ;

Cp at this pressure = 2.7753 kJ/(kg-K);

To find h2:- Since procee from 2 to 2’ is at constant pressure we have

s2 – s2’ = Cp ln(T2 / T2’) or T2 = T2’ exp[(s2 – s2’) / Cp]

= (30 + 273) x exp[(5.55 – 4.9805) / 2.7753]

= 371 K = 98 0C.

Hence h2 = h2’ + Cp[T2 – T2’] = 1467.9 + 2.7753 x (98 – 30)

= 1657.67 kJ/kg.

261
 [1425.7 – 322.9]
COP = (h1 – h3) / (h2 – h1) = -------------------------- = 4.71
[1657.67 – 1425.7]

Wc = QR / COP = 3.516 / 4.71 = 0.75 kW

By First law Qc = QR + Wc = 3.516 + 0.75 = 4.266 kW

Example 5.9:- In a vapour compression refrigerator using ammonia as the refrigerant, the
condensation and evaporator temperatures are 330C and – 12.5 0C respectively. The vapour
temperature entering the condenser is 120 0C and the swept volume of the compressor is 400
lpm.The liquid refrigerant emerging from the condenser is sucooled by 4 0C. Determine (i) the
isentropic efficiency of the compressor, (ii) the mass flow rate of ammonia neglecting the
clearance volume of the compressor, (iii) capacity of the refrigerator in tons, and (iv) COP of
the unit

Solution: Given: T1 = - 12.5 0C ; T2” = T3’ = 33 0C ; T3 = T3’ – 4 = 29 0C; T2 = 120 0C;

From tables of properties of ammonia we have: p2 = p2’ = psat at 33 0C = 12.7448 bar;

s1 = s2’ = sg at – 12.5 0C = 5.50435 kJ / (kg-K); Cp at 12.7448 bar = 2.7914 kJ / (kg-K);
s2” = sg at 33 0C =4.9481 kJ / (kg – K); h2” = hg at 33 0C = 1469.5 kJ/kg;
h3 = hf at 29 0C = 318.05 kJ/kg; h1 = hg at – 12.5 0C = 1428.5 kJ/kg;
v1 = vf at – 12.5 0C = 0.4612 m3/kg.
The T-s and p-h diagram for the cycle are shown in Fig. E 5.9

T p
2

2’
3 3 2

4 1
4 1

s h

Fig. E5.9: T-s and p-h diagrams for example E5.9

262
T2 = T at p2 and s2 and this can be found out as follows.

T2’ = T2” exp [(s2’ – s2”) / Cp] = (33 + 273) x exp [(5.50435 – 4.9481) / 2.7914]

= 373.47 K = 100.47 0C.

Hence h2’ = h2” + Cp[T2’ – T2”] = 1469.45 + 2.7914 x [100.47 – 33]

= 1657.5 kJ / kg.

Similarly h2 = h2” + Cp[T2 – T2”] = 1469.5 – 2.7914 x [ 120 – 33]

= 1712.3 kJ / kg.

(i) Isentropic efficiency of compressor = ηisentropic = (h2’ – h1) / (h2 – h1)

= (1657.5 – 1428.87) / (1712.3 – 1428.87) = 0.8067 = 80.67 %

(ii) mass flow rate = m = V1 / vf = (400 x 10 – 3) / (0.462 x 60) = 0.0144 kg/s.

(iii) Capacity of the refrigerator = QR = m(h1 – h4) = m(h1 – h3)

= 0.0144 x (1428.87 – 318.05) = 16 kW

= 16 / 3.516 = 4.55 ton

(iv)Compressor work = Wc = m(h2 – h1) = 0.0144 x (1712.35 – 1428.27)

= 4.08 kW.

(v) COP = QR / Wc = 16 / 4.08 = 3.92

Example 5.10:- An ammonia refrigerating machine has a condensation temperature of 35 0C

and an evaporator temperature of – 15 0C.Assuming dry compression in the compressor
determine (i) theoretical piston displacement per ton of refrigeration, (ii)theoretical power
required to drive the compressor, and (iii) the COP of the plant. What woruld be the
corresponding values if wet compression is employed instead of dry compression.

Solution: Case (a): Dry compression: The T-s diagram for the dry comoression and for wet
compression cycles are shown in Fig. E5.10.

From tables: h1 = hg at – 15 0C = 1426 kJ/kg; s1 = sg at – 150C = 5.549 kJ/(kg-K);

v1 = vg = at – 15 0C = 0.509 m3/kg; h3 = hf at 35 0C = 347.5 kJ/kg;

263
h2’ = hg at 35 0C = 1471 kJ/kg ; s2’ = sg at 35 0C = 4.93 kJ/(kg-K);

p2 = p2’ = psat at 35 0C = 13.5 bar; Cp at 13.5 bar = 2.8 kJ/(kg-K)

2
Superheat horn
3 2’ 2”
Cycle 1-2-3-4-1: Cycle with dry
compression;

Cycle 1’-2’-3-4-1’: Cycle with wet

4 1’ 1 compression

s
Fig. E5.10: Comparison between dry and wet compression processes

T2 = T2’ exp [(s2 – s2’) / Cp] = (35 + 273) x exp [(5.549 – 4.930) / 2.8]

= 384.2 K = 111.20C.

Hence h2 = h2’ + Cp[T2 – T2’] = 1471 + 2.8 x (111.2 – 35)

= 1684.36 kJ/kg.

Refrigeration effect per unit mass = qR = h1 – h4 = h1 – h3 = 1426 – 347.5 = 1078.5 kJ/kg.

Compressor work per unit mass = wc = h2 – h1 = 1684.36 – 1426 = 258.36 kJ/kg.

(i)mass flow rate of refrigerant = m = QR / qR = 3.516 / 1078.5 = 0.00326 kg/s

Theoretical piston displacement = V = mv1 = 0.00326 x 60 x 0.509 = 0.1 m3/min.

(ii) Power Input = Wc = mwc = 0.00326 x 258.36 = 0.8423 kW.

(ii) COP = QR / Wc = 3.516 / 0.8423 = 4.174

Case (b): Wet compression: Refer to cycle 1’-2’-3-4-1’ in the T-s diagram.
From tables of properties of ammonia, at – 15 0C, sf = 0.457 kJ/(kg-K); sg = 5.549 kJ/(kg-K);

264
sf = 112.3 kJ/kg; hg = 1426 kJ/kg. vf = 1.52 x 10 - 3 m3/kg; vg =m3/kg

Process 1’-2’ is isentropic. Hence s1’ = s2’

Therefore sf + x1’(sg – sf) = s2’

[4.930 – 0.457]
Or x1’ = (s2’ – sf) / (sg – sf) = ---------------------- = 0.88
[5.549 – 0.457]

Therefore h1’ = hf + x1’(hg – hf) = 112.3 + 0.88 x (1426 – 112.3) = 1268.36 kJ/kg
v1’ = vf + x1’(vg – vf) = 0.00152 + 0.88 x (0.509 – 0.00152) = 0.448 m3/kg
qR = h1’ – h4 = h1 – h3 = 1268.36 – 347.5 = 920.86 kJ/kg.
wc = h2’ – h1 = 1471 – 1268.36 = 202.64 kJ/kg.

(i)m = QR / qR = 3.516 / 920.86 = 0.00382 kg/s

Piston Displacement = mv1’ =

Theoretical piston displacement = V = mv1 = 0.00382 x 60 x 0.448 = 0.103 m3/min.

(ii) Power Input = Wc = mwc = 0.00382 x 202.64 = 0.774 kW.

(iii) COP = QR / Wc = 3.516 / 0.774 = 4.54

Example 5.11:- A vapour compression refrigerator uses R-12 (Freon – 12) as the refrigerant.
The refrigerant leaves the compressor at 1200 kPa and 80 0C and enters the expansion valve at
320C. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a dry saturated vapour at – 15 0C. The
produces 50 ton of refrigeration. Determine (i) the mass flow rate of refrigerant required, (ii)
the compressor power, (iii) the COP and (iv) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor.

Solution: This problem is solved using the p-h chart for R-12. The p-h diagram for the given
cycle is shown in Fig. E5.11.
From the p-h chart for R-12, h1 = 180 kJ/kg ; h2 = 230 kJ/kg; h3 = h4 = 66.56 kJ/kg;
h2’ = 220 kJ/kg.

(i) mass flow rate = m = QR/qR = QR /(h1 – h4) = 50 x 3.516 / [180 – 66.56] = 1.55 kg/s

265
(ii) Compressor Power = Wc = m(h2 – h1) = 1.55 x (230 – 180) =77.5 kW

(iii) COP = QR / Wc = 50 x 3.516 / 77.5 = 2.27

(iv)Isentropic efficiency of compressor = ηisentropic = (h2’ – h1) / (h2 – h1)
= (220 – 180) / (230 – 180) =0.80
Example 5.12:- An ideal vapour compression refrigerating system uses a subcooling – super
heating heat exchanger with 10 0C of super heat added to the refrigerant in the heat exchanger
before it enters the compressor.The evaporator operates at – 30 0C and thecondenser pressure
is 1.4 MPa. There is a cooling requirement of 50 ton. If the refrigerant is R-12 determine (i)
the mass flow rate of refrigerant, (ii)the COP, (iii)the degree of subcooling, (iv) compressor
power and (v) the second law efficiency. Draw the schematic diagram and represent the cycle
both on T-s and p-h diagrams.
Solution: Fig. E5.12(a) shows the schematic diagram and Fig. E5.12(b) shows the T-s and p-h
diagrams for the given cycle.
From p-h chart for R-12 we have: p1 = p6 = psat at – 30 0C = 1.003 bar;
h6 = hg at – 30 0C = 174.2 kJ/kg; h3 = hf at 1.4 MPa = 91.4kJ/kg;
T1 = - 30 + 10 = - 20 0C. Hence h1 = h at p1,T1 = 180 kJ/kg; Hence h2 = 229.5 kJ/kg;
Energy balance for the heat exchanger gives
(h1 – h6) = (h3 – h4). Or h4 = h3 - (h1 – h6) .
Hence h4 = 91.4 – (180 – 174.2) = 85.6 kJ/kg.
(i) QR = m(h6 – h5) or m = QR / (h6 – h5) = (50 x 3.516) / (174.2 – 85.6) = 1.984 kg / s.

266
(ii) Wc = m(h2 – h1) = 1.984 x (229.5 – 180) = 98.21 kW.
(iii) COP = QR / Wc = (50 x 3.516) / 98.21 = 1.79
(iv) From chart, T3 = 56 0C and T4 = 50.6 0C.
Amount of subcooling = T3 – T4 = 56 – 50.6 = 5.4 0C
(v) (COP)Carnot = Tminimum / (Tmaximum – Tmnimum) = (-30 + 273) /(56 +30) = 2.83.
Second law efficiency = COP / (COP)Carnot = 1.79 / 2.83 = 0.633 = 63.3 %

Condenser
3

2 1

Heat Exchanger

4
1
Compressor
Expansion Valve

5
Evaporator
6

Fig. E 5.12(a): Schematic for example 5.12

5.5.6.Multistage Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems

The work required to drive the compressor can be reduced by employing multistage
compression with intercooling in between the stages. In a refrigerator, instead of just
multistage compression, the entire system is staged or cascaded. This permits attaining of
lower temperature for refrigeration with a fixed amount of compression work.
A schematic diagram of a two-stage cascaded refrigeration system is shown in Fig. 5.12(a).
The corresponding T-s and p-h diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.12(b).In the two stage system, the
evaporator of the high pressure system serves as the condenser for the low pressure system.The

267
 m2
High Pressure
High Pressure Condenser
stage Compressor 6 7

Cascade Condenser
m2
5 8

2 m1 3

1 Low Pressure 4
Evaporator
Low Pressure Stage
Compressor m1

Fig. 5.12 (a): Schematic Diagram of a Two-stage Cascaded Refrigeration System

Increased refrigeration effect from (h1 – ha) to (h1 – h4) can be seen on both T-s and p-h
diagrams. The T-s diagram also shows the decrease in compressor work due to multi stage
compression with intercooling in between the two stages of compression.In the system shown,
the refrigerants in the high pressure range as well as in the low pressure range are assumed to
be the same so that the same T-s diagram may be used. As long as the two streams of
refrigerants flowing in the cascade condenser do not mix with each other (i.e. a closed type
cascade condenser), the refrigerant in the high pressure range may be different from that in the
low pressure range. In that case a correct T-s diagram should be used for each refrigerant..
When the same refrigerant is used throughout the system, a direct contact heat exchanger,
instead of the closed type is more common. The T-s and p-h diagrams remain the same. But the
schematic diagram will be different and will be as shown in Fig. 5.13. The flash gas from the
heat exchanger goes to the high pressure intake and the saturated liquid refrigerant goes to the
low pressure throttling valve. This type of heat exchanger is more efficient since all the tube
resistance for heat transfer is removed. The open type condenser also provides some control
due to transient changes in the system by allowing the proportion of fluid in eah loop to alter
slightly. The intermediate pressure,pi will vary slightly depending on conditions.

268
Fig. 5.12(b): T-s and p-h diagrams for a Two-stage Cascaded Refrigeration System

Expressions for Compression work and COP:

Refrigeration Effect = QR = m1(h1 – h4) ……………………………………………..(5.20)

Compressor Power = Wc = Wc1 + Wc2 = m1(h2 – h1) + m2(h6 – h5) ……………………(5.21)

m1(h1 – h4) (h1 – h4)

COP = QR / Wc = ----------------------------------- = ----------------------------------------
m1(h2 – h1) + m2(h6 – h5) [(h2 – h1) + (m2 / m1) (h6 – h5)]
Applying steady flow energy equation to the cascade heat exchanger we have
m1(h2 – h3) = m2(h5 – h8). Or m2 / m1 = (h2 – h3) / (h5 – h8)…………………………(5.22)

Substituting this in expression for COP w get

(h1 – h4)
COP = ------------------------------------------------------ …………………………………(5.23)
[(h2 – h1) + {(h2 – h3) / (h5 – h8)} (h6 – h5)]

269
Example 5.12:- Calculate the power required for an ammonia refrigeration system which has
a two-stage cascade arrangement. The capacity of the plant is 30 ton and the condensation
temperature is 40 0C. The cascade condenser is a direct contact type. The evaporator
temperature is – 30 0C. Also calculate the COP and compare the performance of this plant
with the one which employs single stage system.
Solution: Refer to T-s and p-h diagrams shown in Fig.5.12(b).
Given: T7 = 40 0C ; T4 = T1 = - 30 0C.
p6 = p7 = psat at 40 0C = 1554.3 kPa ; p4 = p1 = psat at – 30 0C = 119.5 kPa
For minimum work of compression p2 = p3 = √(p1p6) = √(1554.3.x 119.5) = 431 kPa.
From p-h chart: h1 = 1404.6 kJ/kg; h2 = 1574.3 kJ/kg; h5 = 1443.5 kJ/kg; h6 = 1628.1 kJ/kg
h7 = 371.7 kJ/kg = h8 ; h3 = 181.5 kJ/kg = h4
QR = m1(h1 – h4). Or m1 = QR / (h1 – h4) = (30 x 3.516) / (1404.6 – 181.5) = 0.0862 kg/s.
Energy balance equation for the cascade heat exchanger gives
m1(h2 – h3) = m2(h5 – h8). Or m2 = m1(h2 – h3) / (h5 – h8).
Hence m2 = 0.0862 x (1574.3 – 181.5) / (1443.5 – 371.7) = 0.112 kg/s.
Compressor power = Wc = m1(h2 – h1) + m2(h6 – h5)
= 0.0862 x (1574.3 – 1404.6) + 0.112 x (1628.1 – 1443.5) = 35.3 kW
COP = QR / Wc = 30 x 3.516 / 35.3 = 3
System with single stage compression: The p-h diagram for the single stage is shown below.

270
From p-h chart we have: h1 = 1404.6 kJ/kg ; h2 = 1805.1 kJ/kg ; h3 = h4 = 371.7 kJ/kg ;
m = QR / (h1 – h4) = (30 x 3.516) / (1404.6 – 371.7) = 0.1021 kg/s.
Compressor power = Wc = m(h2 – h1) = 0.1021 x (1805.1 – 1404.6) = 40.9 kW
COP = 30 x 3.516 / 40.9 = 2.6
5.5.7.Multi-Evaporator System with One Compressor: In refrigeration systems, it is not
practica or necessary to have a separate compressor for each evaporator. OA single compressor
may be used to receive refrigerant from several evaporators operating at different pressures and
hence at different temperatures. Fig.5.13 (a) shows a schematic of a refrigeration plant in
which the single compressor receives refrigerant from two evaporators. The corresponding T-s
and p-h diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.13(b).The compressor intake pressure must be at the

m = m1 + m2
Condenser
3
2

4
High Pressure
Evaporator
1 5 m1
6
m = m1+m2 m1 3

Mixing m2 Low Pressure

Chamber Evaporator
8 7

Fig. 5.13(a): Multi-evaporator refrigeration system with a single compressor

pressure of the lowest temperature evaporator. The lowest temperature evaporator used for
maintaining frozen foods will be at – 18 0C. The saturation pressure corresponding to this
temperature if R-12 is used will be 1.635 bar. The other evaporator could maintain a space ,
say at 5 0C. This would correspond to refrigerated dairy and vegetable produce, where the
pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator coils should be above the saturation pressure of
water vapour corresponding to 00C to prevent dehydration of the produce. If the refrigerant in
the evaporator coils is below 00C, ice will be form on the surface of the coils due to
condensation of water present in the air. This lowers the relative humidity , thereby,
accelerating the dehydration of the produce. To prevent this a back pressure regulator
maintains a higher pressure in the evaporator coils than that which exists at the compressor
suction.The pressure at the compressor suction must be low enough to maintain the correct
temperature in the lowest temperature space. If the pressure in the high pressure evaporator

271
rises above the set point, the valve will open, allowing some refrigerant to leave the evaporator
anfd flow to the compressor inlet

Fig. 5.13(b): T-s and p-h diagrams for a multi-evaporator refrigeration system with a single compressor

Example 5.13:-An ideal vapour compression refrigeration plant uses R-12 and has two
evaporators. One evaporator has to handle a refrigeration load of 5 ton at 50C and the second
evaporator has to handle a load of 7 ton at – 18 0C. The condenser pressure is 9.6 bar.
Asssume that refrigerant eneters the compressor as dry saturated vapour.

Solution: Refer to Fig. 5.13(a) and Fig. 5.13(b).

From p-h chart: h3 = h4 = hf at 9.6 bar = 73.16 kJ/kg; h5 = hg at 50C = h6 = 191.6 kJ/kg ;
h8 = hg at – 18 0C = 176.8 kJ/kg ; h2 = 209.5 kJ/kg.
Refrigeration effect in the high pressure evaporator = QR1 = m1(h5 – h4)
Hence m1 = QR1 / (h5 – h4) = 5 x 3.516 / (191.6 – 73.16) = 0.148 kg/s.
Similarly refrigeration effect in the high pressure evaporator = QR2 = m2(h8 – h7)
Hence m2 = QR2 / (h8 – h7) = 7 x 3.516 / (176.8 – 73.16) = 0.237 kg/s.
Compressor power = Wc = (m1 + m2)(h2 – h1).
To find h1:- Applying steady flow energy equation for the mixing chamber we get
m1h6 + m2h8 = (m1 + m2) h1. Or h1 = (m1h6 + m2h8) / (m1 + m2)
Or h1 = [0.148 x 191.6 + 0.237 x 176.8] /(0.148 + 0.237) = 182.5 kJ/kg.

272
Therfore Wc = (0.148 + 0.237) x (209.5 – 182.50 = 10.39 kW.
COP = (5 + 7) x 3.516 / 10.39 = 4.06.
5.5.8. Ideal Working Fluid For Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:A careful
study of the T-s diagram reveals the following desirable properties for a fluid to be used in a
vapour comprssion refrigeration system.
(i) Since it is difficult to make the system perfectly leak proof when the evaporator works at
pressures below atmospheric pressure, the saturation pressure of the refrigerant at the low
temperature should be very cose to the atmospheric pressure. Infact it is preferable if the
evaporator pressure is slightly above atmospheric pressure to ensure that no air leaks into the
evaporator. Even the presence of a small amount of air in the evaporator reduces the heat
transfer coefficient , raises the evaporator pressure and adversely affects the refrigeration
effect.
(ii) The pressure difference between the evaporator and the condenser should be moderate if
the given amount of refrigerant is to be of use. If the difference is too high, it will be necessary
to use multi-stage compressor with intercooling inbetween the stages to ensure a sufficiently
high compression efficiency. Furthe the probability of leakage becomes high.
(iii) The triple point and the critical point of the refrigerant should be far away from the
operating temperature range of the system
(iv) The specific volume of the vapour should be small to avoid large flow velocities and
pressur drops in the pipe lines. For a refrigerant vapour with high specific volume it may be
desiarable to use a centrifugal compressor.
(v) The enthalpy of vaporization of the refrigerant determines its mass flow rate
required.Higher the enthalpy of vapourization lower will be the required mass flow rate to
achieve the desired cooling effect.
(vi) The refrigerant should have a high thermal conductivity and low viscosity so that the
evaporator and the condenser can be reasonably small in size. A low viscosity ensure low
pressure drop in the evaporator and in the condenser as well as in the pipe line connecting the
various components.
(vii) The specific heats of the liquid and vapour phases of the refrigerant should be as low as
possible. A fluid having a low specific heat in the liquid and vapour phases will have nearly
vertical sides for the saturation dome (vapour dome) in the T-s diagram. Then the real cycle
closely approaches a Carnot cycle.
(viii) The refrigerant vapour should be inert, stable and should not react with the materials of
the components of the system. Furthe the vapour should be inso;uble in water.
(ix) The refrigerant should be easily available, cheap and safe to handle.

5.6.Absorption Refrigeration Systems:

5.6.1. Introduction: The largest operating expense in a vapour compression refrigeration plant
is due to compression work. 100% of the available energy is used to transfer heat from a low
temperature region to a high temperature region. However this work is transformed into heat

273
and rejected from the system in the condenser. To overcome this loss of available energy, the
property of absorption of gases by certain fluids can be utilized to transfer heat from a low
temperature region to a high temperature region. There is a chemical reaction in the absorption
process and heat is released (heat of reaction). Since the vapour is condensed in another fluid,
the latent heat of the vapour as well as the heat of reaction have to be removed.
The absorption cycle is a process by which refrigeration effect is produced through
the use of two fluids and some quantity of heat input, rather than electrical input as in the more
familiar vapor compression cycle. Both vapor compression and absorption refrigeration cycles
accomplish the removal of heat through the evaporation of a refrigerant at a low pressure and
the rejection of heat through thecondensation of the refrigerant at a higher pressure. The
method of creating the pressure difference and circulating the refrigerant is the primary
difference between the two cycles. The vapor compression cycle employs a mechanical
compressor to create the pressure differences necessary to circulate the refrigerant. In the
absorption system, a secondary fluid or absorbent is used to circulate the refrigerant.
Absorption machines are commercially available today in two basic configurations.
For applications above 0 0C (primarily air conditioning), the cycle uses lithium bromide as the
absorbent and water as the refrigerant. For applications below 0 0C, an ammonia/water cycle is
employed with ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent
5.6.2.General Expression for COP of a Simple Absorption Refrigeration System:The
principle of operation of a simple vapour absorption refrigeration system is shown
schematically in Fig. 5.14.The refrigerant vapour emerging from the evaporator at a low
pressure (state 1) is abosbed in a liquid in which it is highly soluble at the ambient temperature.
Qg
Qa2

Condenser Generator
4

5 Pump
7 3

Expansion Valve Wp

6 8

1 2
Evaporator
Absorber

QR Qa1

Fig. 5.14: Simple Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

274
The resulting concentrated liquid which has a low specific volume (state 2) is raised to the
condenser pressure y means of a pump to enter the generator at state 3. In the generator, the
liquid is heated until high pressure refrigerant vapours are evolved from the solution (state
4).These vapours are condensed in the condenser(state 5) and throttled in an expansion
valve(state6). The throttled refrigerant is vapourized in the evaporator. The weak solution
present in the generator (state 7) is sent back to the absorber through an expansion valve.The
COP of an absorption system should be evaluated on the basis of the thermal energy input in
the generator, since the pump work input turns out tobe very small.Hence COP for an
absorption cycle is defined as follows:
Net RefrigerationEffect
COP = --------------------------------------------------
Thermal Energy Input in the Generator

For an ideal absorption refrigeration cycle with no irreversibilities, the COP may be evaluated
by visualizing thesystem as absorbing energy at the high and low temperatures T g and TR and
rejecting the thermal energy at the ambient temperature, Ta.
Applying first law for the system shown in Fig.5.14 and neglecting the pump work we have
Qg + QR = (Qa1 + Qa2) = Qa ………………………..(5.24)
By second law Qg / Tg + QR / TR = Qa / Ta ………………………...(5.25)
Eliminating Qa between the above two equations we get
Qg [(1 / Tg) – (1 / Ta)] = QR [(1 / Ta) – (1 / TR)]

[(1 / Tg) – (1 / Ta)] [ 1 – (Ta / Tg)]

Or COP = QR / Qg = ----------------------- = ---------------------- …(5.26)
[(1 / Ta) – (1 / TR)] [ (Ta / TR) – 1]

It can be seen from the above exression that COP increases with increase in generator
temperature Tg and decreases with decrease in evaporator temperature TR, when the condenser
and absorber temperatures Ta are fixed.
5.6.2.Ammonia – Water Absorption Refrigeration System: A schematic diagram of an
ammonia – water absorption system which uses ammonia as the refrigerant and water as an
absorber is shown in Fig.5.15. Dry saturated ammonia vapour at pressure p h (state 1) leaves the
generator and is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser to saturated liuid state (state
2). It then passes through a throttle valve, where the pressure is reduced to p l, leaving thevalve
as a wet vapour (state 3). This wet vapour passes through the evaporator where the refrigerant
picks up heat from the space to be refrigerated and leaves the evaporator at p l (state 4).This
cold vapour then eneters the absorber, where it mixes with a hot aqueous solution and is
condensed. For ammonia the heat of reaction is positive so that a heat exchanger must be

275
located in the absorber to cool the hot aqeous solution,improving the absorbing capacity and
removing the latent heat of vapourization and heat of reaction. This aqeous solution with a high

Qa2
Generator
Liquid Ammonia Ammonia Vapour
Condenser
2 1

Throttle Valve

3 Qg

4
Evaporator Absorber
Wet vapour of ammonia 7
6
Strong
solution of
QR
ammonia

Pump
5 8

Qa1
In out Weak solution of ammonia
Cooling water

Fig. 5.15 : Ammonia – Water Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

percentage of ammonia in water leaves the absorber (state 5) and enters the pump, where the
pressure is raised to ph(state 6). This high pressure strong solution of ammonia enters the
generator, where heat is added to drive the ammonia vapour from the solution. The ammonia
leaves the generator as a dry saturated vapour (state 1) at ph.Some of the hot liquid which has a
low percentage of ammonia i.e.weak solution (state 7) leaves the generator and is reduced in its
pressure by passing it through an expansion valve (state 8). This weak solution of ammonia
enters the absorber.

276
 Chapter 6: Air Conditioning

6.1 INTRODUCTION.

Air conditioning is the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, odour and
air circulation as required by the occupants of the space. Experience has shown that not
everyone within a given space can be made completely comfortable by one set of conditions.
This is due to a number of factors. The factors that influence comfort, in their order of
importance are: temperature, humidity, air motion and the quality of air with regard to odour,
dust and bacteria. It has been found that in most cases a reasonably comfortable environment
can be maintained when two or three of these factors are controlled. Before going to the
methods by means of which these factors can be controlled, it is necessary to understand the
thermodynamics of air -water vapour mixture.

6.2 THERMODYNAMICS OF AIR-WATER VAPOUR MIXTURE.

The thermodynamic analysis of air-water vapour mixture can be performed quite accurately if
the following assumptions are made:
1. The individual constituents namely air and water vapour behave as a perfect gas.
2. The air-water vapour mixture also behaves as a perfect gas.
3. The equilibrium between the condensed phase and vapour phase is independent of the
gaseous mixture.

6.2.1 Some Definitions for Air-Water Vapour Mixture.

a) Specific Humidity or Absolute Humidity or Humidity Ratio:- This is defined as the ratio of
the mass of water vapour in a given volume of mixture to the mass of dry air present in the
mixture.
Thus,
 = mv/ma------------------(6.1)
Where,  = specific humidity; mv= mass of water vapour in the mixture.
ma= mass of dry air in the mixture.

b) Relative Humidity.
The relative humidity,  of an air-water vapour mixture is the ratio of the mass of
water vapour in a unit volume of the mixture to the mass of the vapour that the volume could
hold if the vapour were saturated at the mixture temperature.
Thus,
 = mv/mg------------------(6.2)
Where, mg= mass of the saturated vapour at the mixture temperature.
Since we have assumed that the water vapour behaves as an ideal gas we can write

mv = pv.V/Rv.T and mg = pg.V/Rv.T; Pv=partial pressure of water vapour.

277
pg=partial pressure of saturated vapour at mixture temperature.

Substituting for mv and mg in Eqn(6.2) we get,

 = (p0.V/R.T) / (pg.V/R.T) or  = pv/pg ------------------------(6.3)

Thus the relative humidity of an air-water vapour mixture can also be defined as the ratio of
partial pressure of water vapour present in the mixture to the saturation pressure of water
vapour corresponding to the mixture temperature.
c) Relation between  and .

 = mv/ma = (pv.V/Rv.T) / (pa.V/Ra.T) = (Ra.p v)/(Rv.pa)

Where, Ra = 0.287 kJ/(kg-K) and Rv = 0.4615 kJ/(kg-K)

  = (0.287pv)/(0.4615pa) or  = 0.622(pv/pa)------------(6.4)

Using the definition of  as given in Eqn(6.3), Eqn(6.4) can be written as

 = (.pa)/(0.622pg)---------------(6.5)

Equations (6.3), (6.4) and (6.5) can be used provided the mixture behaves as an ideal gas. This
is true up to a mixture temperature of 65 0C. Above this temperature the saturation of water in
air is high and the non-ideal behaviour of the mixture creates too great a discrepancy.

d) Saturated Air.
If the partial pressure of water vapour is equal to the saturation pressure corresponding
to the mixture temperature then the mixture is called as “ saturated mixture” or “saturated air”.
“Unsaturated air” is a mixture of dry air and superheated vapour.For unsaturated air  < 100 %

e) Dew Point and Dew Point Temperature:

When an air water vapour mixture is cooled at constant pressure as indicated by the line
1-2 on Fig 6.1(The pressure lines in figure correspond to partial pressure of water vapour in air
vapour mixture) the vapour in the mixture becomes saturated at state point 2. The
thermodynamic state corresponding to point 2 is called the “Dew Point” and the temperature
corresponding to this state is called “Dew Point Temperature”. If the cooling is continued,
some liquid condensation will occur and the partial pressure will be reduced to that at state 3,
with the saturated liquid at state 4.

278
 p
T Liquid
region
pv1 2
1
1
pv2
3
2
Tdp
4 Solid
3 region
Vapour region

T
s
Tdp Tdb

Fig 6.1: Vapour pressure (pv1), Saturation pressure (pv2), Dew point temperature, and
Dry bulb temperature.
f) Dry-Bulb Temperature and Wet Bulb Temperature.

Dry bulb thermometer Wet-bulb Thermometer

Wick soaked in
water

water

Fig. 6.2 : Dry bulb and wet bulb Thermometers

279
 “Dry bulb temperature” of an air-water vapour mixture is the equilibrium temperature
of the mixture as measured by an ordinary thermometer. The “wet bulb temperature” is the
temperature indicated by a wet bulb thermometer which has its temperature-sensitive element
covered with a wick like material soaked in water (see Fig 6.2). It will be seen that for an
unsaturated air, the wet bulb temperature is always less than the dry bulb temperature, but
greater than the dew-point temperature. For saturated air the dry bulb, the wet bulb, and the
dew point temperature are the same.

g) Enthalpy and Entropy of an Air-Water Vapour Mixture.

The enthalpy, H of the mixture is the sum of the enthalpies of the dry air and the water
vapour. That is,

H = Ha + Hv
H = ma.ha + mv.hv-----------------------(6.6)

It is customary to express the specific enthalpy of a mixture, h in kJ/kg of dry air,

i.e. h = H/ma
Therefore dividing Eqn (6.6) by ma we get

h = ha + (mv/ma)hv or

h = ha + .hv------------------------------(6.7)

Where, h= specific enthalpy of mixture in kJ/kg of dry air.

ha=specific enthalpy of dry air in kJ/kg of dry air.
hv=specific enthalpy of water vapour in kJ/kg of water vapour.

The enthalpy of air can be approximated by

ha = Cp.Tdb ----------------------------------(6.8)

Where, Cp=specific heat of dry air in kJ/(kg-K).

Tdb =dry bulb temperature in degrees centigrade.
Cp may be taken as 1.005 kJ/(kg-K), then

ha = 1.005Tdb ------------------------------(6.9)

Where Tdb is in 0C

The enthalpy of water vapour, hv in general depends on the partial pressure Pv and the dry bulb
temperature. However it happens that for water vapour at the partial pressure existing in
atmospheric air, hv may be approximated by the value hg (enthalpy of saturation)
corresponding to the dry bulb temperature. But a better approximation is available.
In S.I. units, the enthalpy of water vapour hv may be taken as

280
 hv = 2500 + 1.86Tdb kJ/kg----------(6.10)

Where Tdb is the dry bulb temperature in degrees centigrade, and the datum state is liquid
water at zero degrees centigrade.
Making use of Eqns (7.9) and (7.10), the enthalpy of an air water vapour mixture may be given
by the following approximate relationship:

h = 1.005Tdb + (2500 + 1.86Tdb ) kJ/kg of dry air--------------------(6.11)

Where Tdb is the dry bulb temperature in degrees centigrade.

The entropy of the mixture is the sum of the entropies of dry air and the water vapour. Thus, in
an analogous manner, we can write the following expression for the specific entropy of the
mixture:

s = sa+ .sv--------------------------------(6.12)

In the above equation the specific entropy of dry air sa and the specific entropy of water
vapour sv must be evaluated at the dry bulb temperature and the appropriate partial pressure.

6.2.2. Adiabatic Saturation Process.

Specific humidity is one of the important properties of an air-water vapour mixture and its
knowledge is necessary for the design of any air conditioning system. Actually there is no
convenient way to measure either the specific humidity or relative humidity directly. But it is
possible to calculate the specific humidity as shown below.
Consider the process as shown in Fig 6.3.
An unsaturated air of dry bulb temperature ,Tdb1 enters an insulated chamber containing a body
of water that has a very large surface area. It leaves as saturated air with a temperature of Tdb2.
When the unsaturated air passes over the water surface, some of the water is evaporated. The
energy for evaporation comes from both the moist air and the water in the chamber. Since the
system is insulated, the temperature of the air decreases. Therefore, Tdb2 will be lower than
Tdb1. If the water being added to the air is at Tdb2, the final equilibrium temperature is called the
“ adiabatic saturation temperature” or the “ thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature”.
Appling First Law of thermodynamics to the flow process, assuming steady flow conditions
and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies we have,
ma.ha1 + mv1.hv1 + (mv2 - mv1)hf = ma.ha2 + mv2.hv2--------------------(6.13)

281
 1 2

Saturated air
at p2, Tdb2
T

Unsaturated
Air at p1,Tdb1 Tdb1 1
f
And φ1,
2
Tdp d
Make up water at
Tdb2
s
Fig. 6.3: Adiabatic Saturation Process

Dividing throughout by ma and noting that mv/ma = , the specific humidity we get

ha1 + 1.hv1 + (2 - 1)hf = ha2 + 2.hv2------------------------------------(6.14)

Approximating, hv1 as hg1 , the enthalpy of saturation at T1,

hv2 as hg2 , the enthalpy of saturation at T2, Eqn(6.14) can be written as

ha1 + 1.hg1 + (2 - 1)hf = ha2 + 2.hg2 or

1 = {(ha2 - ha1 ) + 2(hg2 - hf )}/(hg1 - hf ) or

1 = {Cp (T db2-Tdb1) + 2.hfg2}/(hg1 - hf )-----------------------------------(6.15)

But 2 = (0.622pv2 )/(p - pv2 ).Since the air is saturated at point 2, 2=1.0. Therefore pv2 is
simply the saturation pressure at T db2. Thus we see that 1 can be calculated if we know T db1,
T db2 and the mixture pressure. Knowing 1, the relative humidity 1 and the vapour pressure,
pv may also be calculated.
The states of the water vapour in the mixture during the adiabatic process are shown in the T-s
diagram in Fig 6.3. Owing to an increase in the moisture content, the vapour pressure increases
during the process, as the mixture pressure remains constant. Owing to evaporative cooling, the
temperature of the mixture, which is also the temperature of the vapour, decreases during the
process. The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is therefore higher than the dew point
temperature and lower than the dry bulb temperature of the mixture.

282
The exact determination of the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is practically not
possible. However a good approximation may be obtained by means of a wet-bulb
thermometer shown in Fig 7.2. As air flows around the wet bulb, water is being evaporated
from the wick, thereby making the air inside the wick saturated at the temperature of the water
in the wick. Because there is continuous heat removal (latent heat of vaporization), the wet
bulb thermometer registers a lower reading of temperature than that registered by a dry bulb
thermometer. It happens that this wet bulb temperature is very close to the adiabatic saturation
temperature for air-water-vapour mixtures. This equality does not hold for most gas-vapour
mixtures. A wet bulb temperature as read from a wet bulb thermometer is influenced by heat
and mass transfer rates and is therefore not a sole function of the thermodynamic state of the
air to which the thermometer is exposed. The wet bulb temperature is therefore not a property
of the moist air, whereas the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature is a property of the moist
air.
It is possible to make use of Eqn (6.15) to determine the vapour pressure of moist air.
However, it is more convenient to modify this equation so that calculation of the actual vapour
pressure may be made directly from dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures. The resulting is called
“CARRIER’S EQUATION” and is given as
pv = pgw - [{(p - pgw)(Tdb - Twb)}/(1532.44-1.3Twb )]------------------------(6.16)

Where,
pv= actual vapour pressure, bar.
pgw= saturation pressure corresponding to wet bulb temperature, bar.
p=pressure of mixture, bar.
Tdb= dry bulb temperature, degrees centigrade.
Twb=wet bulb temperature, degrees centigrade.

6.3 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART.:- The various properties of moist air can be calculated
through the use of the equations relating them. However, the calculations are tedious and time
consuming. It is of considerable advantage to have these properties presented in a chart known
as “PSYCHROMETRIC CHART”. Such a chart not only makes it possible to obtain readily
the necessary information for engineering calculations but also provides with a very useful aid
in visualizing and understanding various processes involving moist air.
A thermodynamic state of moist air is uniquely fixed if the mixture pressure and two
independent properties, such as the dry bulb temperature and the specific humidity are known.
This means that a psychrometric chart may be constructed for a given mixture pressure, using
the dry bulb temperature and the specific humidity as the coordinates. Such a chart is shown
schematically in Fig 6.4.

283
 Specific
h, kJ/kg of Volume lines
dry air m3/kg of dry air

Specific
humidity, ω
Kg / Kg of
dry air

Dry bulb Temp, 0C Wet bulb temp lines

Fig. 6.4: Psychrometric Chart for a given mixture pressure.

At a given mixture pressure, the vapour pressure Pv is a function of the specific humidity only.
Consequently, there is only one value of Pv, for each value of . The lines of constant wet-
bulb temperature slope downward to the right because for unsaturated air, the wet-bulb
temperature is higher than the dew point temperature but lower than the dry bulb temperature.
From Eqn (6.14) we have, for an adiabatic saturation process,

ha1 + 1.hv + (2 - 1)hf = ha2 + 2.hv2 or

h2 = (2 - 1)hf + h1.

The term (2 - 1)hf is always very small in comparison with h1.
Thus h1h2.

This means that for an adiabatic saturation process, the enthalpy of mixture remains essentially
constant. Since h2 is a function of the thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature only, lines of
constant enthalpy are essentially parallel to lines of constant wet-bulb temperature. For greater
accuracy, the correction term, (2 - 1)hf , may be applied.

6.4 AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES (PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES).

Some of the common processes involving air water vapour mixtures are:
1. Heating or Cooling.

284
2. Humidifying.
3. Dehumidifying.
4. Mixing.
These generally are steady-state steady flow processes. Analysis of problems involving these
kinds of processes will require the application of:
1.The principle of conservation of energy (the energy equation).
2. The principle of conservation of mass (the mass balance equation).
3. The properties of air water vapour mixtures.
In addition, the entropy-creation equation may be used to investigate the extent of
irreversibility in such processes and devices.

285
6.4.1 Heating or Cooling (Sensible Heat Process).

When the thermodynamic state of moist air is altered without altering its specific
humidity, the process is called a “sensible heat process”. This process can be achieved
either by heating the moist air or by cooling the moist air. During this process the DBT of
air changes. This sensible heat process is represented by a horizontal line on the
psychrometric chart as shown in Fig 6.6.
Sensible HeatingProcess:

h, kJ/kg of h2
dry air Specific
humidity, ω
h1 Kg / Kg of
dry air

ω1 = ω2
1 2

Tdb1 Tdb2

Fig. 6.6 (a) Sensible heating process on Psychrometric Chart

286
 1
2

.
Q1-2

Heating coil

Fig. 6.6 (b) Schematic for sensible heating process

Applying steady flow energy equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2 and neglecting
changes in kinetic and potential energies we have

ma.h1 + Q1-2 = ma.h2 or Q1-2 = ma(h2 - h1)-------------------------------(6.17)

Sensible Cooling Process:The schematic for a sensible cooling process is shown in

Fig.6.6(c).

287
 1
2

.
Q1-2

Cooling coil

Fig. 6.6 (c) Schematic for sensible cooling process

h, kJ/kg of h1
dry air Specific
humidity, ω
h2 Kg / Kg of
dry air

ω1 = ω2
2 1

Tdb2 Tdb1

Fig. 6.6 (d): Sensiible cooling process on Psychrometric chart

The process is also represented on the psychrometric chart as shown in Fig.6.6 (d).
Applying steady flow energy equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2 and neglecting
changes in kinetic and potential energies we have

288
 ma.h1 = ma.h2 + Q1-2

or Q1-2 = ma(h1 – h2)-------------------------------(6.18)

It may be seen from this psychrometer chart in which the sensible heating or cooling are
represented, that simple heating of moist air can be done to any desired temperature
where as simple cooling can be done only up to the dew point temperature. Cooling
below this temperature will result in the condensation of moisture.
6.4.2 Heating and humidifying: Problems associated with low relative humidity
resulting from simple heating can be eliminated by humidifying the heated air.This is
accomplished by first passing the air through a heated section (process 1-2) and then
througha humidifying section (process 2-3) as shown in Fig 6.7.The thermodynamis state
of 3 depends on how the humidification is accomplished. If steam is introduced in the
humidifying section, this will result in additional heating (Tdb3 > Tdb2). If humidification
is accomplished by spraying water into the air stream, then part of the latent heat of
vapourization will come from the air, which will result in cooling of the heated air (Tdb3 <
Tdb2). In that case air has to be heated to a higher temperature in the heating section to
make up for the cooling effect during humidification process.

Humidifier
mw

1 3
2

ma, ω1, ma, ma,

Tdb1 ω2, ω3,
Tdb2 Tdb
3

Heating coil

Fig. 6.7 Schematic for Heating & humidification process

Dry air mass balance gives ma1 = ma2 = ma

Water mass balance gives ω1 = ω2 ; and mw = mw3 – mw2 = ma(ω3 – ω2).
Energy balance gives mah1 + Q1-2 = mah2
Or Q1-2 = ma(h2 – h1)

289
6.4.3 Cooling and Dehumidifying.
Water vapour in moist air may be removed by cooling it below its dew point temperature.
In practice this is achieved if the surface temperature of the cooling coil is lower than the
dew point temperature of the moist air. Schematic representation of the process and the
corresponding thermodynamic states are shown in Fig 6.8.
Applying steady flow energy equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2 we get

ma.h1 = ma.h2 + Q1-2 + mw.hf.

h1
h, kJ/kg of
dry air
h2 Specific
humidity, ω
1 Kg / Kg of
dry air

Tdb2 Tdb1

Fig. 6.8 (a) Cooling & dehumidification Process

290
 .

1 Q1-2
2

ma, ω1, ma,ω2,

Tdb1 Tdb2

Water
condensed
from moist Cooling coil
air mw, hf

Fig. 6.8 (b) Schematic for cooling & dehumidification process

Mass balance of water gives m w1 = m w + m w2 . or

mw = mw1 - mw2.

 ma.h1 = ma. h2 + Q1-2 + (mw1 - mw2)hw or

Q1-2 = ma(h1 - h2) – (mw1 - mw2)hw

= ma[(h1 - h2) – ( 1 - 2)hw]----------------------------------(6.19)

291
6.4.4 Humidifying Moist Air.

ma,ω1,Tdb1 Ma, ω2, Tdb2

Water, mw, hf

Fig.6.9(a) Schematic for humidifying process

When water is sprayed into air, the moist air gets dehumidified. The direction of the
process on the psychrometric chart depends on the temperature of the injected water. If
the injected water is a saturated vapour at Tdb1 , then the process takes place at constant
dry bulb temperature (line 1-2). If the water enthalpy is less than the enthalpy of saturated
vapour at Tdb1 (hf<hg) then the air will be cooled and dehumidified (line 1-2’’ ). If the
water enthalpy is greater than the enthalpy of saturated vapour at Tdb1 (hf>hg) then the air
will be heated and dehumidified (line 1-2’ ). If the injected water is at the wet bulb
temperature of the incoming air, then the process

292
 h, kJ/kg of
dry air
Specific
2 humidity, ω
2’’ 2’ Kg / Kg of
dry air
2’’’

Tdb1

Fig.6.9 (b) Humidifyimg Process on Psychrometric Chart

will follow a line of constant wet bulb temperature (line 1-2’’’).

Applying steady flow energy equation to the process we have

ma.h1 + mw.hf = ma.h2.

Or mass balance of water gives mw1 + mw = mw2. Or mw = mw2 - mw1.

 energy equation reduces to ma.h1 + (mw2 - m w1 )hf = ma.h2.

Or h1 + (2 - 1)hf = h2.

Or hf = (h2 - h1)/(2 - 1) = h/---------------------------(6.20)

6.4.5 Adiabatic Humidification or Evaporative Cooling Process.

If humidification is carried out adiabatically, the energy required for the evaporation of
the added moisture must come from the entering air. Consequently, the dry bulb
temperature of the air must decrease. This is why an adiabatic humidification process is
also called as an “Evaporative Cooling Process”.

293
Referring to the energy Eqn (6.20), the term (2 - 1)hf is always very small in
comparison to h1. Under such circumstances Eqn(6.20) reduces to
h2 = h1----------------------------(6.21)

We thus see that an adiabatic humidification process is essentially a constant enthalpy

process. Since lines of constant enthalpy may be approximated closely as parallel lines of
constant wet-bulb temperature, an adiabatic humidification process is also essentially a
constant wet-bulb temperature process. Therefore, the lowest temperature of the air that
can be achieved in such a process is the wet-bulb temperature of the air. It is clear that
not much cooling can be accomplished by this process if the air has a high relative
humidity.

6.4.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams.

h1

h, kJ/kg of
dry air
h3
1 ω1
h2

ω3
3
2 ω2

Tdb2 Tdb3 Tdb1

Fig.6.10 (a): Adiabatic mixing process on Psychrometric Chart

In the designing of an air-conditioning system, it is almost always necessary to mix two

or more streams of air to produce a stream with the desirable state of temperature and
relative humidity. Fig 6.10(a) shows adiabatic mixing of two air streams on a
Psychrometric Chart.
The schematic for the process is shown in Fig. 6.10 (b).

294
 ma1, Tdb1, ω1 1

φ1
3

ma3,Tdb3,
ω3,φ3

ma2, Tdb2, ω2
φ2 2

Fig. 6.10 (b): Schematic for adiabatic mixing of two air streams

If the mixing is carried out adiabatically, and if changes in kinetic and potential energies
are negligible, we have, from the steady flow energy equation,
ma1.h1 + ma2.h2 = ma3.h3 or

ma1 .h1 + ma2 .h2 = (ma1 + ma2 )h3----------------------------------(6.22)

From mass balance of water vapour we have

mw1 + mw2 = mw3 or

ma1 .1 + ma2 .2 = ma3 .3 or

ma1 .1 + ma2 .2 = (ma1 + ma2 )3--------------------------------(6.23)

From Eqn (6.22) we have

ma1 /ma2 = (h3 - h2)/(h1 - h3)----------------------------------------(6.24)

From Eqn( 6.23) we have

ma1 /ma2 = (3 - 2)/(1 - 3)----------------------------------------(6.25)

Therefore we have

295
ma1 /ma2 = (h3 – h2)/(h1 - h3) = (3 - 2)/(1 - 3)--------(6.26)

Eqn (6.26) tells that the resulting state after mixing i.e. state 3, must lie on a straight line
connecting states 1 and 2. Thus the final state may be found by dividing the line 1-2 into
segments proportional to the relative masses of dry air before mixing takes place.
Consequently the problem of mixing two streams can be solved graphically with the help
of appropriate psychrometric chart.

6.5 THE CONDITION LINE.

Satisfactory conditions for supply air are not limited to one point on the psychrometric
chart, but they fall on a particular line called the “ CONDITION LINE” for the space.
This line is established by the enthalpy/moisture ratio of the air conditioning load, where
the net heat gain and net moisture gain are used.

. .
Qi mwi,hwi

Conditioned
ma,h1,ω1 ma, h2, ω2
Space

. .
QL mwK,hwL

Fig. 6.11 (a) : Energy Transfer in a Conditioned Space

Fig 6.11(a) shows a conditioned space with some internal conditioning and some
circulation of air. Let the heat load be QL kW and mw be the moisture in kg/hr. Let the
heat removal
required be Qi kW and the moisture to be removed be mw kg/hr. The net load to be
carried by
the introduction of externally conditioned air is obtained by heat balance as
Qnet = QL – Qi + mwL.hwL – mwi.hwi----------------------(6.27)

296
And m w = mwL - mwi--------------------------------------------(6.28)

Also ma.h1 + Qnet = ma.h2-----------------------------------(6.29)

ma.1 + mw = ma.2----------------------------------(6.30)

 Qnet/mw = (h2-h1)/(2-1) = q--------------------------(6.31)

h2

h, kJ/kg of
dry air

h1 2 ω2

Tdb1 Tdb2

Fig. 6.11 (b) : Condition Line on Psychrometric Chart

On the psychrometric chart, the line joining condition (1) and condition (2) has a slope of
q. Therefore air supplied with conditions at any point on the line through(2) and with a
slope equal to q will satisfy the heat and moisture balance. Therefore this line is called
the condition line for the space.

6.6 APPARATUS DEW POINT (ADP).

The condition line for a space establishes another point called the “Apparatus Dew
Point”. This is applicable only for air conditioning that involves cooling and
dehumidifying. If the air-conditioning apparatus is to bring part of the air to saturation in
a dehumidifying process and then mix that with some re-circulated air for supply at
condition (1), then the saturated air must be at a point determined by the extension of the
space condition line to an intersection with the saturation line as shown in Fig 6.12.

297
 h, kJ/kg of
dry air

ω
I

ADP

Dry bulb Temp

Fig. 6.12: Apparatus Dew Point on Psychrometric chart.

Adiabatic mixing of air at ADP with air at condition(2) must produce conditions on a
straight line between the two points. No cooling coil will bring 100% of the air passed
through it to saturation.

6.7 BYPASS FACTOR.

Fig 6.13 shows the process that the moist air undergoes while flowing over a surface. The
air enters at (1) and leaves at (2) when the coil surface is maintained at (s). In the transfer
of heat and water vapour in any conditioning process, the particles of air stream come in
contact with a surface. The state of the “contacted air” is that of saturated air at the
temperature of the surface. But all air particles will not come in contact with the surface.
These air particles will bypass the cooling coil surface and therefore will remain at the
entering state itself. Hence one can define a “Bypass Factor( BPF)” of the apparatus in
terms of the states 1,2 and s as

Bypass Factor = Y = (T2-Ts )/(T1-Ts)----------------------------(6.32)

= (2-s)/(1-s)----------------------------(6.33)

= (h2-hs)/(h1-hs)------------------------------(6.34)

298
 h1

h, kJ/kg of
dry air

h2 ω
1 ω1
hs
ω2
2
s ωs
Y (1 – Y)

Dry bulb Temp

Fig. 6.13 : By-Pass Factor “Y” on Psychrometric Chart

Thus the bypass factor can be defined in terms of temperature, or specific humidity or
enthalpy of air. It can be seen in Fig 7.12 the resulting state (2) divides the line joining (1)
to (s) in the ratio of Y and (1-Y)

Example 6.1:- Moist air at 40 0C,101.325 kPa, and a relative humidity of 60% initially is
cooled at a constant mixture pressure to 20 0C. Determine:
(a) The final relative humidity.
(b) Change in specific humidity.

Solution:

(a) From steam tables at 40 0C, pg = 7.375 kPa.

Therefore pv = 0.60*7.375 = 4.425 kPa.

And 1 = 0.622 (pv )/(p-pv )

= 0.622 x (4.425)/(101.325-4.425)

= 0.0284 kg of water/kg of dry air.

At 20 0C, pg = 2.337 kPa which is less than the initial partial pressure of water
vapour in the moisture. Consequently we must have saturated air at 20 0C. Therefore

299
 p
T Liquid
pg at 40 0C region

1
400 1
2
Tdp
Solid
200C 2 region
Vapour region

pv2
T
s
Tdp Tdb
Fig. E6.1: Change in water vapour pressure due to cooling of air below its dew
point

pv = pg at 20 0C = 2.337 kPa.

2 = 100%.

2 = 0.622 x (2.337)/(101.325-2.337)

= 0.0147 kg of water/kg of dry air.

(b) 2-1 = 0.0147-0.0284 = -0.0137 kg of water/kg of dry air.

The change in specific humidity represents the amount of water vapour, per kg of dry air,
removed by condensation achieved through cooling the mixture below the dew point
temperature. The initial and final states of the vapour are shown in the phase diagram for
water in figure below.

Example 6.2:-The pressure and temperature in a room are 101.325 kPa and 25 0C. If the
relative humidity is 40% determine:
(a) Saturation pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb temperature,(b) The dew point
temperature,(c) Specific humidity and(d) Degree of saturation.

Solution:
Data:
Pressure of the mixture = p= 101.325 kPa.

300
Temperature of the mixture = Tdb = 25 0C.
Relative humidity =  = 40%.

(a) Saturation pressure at 25 0C (from steam tables) = pg = 3.166 kPa

(b) Partial pressure of water vapour in the mixture = pv = .pg.

pv = 0.4 x 3.166 = 1.2664 kPa.

dew point temperature = saturation temperature at 1.2664 kPa

= 10.46 0C.

(c) Specific humidity =  = (0.622pv )/(p-pv) = (0.622 x 1.2664)/(101.325-1.2664)

= 7.872 x 10-3 kg of water/kg of dry air.

(d) Degree of saturation = /sat ; where sat = specific humidity of saturated air at .
mixture temperature.

sat = (0.622pg)/(p-pg) = (0.622x 3.166)/(101.325-3.166)

= 0.0201 kg of water/kg of dry air.

 degree of saturation =  = 7.872 x 10-3/0.0201 = 0.3924.

Example 6.3:- Moist air is at a temperature of 21 0C under a total pressure of 736mm of

Hg. The dew point temperature is 15 0C. Find:
(a) Partial pressure of water vapour,(b) Relative humidity,(c) Specific humidity,
(d) Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air and (e) Specific volume of air per kg of dry air.

Solution:

(a) Partial pressure of water vapour is

pv = saturation pressure at 15 0C
= 1.7039 kPa(from steam tables)

(b) Saturation pressure at 21 0C = pg = 2.5028 kPa.

relative humidity =  = pv/pg = 1.7039/2.5028 = .6808 = 68.08 %

(c)  = (0.622pv)/(p-pv)

now p = 736mm of Hg = (736x 13.6 x 9.81)/1000 = 98.2 kPa.

 = (0.622 x 1.7039)/(98.2-1.7039) = 0.0109 kg of water/kg of dry air.

301
(d) Enthalpy of moist air per kg of dry air is given by

h = 1.005Tdb +(2500+1.86Tdb ) where T is the dry bulb temperature in 0C.

h = 1.005 x 21+0.0109(2500+1.86 x 21)

= 48.8 kJ/kg of dry air.

(e) Specific volume of air per kg of dry air = v = V/ma = Ra.T/pa = Ra.T/(p-pv).

v = [287.3 x (21+273)] / [(98.2-1.7039) x 10-3] = 0.8753 m3/kg of dry air.

Example 6.4:- When the DBT is 35 0C, WBT is 23 0C and the barometer reads 750mm of
Hg. Calculate:(a) Relative humidity,(b) Humidity Ratio,(c) Dew point temperature,
(d) Density, and (e) Enthalpy of atmospheric air.

Solution:
(a) The partial pressure of water vapour is given by

pv = [psat] wb – [(p-{psat} wb)(Tdb-Twb)/(1532.44 – 1.3Twb)]-------------------------(6.16)

Where [psat] wb = saturation pressure corresponding to WBT,

Twb= Wet bulb temperature and Tdb= dry bulb temperature of moist air..

From steam tables at 23 0C, pgw=2.8344 kPa.

p=(750/1000) x 13.6 x 9.81=100.062 kPa.

pv=2.8344 – (100.062-2.8344) x (35-23)/(1532.44 - 1.3 x 23) = 2.0563 kPa.

At 35 0C, saturation pressure = pg = 5.622 kPa.(from steam tables)

relative humidity =  = pv/pg = 2.0563/5.622 = 0.366 = 36.6%.

(b) Humidity ratio =  = (0.622pv)/(p – pv)

= (0.622 x 2.0563)/[(750 x 13.6 x 9.81)/1000 – 2.0563)

= 0.013 kg of water/kg of dry air.

(c) Dew point temperature = saturation temp. at pv = 17.92 0C.

(d) Mixture pressure = p = 750mm of Hg.

302
 = (750/1000) x 13.6 x 9.81 = 100.062 kPa.

 partial pressure of dry air = pa = p – pv = 100.062-2.0563 = 98.0057 kPa.

a = pa/(RaT) = 98.0057 x 103/(287.3 x (273+35)) = 1.1075 kg of dry air/m3 of moist air.

v = pv/(RvT) = 2.0563 x 103/(461 x (273+35)) = 0.0145 kg of water vapour/m3 of moist

air.

Now  = m/V = (ma+mv)/V = a + v

=1.1075 + 0.0145 = 1.122 kg/m3 of moist air.

Enthalpy of atmospheric air is given by

h = 1.005Tdb + (2500 + 1.86Tdb ) kJ/kg of dry air

= 1.005 * 35 + 0.013 * (2500 + 1.86* 35) = 68.52 kJ/kg of dry air

Example 6.5:- A sample of air has DBT and WBT of 35 0C and 25 0C respectively. The
barometer reads 760mm of Hg. Calculate:
(a) Humidity ratio, Relative humidity and Enthalpy of the sample.
(b) Humidity ratio, Relative humidity and Enthalpy if the air were adiabatically
saturated. The use of steam tables only is permitted.

Solution:

Data:
Tdb= 35 0C,
Tb = 25 0C,
p= 760mm of Hg = 101.396 kPa.

(a) pv = pgw – {(p – pgw)(Tdb – Twb)}/(1532.44 – 1.3Tw)

now pgw = sat. pressure corresponding to Twb(=250C )

= 3.166 kPa(from steam tables).

 pv = 3.166 – {(101.396 – 3.166) x (35 – 25)}/(1532.44 – (1.3 x 25)) = 2.511 kPa.

 pg = sat. pressure corresponding to Tdb (=35 0C ) = 5.622 kPa.

 = pv/pg = 2.511/5.622 = 44.66%.

303
 = (0.622Pv)/(p – pv) = (0.622 x 2.511)/(101.396 – 2.511)

= 0.0158 kg of water/kg of dry air.

Enthalpy = h1 = 1.005Tdb + (2500+1.86Tdb )

= 1.005 x 35 + 0.0158(2500 + 1.86 x 35)

= 75.70 kJ/kg of dry air.

(b) At (2) the air is saturated,   = 100 % = 1.0.

 pv = saturation pressure corresponding to Twb = 25 0C = 3.166 kPa.

 2 = (0.622pv )/(p – pv ) = (0.622 x 3.166)/(101.396 −3.166)

= 0.02 kg of water/kg of dry air.

Enthalpy = h2 = 1.005Tdb + (2500 + 1.86Td b)

= 1.005 x 25 + 0.02(2500+1.86 x 25)

= 76.055 kJ/kg of dry air.

Example 6.6:- Find the heat transfer rate required to warm 40 m3/min of air at 32 0C and
90%RH to 50 0 C without the addition of moisture.

Solution:

From psychrometric chart: h1 = 102.25 kJ/kg of dry air.

h2 = 122.50 kJ/kg of dry air.

v1 = 0.905 m3/kg of dry air.

Now ma1 = ma2 = V/v1 = 40/0.905 = 44.2 kg of dry air/min.

304
(

h, kJ/kg of h2
dry air Specific
humidity, ω
h1 Kg / Kg of
dry air

ω1 = ω2
1 2

Tdb1 = 320C Tdb2= 500C

1
2

Tdb1,
Φ1, ω1 Tdb2, ω2 = ω1
.
Q1-2

Heating coil

Fig. 6.6 (b) Schematic for sensible heating process

Energy equation for process 1-2 is

Q1-2 = ma (h2 – h1) = {44.2x (122.5 – 102.25)}/60 kJ/s.

= 14.9 kW.

305
Example 6.7:- Air at 15 0C and 80%RH is conditioned to 25 0C and 50%RH. Determine
the amount of water added per kg of dry air. Assuming the make up water is added at 15
0
C determine the heat supplied during the process.

Solution:

h2

Specific
h, kJ/kg of humidity, ω
dry air Kg / Kg of
dry air
h1
ω2
2

ω1
1

Tdb1 = 150C Tdb2= 250C

From psychrometric chart we have

h1 = 36.5 kJ/kg of dry air.

1 = 8.45 x 10-3 kg of water/kg of dry air.

h2 = 50.5 kJ/kg of dry air.

2 = 9.80 x 10-3 kg of water/kg of dry air.

Water added/kg of dry air = mw/ma = (mw2 - mw1 )/ma

= 2 - 1.

= (9.80 – 8.45) x 10-3

= 1.35 x 10-3 kg of water/kg of dry air.

306
 mw, hf
1
2

Tdb1,
Φ1, ω1 Tdb2, ω2 ,φ2
.
Q1-2

Heating coil

Fig. E6.7 Schematic for example 6.7

Applying steady flow energy equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2 we have,

ma1 .h1 + Q1-2 + mw.hf = ma2 .h2.

mass balance gives ma1 = ma2 = ma

mw = mw2 – mw1

ma .h1 + Q1-2 + (mw2 – mw1 )hf = ma .h2.

 Q1-2 = ma (h2 – h1) – (mw2 – mw1 )hf.

Or Q1-2/ma = (h2 – h1) – (2 - 1)hf.

At 15 0C , hf = 62.94 kJ/kg(from steam tables)

 Q1-2/ma = (50.5 – 36.5) – 1.35 x 10-3 x 62.94

= 13.91 kJ/kg of dry air.

Example 6.8:- Warm air is to be cooled by an adiabatic humidification process. At the

beginning of the process, the air is at 45 0C and 30%RH. The final temperature is 30 0C .
Determine:
(a) The amount of water added to the air.
(b) The final relative humidity.

307
Solve the problem using steam tables only and compare the answers with those obtained
using psychrometric chart.
Assume the total pressure of air to be 101.325 kPa.

Solution:

mw, hf
1
2

Tdb1,
Φ1, ω1 Tdb2, ω2 ,φ2

Fig. E6.8 Schematic for example 6.8

h2 = h1

Specific
h, kJ/kg of humidity, ω
dry air Kg / Kg of
dry air
ω2
2

ω1
1

300C 450C

308
From steam tables at 45 0C, pg = 9.852 kPa

 pv = 1.pg = 0.3*9.582 = 2.8746 kPa.

1 = (0.622pv)/(p-pv) = (0.622 x 2.8746)/(101.325 – 2.8746)

= 0.01816 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

h1 = 1.005Tdb+ (2500 + 1.86Tdb )

= 1.005x 45 + 0.01816(2500 + 1.86 x 45)

= 92.145 kJ/kg of dry air.

For adiabatic humidification, h2 = h1.

h2 = 92.145 kJ/kg of dry air.

92.145 = 1.005 x 30 + 2 (2500 + 1.86 x 30)

or 2 = (92.145 – 1.005 x 30)/( 2500 – 1.86 x 30).

= 0.0243 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

 amount of water added/kg of dry air = 2 - 1 .

= 0.0243 – 0.01816 = 6.14 x 10-3 kg/kg of dry air.

2 = (0.622pv )/(p – pv )

or pv = (2 p)/(0.622 + 2 ) = (0.0243x 101.325)/(0.622 + 0.0243)

pv = 3.81 kPa.

From steam tables at 30 0C , pg = 4.241 kPa.

 2 = pv / pg = 3.81/4.241 = 89.2%

Solution by psychrometric chart.

From chart, h1 = 92.5 kJ/kg of dry air.

1 = 18.1 x 10-3 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

2 = 24.2 x 10-3 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

309
 2 = 90%.

 2 - 1 = (24.2 – 18.1) x 10-3

= 6.1 x 10-3 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

Example 6.9:- Air is to be conditioned from a DBT of 40 0C and a RH of 50% to a final

DBT of 20 0C and a final RH of 40% by a dehumidification process
followed by a reheat process. Assume that the entire process is carried out at a constant
pressure of 101.325 kPa. Determine:
(a) The amount of water to be removed from air.
(b) The temperature of air leaving the dehumidifier.
(c) Refrigeration in tons for an air flow rate of 0.47 m3/s and heating required in kW.

Solution:
The entire process is represented on psychrometric chart as shown in Fig,

.
1 Q1-2 3
2

ma, ω1, ma,ω2,

Tdb1 Tdb2 Tdb3,
. ω3, φ3
Q2-3

Water
condensed
from moist Cooling coil
air mw, hf

Fig. E6.9 (a) Schematic for cooling & dehumidification & heating
process of example 6.9

From chart:

1 = 23.4 x 10-3 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

h1 = 100.05 kJ/kg of dry air.

2 = 3 = 5.8 x 10-3 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.

310
 h1

Specific
h, kJ/kg of humidity, ω
dry air Kg / Kg of
h3 dry air
1 ω1
h2

ω2 = ω3
3
2

200C 400C

h3 = 50.5 kJ/kg of dry air.

h2 = 38.5 kJ/kg of dry air.

v1 = 0.92 m3/kg of dry air.

(a) Amount of water to be removed / kg of dry air = ( ω1 – ω2 )

= ( 23.4 – 5.8 ) * 10-3

= 17.6 x 10-3 kg of water / kg of dry

air.
(b) Temperature of air leaving the dehumidifier = Tdb2 = 13.75 ˚C

At this temperature hf = 57.70 kJ / kg of water

(c) Applying steady flow energy equation across the cooling we have

m a h1 = ma h2 + Q1-2 + m .hf ma = ( V / v1 )

Q1-2 = m a ( h1 - h2 ) + ( mw1 - mw2 )hf = ( 0.47 / 0.92 )

= ma [ (h1 – h2) + (ω1 – ω2) hf ] = 0.511 kg /s.

= 0.511 [ (100.05 – 38.5 ) + 17.6 x 10-3 * 57.70 ] kW

311
 = 31.97 kW

Refrigeration in tons = ( 31.97 / 3.516) = 9.092 tons

Applying SFEE across the heating coil we have

Q2-3 = ma ( h3 – h2 )

= 0.511 x [ 50.5 – 38.5 ] kW

= 6.132 kW

Example 6.10:-A Stream of air at atmospheric pressure, 20˚ C and 30% RH, flows at a
rate of 15 m3/min and mixes adiabatically with another stream of air at 35˚ C and 80%
RH at 20 m3/min. For the mixed stream calculate:
(a) Specific Humidity,(b)Temperature,(c) Relative Humidity and(d) Specific Volume.

Solution:

ma1, Tdb1, ω1 1

φ1
3

ma3,Tdb3,
ω3,φ3

ma2, Tdb2, ω2
φ2 2

312
 h2

h, kJ/kg of
dry air
h3
2 ω2
h1

ω3
3
1 ω1

Tdb1 Tdb3 Tdb2

From Psychrometric Chart : ω1 = 4.2 x 10-3 kg of water vapor / kg of dry air

h1 = 31.5 kJ / kg of dry air
ω2 = 28.9 x 10-3 kg of water vapor / kg of dry air
h2 = 109 kJ / kg dry air
v1 = 0.842 m3 / kg of dry air.
v2 = 0.0927 m3 /kg of dry air

ma1 = ( V1 / v1 ) = (15 / 0.842) = 17.815 kg / min

ma2 = ( V2 / v2 ) = (20 / 0.927) = 21.575 kg / min

ma3 = 17.815 + 21.575 = 39.39 kg / min

For adiabatic mixing we have,

ma1 / ma2 = (ω3 – ω2) / (ω1 – ω3)

or m a1 (ω1 – ω3) = ma2 (ω3 – ω2)

or 3 = (ma1 ω1 + ma2 ω2) / (m a1 + m a2)

= { ( 17.815 x 4.2 x 10-3 ) + ( 21.575 x 28.9 x 10-3 ) } / ( 17.815 + 21.575)

ω3 = 0.0177 kg of water vapor / kg of dry air.

313
Similarly,
h3 = (ma1 h1 + ma2 h2) / (m a1 + m a2)

= { ( 17.815 x 31.5 ) + ( 21.575 x 109 ) } / ( 17.815 + 21.575)

= 73.95 kJ / kg of dry air.

Since ω3 and h3 are known, state point (3) can be located on psychrometric chart.
From chart Tdb3 = 28.6˚ C ; 3 = 72.5 % ; v3 = 0.879 m3 / kg of dry air.

Example 6.11:-Atmospheric air at 12˚ C and 25 % RH is to be conditioned to a

humidity ratio of 0.005 kg of water vapor / kg of dry air as it enters an insulated room
with a flow rate of 60 m3 / min. Assuming that the humidifying water is at 12˚ C.
Determine RH, the Temperature of the conditioned air and heat transfer per rate for the
following humidifying process.
(a) Constant Dry Bulb Temperature (b) Constant Relative Humidity (c) Adiabatic
evaporative process.

Solution:

mw, hf, Tw = 120C

1
2

Tdb1,
Φ1, ω1, Tdb2, ω2 = 0.005 kg/kg
. .
of dry air
V Q1-2

Heating coil

Fig. E6.11 (a) Schematic for example 6.11 (a) constant DBT

314
 h2

h, kJ/kg of
dry air
h3
2 ω2

ω1
1

Tdb1 = Tdb2
Fig. E6.11(b) : Representation for case (a) of example 6.11

(a) Humidifying with constant dry bulb Temperature.

Spraying water into air increases the humidity ratio ω and hence there will be reduction
in Dry Bulb temperature of air. Therefore to keep the dry bulb temperature constant, in
addition to adding of water, the air must be heated. The schematic arrangement is shown
in fig below.
From Psychrometric Chart : ω1 = 2.2 * 10-3 kg of water vapor / kg of dry air.
h1 = 17.5 kJ/kg of dry air.
v1 = 0.8015 m3 / kg of dry air.
1 = 59 %.
Tdb1 = Tdb2 = 12˚ C.
h2 = 24.5 kJ / kg dry air.

From Steam tables at 12˚ C, hf = 50.37 kJ/ kg = hw.

ma = ( V / v1 ) = (60 / 0.8015) = 74.86 kg / min.

Applying SFEE between 1-1 and 2-2 we have,

m a h1 + Q1-2 + mw hw = ma h2

mass balance gives: m 1 + mw = m 2

mw = mw2 - m w1

Therefore Energy equation reduces to

315
m a h1 + Q1-2 + ( mw2 - m w1) hw = ma h2

or Q1-2 = ma [ (h2 - h2) - (ω2 – ω1) hw ]

= ( 74.86 / 60 ) { ( 24.5 - 17.5 ) – ( 0.005 – 0.002 ) x 50.37 } kw

= 8.56 kW.
(b) Constant Relative Humidity.

h2

h, kJ/kg of
dry air
h3
2 ω2

ω1
1
1 Φ1 = Ф2

Tdb1 Tdb2
Fig. E 6.11 (c) : Representation of process for case(b) of example 6.11
From chart

h2 = 39 kJ / kg of dry air.

Tdb2 = 26.2˚ C

Q1-2 = ( 74.86 / 60 ) { ( 39 - 17.5 ) – ( 0.005 – 0.002 ) x 50.37} kw

= 26.65 kw

(c) Adiabatic Humidification (Constant wet bulb Temperature Process).

For this process h2 = h1,

Knowing h2 and ω2, point (2) can be located on the chart

Therefore from the chart Tdb2 = 4.9˚ C

316
 Q1-2 = 0.

h, kJ/kg of
dry air
h1 = h2

2
ω2
ω1
1
1

Tdb2 Tdb1

Fig. E6.11(d) Representation of process for case (c)

Example 6.12:-The appended figure shows the air condition in a central air conditioning
plant, provided with a refrigeration circuit. It is meant to supply conditioned air at 20˚ C
Dry bulb temperature and 66% RH. The return air is 300 kg / min. While the make up air
is 20 kg / min taken from atmosphere. Find:
(a) The heat transfer at the cooling coil.
(b) The amount of the humidification per hour.
(c) The heating coil capacity and
(d) The COP of the refrigeration from unit.

Section 1-1: Entry of fresh air for make-up at Tdb1= 400C and φ1= 22 % RH;

Section 2-2 : Entry of return air at Tdb2 = 300C and φ2= 70 % RH;

Section 3-3 : Tdb3 = 200C; m3’ = 3 kg/min ; T3’ = 200C;

Tdb3 = 20 0C ; Section 5 – 5 : Tdb5 = 200C and φ5= 66 % RH ;

Compressor work = 90 kW.

317
 mw,hf
evaporator 5
2
2 3 4
1 . .
1 QR Q4-5

3’
3 4 5
m3’, T3’
Heating coil

Expansion
valve compressor
condenser

Fig. E6.12 : Schematic for example 6.12

Solution:

(a) Applying steady flow energy equation between section 1-1 and 3-3 we have

ma2 h2 + ma1 h1 = QR + ma3 h3 + m3’ hf3’

mass balance of the air is given by ma1 + ma2 = ma3

QR = ma1 h1 + ma2 h2 ─ ( ma1 + ma2) h3 ─ m3’ hf3’ ----------------------(a)

From Psychrometric chart h1 = enthalpy at 40˚ C Dry Bulb temperature and 22% RH

= 65.5 kJ / kg of dry air.

ω1 = 0.0092 kJ/ kg of dry air.

h2 = enthalpy at 30˚ C Dry Bulb temperature and 70% RH

= 77.5 kJ / kg of dry air.

ω2 = 0.0187 kJ/ kg of dry air.

At (3) we know only Dry Bulb Temperature and we require one more property to read h 3
from the chart. From the given data it is possible to determine the specific humidity at
(3) as follows,

318
mass balance of water between 1-1 and 3-3 gives,

mw1 + mw2 - m 3’ = mw

( ma ω1 + ma ω2 ) - mw`= mw3

Hence mw3 = 20 x 0.0092 + 300 x 0.0187 – 3 = 2.794 kg/min

ω3 = mw3 / ma3 = 2.794 / (300 + 20) = 0.00873 kg/kg of dry air

Therefore From the chart ,h3 = 42.5 kJ / kg of dry air.

From steam tables at 20 0C, hf = 83.9 kJ/kg.

Substituting all the values in the Equation (a) we have

QR = ( 20 x 65.5 ) + ( 300 x 77.5 ) –– ( 20 + 300 ) 42.5 ─ 3 x 83.9

= 10708.3 kJ / min

= 178.5 kW.

Therefore Refrigeration Effect = QR = 178.5 / 3.517 = 50.75 Tons

(b) Between sections 4-4 and 5-5 no water is added so the specific humidity remains
constant. i.e. ω5 = ω4

From the chart at 20˚ C Dry bulb temperature and 66% RH, ω5 = 0.0090 kJ / kg of dry
air

mass balance between 3-3 and 4-4 gives

mw = mw4 - m 3

= ma3 (ω4 – ω3 ) = ma3 ( ω5 – ω3)

= 320 x [ 0.0096 – 0.00873 ] = 0.2784 kg / min = 16.7 kg / hour.

(c)Energy balance between sections 4-4 and 5-5 gives

ma4 h4 + Qh = ma5 h5

But ma4 = ma5 = ma3

Therefore Qh = ma3 ( h5 – h4 )

319
 In order to locate (4) on the Psychrometric chart we must know the temperature of
water sprayed into the air for humidification. Since this has not been given it is assumed
that the humidification process is according to constant Wet bulb temperature. With this
assumption (4) can be located on the chart since we know ω4. Therefore from the chart

h4 = h3 = 42.5 kJ / kg of dry air.

Also h5 = 44.25 kJ / kg of dry air.

Therefore Qh = (320 / 60) [ 44.5 – 42.5 ] kW.

= 10.7 kW.

(d) COP of the plant = (QR / WN) = ( 182.7 / 90 ) = 2.03.

Example 6.13: 39.6 m3/min of a mixture of recirculated room air and outdoor air enters
a cooling coil at 31 0C DBT and 18.5 0C WBT. The effective surface temperature of the
coil is4.4 0C. The surface area of the coil is designed so as to give 12.5 kW of
refrigeration with the given entering state of air. Determine the dry and wet
bulbtemperatures of air leaving the coil and the coil bypass factor.

Solution:

h1

h, kJ/kg of
dry air

h2 ω
1 ω1
hs
ω2
2
s ωs

Tdbs Tdb1
2 s = Y; 21 = (1 – Y)

320
On psychrometric chart both (1) and (s) can be located.

From chart,
s = 0.00525 kg/kg of dry air.

hs = 17.75 kJ/kg of dry air.

1= 0.0082 kg/kg of dry air.

h1 = 52.5 kJ/kg of dry air.

v1 = 0.872 m3/kg of dry air.

mass flow rate of dry air is ma = 39.6/0.872 = 44.41 kg/min.

heat removed by the cooling coil is Qr = ma(h1 – h2)

 h2 = h1 – (Qr/ma) = 52.5 – (12.5 x 60/44.41) = 35.61 kJ/kg of dry air.

Equation for the condition line 1-2-s is

(h1 – h2)/(h1 – hs) = (1 - 2)/(1 - s)

or 2 = 1 – (1 - s){(h1 – h2)/(h1 – hs)}

= 0.0082 – (0.0082 – 0.00525) x {(52.5 – 35.61)/(52.5 – 17.75)}.

= 0.006766 kg/kg of dry air.

 since both h2 and 2 are known, (2) can be located on the chart.

From chart DBT at (2) = 18.6 0C

WBT at (2) = 12.5 0C

Coil bypass factor = Y = (h2 – hs)/(h1 – hs) = (35.61- 17.75)/(52.50 – 17.75)

or Y = 0.515.

321
 CHAPTER 7

COMBUSTION THERMODYNAMICS
7.1.Introduction:

In practical engines and power plants, the source of heat is the chemical energy of
substances which are called as fuels. This energy is released during the chemical reaction
of the fuel with oxygen. The fuel elements combine with oxygen in an oxidation process
which is rapid and is accompanied by liberation of heat.
The combustion process takes place in a controlled manner in some
form of a combustion chamber after initiation of combustion by some means. For
example in the case of a petrol engine, the combustion process is started by an electric
spark. The most convenient source of oxygen supply is that of the atmosphere which
contains oxygen, nitrogen and traces of other gases. Normally no attempt is made to
separate out oxygen from the atmosphere. Nitrogen and other gases present in
atmospheric air accompany the oxygen into the combustion chamber (Rocket motors do
not make use of atmospheric air for combustion, but carry a liquid oxidant like hydrogen
peroxide or nitric acid).
Internal combustion engines are run on liquid fuels like petrol or
diesel. Gas turbines use mainly kerosene. Engines burning solid fuels have been built, but
they are mainly experimental. Engines using gaseous fuels are also being used but to a
lesser extent.

7.2. Basic Chemistry:

It is necessary to understand the construction and use of chemical formulae before

combustion problems can be considered. This involves elementary concepts which are
explained very briefly below.
Atoms: Chemical elements cannot be divided indefinitely and the smallest particle which
can take part in a chemical change is called an “atom”. If an atom is split as in a nuclear
reaction, the divided atom does not retain the original chemical properties.
Molecules: Elements are seldom found to exist naturally as single atoms. Some elements
have atoms which exist in pairs, each pair forming a “molecule” (e.g. oxygen), and the
atoms of each molecule are held together by strong inter-atomic forces.
The molecules of some substances are formed by the mating of atoms of
different elements. For example, water has a molecule which consists of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
The atoms of different elements have different masses and these atomic
masses are important when a quantitative analysis is required. The atomic masses of
some common elements rounded off to give values accurate enough for most purposes
are given in Table 7.1.

322
 Molecular masses (Also referred to as molecular weights) are based on the
relative masses of the atoms which constitute the molecule. In chemical formulae one
atom of an element is represented by the symbol for the element, i.e. an atom of hydrogen
is written as H, and other examples are given in Table 7.1. If a substance exists as a
molecule containing two atoms, as for hydrogen, it is written as H2. Two molecules of
hydrogen is written as 2H2 and so on.

Table7.1: Atomic masses of some common elements

Element Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon Sulphur Nitrogen

Atomic symbol O H C S N

Atomic mass 16 1 12 32 14

Molecular grouping O2 H2 C S N2

Molecular mass 32 2 12 32 28

Table 7.1 also gives the molecular masses for some common elements.

Some of the other substances met in combustion analysis are given in Table 7.2 to
illustrate the method of calculating the molecular masses from the atomic masses of the
elements.

Table 7.2: Chemical compounds and their molecular masses

Compound Formula Molecular mass

Water (steam) H2 O 2 x 1 + 1 x 16 = 18
Carbon monoxide CO 1 x 12 + 1 x 16 = 28
Carbon di oxide CO2 1 x 12 + 2 x 16 = 44
Sulphur di oxide SO2 1 x 32 + 2 x 16 = 64
Methane CH4 1 x12 + 4 x 1 = 16
Ethane C2H6 2 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 30
Propane C3H8 3 x 12 + 8 x 1 = 44
n – Butane C4H10 4 x 12 + 10 x 1 = 58
Ethylene C2H4 2 x 12 + 4 x 1 = 28
Propylene C3H6 3 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 42
n-Pentane C5H12 5 x 12 + 12 x1 = 72
Benzene C6H6 6 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 78
Toluene C7H8 7 x 12 + 8 x 1 = 92
n-Octane C8H18 8 x 12 + 18 x 1 = 114

323
7.3. Fuels:

The most important fuel elements are carbon and hydrogen and most fuels consist of
these and sometimes a small amount of sulphur.The fuel may contain some oxygen and a
small quantity of incombustibles (e.g. water vapour, nitrogen or ash) gases.

Coal is the most important solid fuel and the various types are divided into
groups according to their chemical and physical properties. An accurate chemical
analysis by mass of the important elements in the fuel is called the ultimate analysis, the
elements usually included are: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. Another analysis
of coal known as the “proximate analysis” gives the percentages of moisture, volatile
matter, combustible solid (fixed carbon), and ash. The fixed carbon is found as a
remainder by deducting the percentages of other quantities. The volatile matter includes
the water derived from the chemical decomposition of the coal (not to be confused with
free, or inherent moisture), the combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen, methane, thane etc.),
and tar. The ultimate analysis of some of the varieties of solid fuels are given in Table
2.3.
Table 7.3: Ultimate Analysis of Solid Fuels:

Fuel Moisture Ultimate analysis % by mass in dry fuel Volatile

Content Matter
% by mass C H2 O2 N2 Ash % by mass
In dry fuel

Anthracite 1.00 90.27 3.00 2.32 1.44 2.97 4.00

Bituminous
Coal 2.00 81.93 4.87 5.98 2.32 4.90 25.00
Lignite 15 56.52 5.72 31.89 1.62 4.25 50.00
Peat 20 43.70 6.42 44.36 1.52 4.00 65.00

Most liquid fuels are hydro carbons which exist in the liquid phase at atmospheric
conditions. Petroleum oils are complex mixtures of different fuels. Table 2.4 gives the
ultimate analysis of some liquid fuels.
Table 7.4: Ultimate Analysis of Liquid Fuels:

Fuel Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Ash etc

100 Octane petrol 85.10 14.90 0.01 ----

Motor Petrol 85.50 14.40 0.10 ----
Benzole 91.70 8.00 0.30 ----
Kerosene(Paraffin) 86.30 13.60 0.10 ----
Diesel oil 86.30 12.80 0.90 ----
Light Fuel oil 86.20 12.40 1.40 ----
Heavy Fuel oil 86.10 11.80 2.10 ----
Residual fuel oil 88.30 9.50 1.20 1.0

324
 Gaseous fuels are chemically the simplest of the three groups. Some gaseous
fuels exist naturally at atmospheric conditions (e.g. methane (CH4), which is
paraffin).Other gaseous fuels are manufactured by the various treatments of coal. Carbon
monoxide is an important gaseous fuel which is a constituent of other gas mixtures. It is
also a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon. Table 7.5 gives the typical
analysis by volume of some gaseous fuels, each constituent having been measured by
volume at atmospheric temperature and pressure.

Table 7.5: Volumetric (Molar) Analysis of Some Gaseous Fuels:

Fuel H2 CO CH4 C2H4 C2H6 C2H8 O2 CO2 N2

Coal gas 53.6 9.0 25.0 ---- ---- 3.0 0.4 3.0 6.0
Producer gas 12.0 29.0 2.60 0.40 ---- ---- ---- 4.0 52.0
Natural gas --- 1.00 93.0 ---- 3.00 ---- ---- --- 3.00
Blast furnace
Gas 2.00 27.0 --- --- ---- ---- ---- 11.0 60.0

7.4. Combustion Equations:

There is a chemical equation associated with every chemical reaction. Proportionate

masses of air and fuel enter the combustion chamber where the chemical reaction takes
place, and from which the products of combustion emerges out. By the conservation of
mass, the mass flow remains constant i.e. the total mass of products is equal to the total
mass of reactants. But the reactants are chemically different from the products and the
products leave the combustion chamber at a higher temperature. The total number of
atoms of each element concerned in the combustion process remains constant, but the
atoms are rearranged into groups having different chemical properties. This information
is expressed in the chemical equation which shows the relative quantities of the reactants
and products.
The two sides of the chemical equation must be consistent, each side having the
same number of atoms of each element involved. The equation shows the number of
molecules of each reactant and product.This is illustrated in the following example: The
combustion equation for complete oxidation of carbon is

C + O2 → CO2 ………………………………………(7.1)
Reactants Products
In this reaction, carbon and oxygen are the initial substances that are the reactants. They
undergo a chemical reaction, giving carbon dioxide, the final substance, or product.It can
be seen from Eq. (7.1) that

1 mol of C + 1 mol of O2 → 1 mol of CO2. ………………..(7.2)

Since there are 12 kg / kgmol for carbon, 32 kg / kgmol for oxygen, and 44 kg / kgmol of
CO2, Eq. (7.2) can also be written on mass basis as

325
 12 kg of C + 32 kg of O2 → 44 kg of CO2 …………………(7.3)

Let us consider the example of the complete combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel like
methane. The combustion equation for this reaction can be written as

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O …………………………….(7.4)

The water (H2O), may exist as a solid, liquid, or vapour, depending upon the temperature
and pressure of the final product. This is an important consideration when we perform
energy balances for a chemical reaction.In the oxidation process, many reactions occur
before the final products as shown in Eq. (2.4) are formed. Here we will be concerned
only with the initial and final products.

7.5. Combustion with Air:

All most all combustion processes depend on air, and not pure oxygen. Air contains
oxygen, nitrogen, argon and other vapours and inert gases. Its volumetric, or molal,
composition is approximately 21 % oxygen, 78 % nitrogen, and 1 % argon. Since neither
nitrogen nor argon participates in the chemical reaction, we can assume that the
volumetric proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in air as 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen so
that for 100 mol of air there are 21 mol of oxygen and 79 mol of nitrogen. In other words
there will be 79 / 21 = 3.76 mol of nitrogen per mol of oxygen.To account for the argon,
which is included in nitrogen we use 28.16 as the equivalent molecular mass of nitrogen.
This is the molecular mass of what is called atmospheric nitrogen.Pure nitrogen has a
molecular mass of 28.016.Here we will consider the nitrogen in air to be pure.

7.6. Theoretical Air:

The combustion equation for methane in air can be written as

CH4 + 2O2 + 2 (3.76) N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52 N2 ……………(7.5)

The nitrogen does not participate in the chemical reaction, but it must be accounted for.
There are 3.76 mol of nitrogen per mol of oxygen, and since 2 mol of oxygen are
required for complete combustion of methane, 2x 3.76 i.e.7.52 mol of nitrogen are
present. In Eq. (7.5) only minimum amount of oxygen required for complete combustion
of methane is included.Hence the minimum amount of air required will be 2 + 2 x 3.76 =
9.52 mol / mol of methane.The minimum amount of air required for complete
combustion of a fuel is called the “theoretical air or stochiometric air”. When
combustion is achieved with theoretical air, no oxygen is found in the products. But in
practice more oxygen than what is theoretically necessary is required for complete
combustion of the reactants. The excess air is needed because the fuel is of finite size,
and each droplet must be surrounded by more than the necessary number of oxygen
molecules to assure complete oxidation of the hydrocarbon molecules. The excess air is
usually expressed as a percentage of theoretical air. Thus, if 25 percent more air than is

326
theoretically required for complete combustion, then it is expressed as 125 percent
theoretical air, or 25 percent excess air. The complete combustion of methane with 125
percent theoretical air can be written as

CH4 + (1.25)2O2 + (1.25)2(3.76)N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 0.5O2 + {1.25 x 2 x 3.76}N2

CH4 + 2.5 O2 + 9.4N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 9.4N2 ............................(7.6)

Eq. (7.6) is balanced by first balancing the oxidation for theoretical air and then
multiplying the theoretical air by 1.25 to account for 125 percent theoretical air. The
amount of nitrogen and oxygen appearing in the products is determined by a mass
balance on each term.
If the excess air is insufficient to provide complete combustion,
then not all the carbon will be oxidized to carbon dioxide; some will be oxidized to
carbon monoxide.When there is considerably less theoretical air, unburned hydrocarbons
will be present in the products. This is the soot or black smoke that sometimes pours from
chimneys and smoke stacks. This occurs when one or more of the following three
conditions for complete combustion have not been met:

1. The air-fuel mixture must be at the ignition temperature.

2. There must be sufficient oxygen to assure complete combustion.
3. The oxygen must be in intimate contact with the fuel.

Smoky products of combustion during start-up operations usually result from a failure to
satisfy requirements (1) and (3). To balance the combustion equation when incomplete
combustion occurs, we need information about the products. For instance, assume that,
with theoretical air, the oxidation of carbon is only 90 % complete in the combustion of
methane; then

CH4 + 2O2 + 2 (3.76) N2 → 0.9CO2 + 0.1CO + 2H2O + 7.52 N2 + 0.05 O2............(7.7)

7.7. Air – Fuel Ratio:

A stochiometric mixture of air and fuel is one that contains just sufficient oxygen for the
complete combustion of the fuel. The mixture which has an excess of air is called as a
“weak mixture”, and the one which has deficiency of air is termed as a “rich mixture”.
For gaseous fuels the air-fuel ratios are expressed by volume and for solid and liquid
fuels the ratios are expressed by mass. The percent excess air in terms of air-fuel ratio can
be written as
Actual A/F ratio – stochiometric A/F ratio
Percent excess air = ----------------------------------------------------- …………………(7.8)
stochiometric A/F ratio

(where A denotes air and F denotes fuel).

327
Eq. (7.8) gives a positive result for a weak mixture, and a negative result for a rich
mixture. For boiler plant the mixture is usually greater than 20% weak;for gas turbines it
can be as much as 300% weak. Petrol engines have to meet various conditions of load
and speed and hence operate over a wide range of mixture strengths. The mixture
strength is defined as
stochiometric A/F ratio
Mixture strength = ----------------------------------- ……………………..(7.9)
Actual A/F ratio

The working values for petrol engines range between 80% weak and 120% rich.

Example 7.1:A fuel oil is burned with 50 % excess air, and the combustion
characteristics of the fuel oil are similar to C12H26. Determine the volumetric (molal)
analysis of the products of combustion and the corresponding partial pressures if the
pressure of the products of combustion is 1 .03125 bar

Given: Chemical formula of fuel : C12H26 ; Amount of air used = 50% excess or 150%
stochiometric air.

To find: Volumetric analysis (mole fraction) of the products of combustion

Solution: The chemical equation for complete combustion of fuel with 150%
stochiometric air is

C12H26 + (1.5)(12 + 6.5)O2 + (1.5)(12 + 6.5)3.76N2 → 12CO2 + 13H2O

+ (1.5)(12 + 6.5)3.76N2 + 9.25O2

The total moles of the products = n = 12 + 13 + (1.5)(12 + 6.5)3.76 + 9.25

= 12 + 13 + 104.34 + 9.25 = 138.59

Mol fraction of CO2 = y co2 = nco2 / n = 12 / 138.59 = 0.0866.

Mol fraction of H2O yH20 = 13 / 138.59 = 0.0938

Mol fraction of N2 = yN2 = 104.34 / 138.59 = 0.7529

Mol fraction of O2 = yO2 = 9.25 / 138.59 = 0.0667

Partial pressure ratio of any constituent is equal ot its mol fraction.

Hence pCO2 / p = yCo2 . Therefore pCO2 = yCO2 p = 0.0866 x 1.03125 = 0.0893 bar.

328
Similarly pH2O = 0.0938 x 1.03125 = 0.0967 bar ;

pN2 = 0.7529 x 1.103125 = 0.7764 bar ; pO2 = 0.0667 x 1.03125 = 0.0688 bar

Example 7.2: An ultimate analysis of coal yields the following composition:

Carbon 74% ; Hydrogen 5% ; Oxygen 6% ; Sulphur 1% ; Nitrogen 1.2% ; Water 3.8%;
Ash 9.0%. Determine the theoretical A/F ratio.

Given: Ultimate analysis of coal (Ultimate analysis is on mass basis).

To find: Theoretical A/F ratio

Solution: First we determine the mole fractions of the coal constituents on an ashless
basis from the given mass fractions as follows.
If xi is the mass fraction of constituent i and yi is the corresponding mole fraction of the
constituent then
x i / Mi
yi = -------------------, where Mi = molecular mass of constituent i.
∑ (xi / Mi)

74 74
Mass fraction of Carbon in ashless coal = xc = ----------------------------------- = ---------
[74 + 5 + 6 + 1 + 1.2 + 3.8] 91

= 0.813
Similarly xhydrogen = 5 / 91 = 0.055 ; xoxygen = 6 / 91 = 0.066 ; xsulphur = 1/91 = 0.011;

xnitrogen = 1.2/91 = 0.013; xwater = 3.8/91 = 0.042

The mole fractions are calculated as shown in the table below

Constituent xi Mi xi/Mi yi
Carbon 0.813 12.0 0.0677 0.674
Hydrogen 0.055 2.0 0.0275 0.274
Oxygen 0.066 32.0 0.0021 0.021
Sulphur 0.011 32.0 0.0003 0.003
Nitrogen 0.013 28.0 0.0005 0.005
Water 0.042 18.0 0.0023 0.023
1.000 0.1004 1.000

Combustion equation for 1 kg mol of fuel can now be written as follows.

0.674 C + 0.274 H2 + 0.021 O2 + 0.003 S + 0.005 N2 + 0.023 H2O

+ (a O2 + 3.76 a N2) → c CO2 + d H2O + e SO2 + f N2

AIR

329
Carbon balance gives : c = 0.674 ;

Hydrogen balance gives : d = (0.274 + 0.023) = 0.297 ;

Sulphur balance gives : e = 0.003 ;

Oxygen balance gives : 0.021 + (0.023/2) + a = c + (d/2) + e

Or a = [0.674 + 0.297 / 2 + 0.003 ] − [0.021 + 0.023/2] = 0.793

Nitrogen balance gives : 0.005 + 3.76 a = f or f = 0.005 + 3.76 x 0.793 = 2.987

( a + 3.76 a)
Number of moles of air /kg mol of fuel = -------------------
1.0

= 4.76 x 0.793 = 3.773 kg mol of air / kg mol of fuel

1 1
Molecular mass of fuel = Mfuel = ---------------------- = ------------ = 9.97 kg / kg mol
∑ xi / Mi 0.1004

No. of moles of air x Molecular mass of air

Air – Fuel ratio on mass basis = -------------------------------------------------------
No of moles of fuel x Molecular mass of fuel

= (3.773 x 28.97) / (1 x 9.97) = 10.96 kg of air /kg of fuel

7.8. Orsat Analysis For Products of Combustion:

In power plants and other facilities where large quantity of fuel is used, it is necessary to
ensure that burning be as efficient as possible. One important factor which affects the
efficiency is the amount of excess air. If sufficient quantity of air is not used then
combustion will not be complete, and all the chemical energy available in the fuel cannot
be used. If too much excess air is used, then the heat released by combustion is wasted in
heating the excess air. The object is to oxidize the carbon completely with the smallest
amount of air.
An analysis of the products of combustion will tell us how much of each
product was formed. The products of combustion are mainly gaseous. When a sample is
taken for analysis it is usually cooled down to a temperature which is below the
saturation temperature of the steam present. The steam content is therefore not included
in the analysis. In that case the analysis is quoted as the analysis of dry products. Since
the products are gaseous, the analysis is usually quoted by volume. An analysis which
includes the steam in the exhaust is called a wet analysis.

330
 CHAPTER 8

THERMODYNAMICS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

8.1. Introduction: Compressible flow describes the behaviour of fluids that experience
significant variations in density. For flows in which the density does not vary
significantly, the analysis of the behaviour of such flows may be simplified greatly by
assuming a constant density. This is an idealization, which leads to the theory
of incompressible flow. However, in many cases dealing with gases (especially at higher
velocities) and those cases dealing with liquids with large pressure changes, the
significant variations in density can occur, and the flow should be analysed as a
compressible flow if accurate results are to be obtained.
Allowing for a change in density brings an additional variable into the analysis. In
contrast to incompressible flows, which can usually be solved by considering only the
equations from conservation of mass and conservation of momentum. Usually, the
principle of conservation of energy is included. However, this introduces another variable
(temperature), and so a fourth equation (such as the ideal gas equation) is required to
relate the temperature to the other thermodynamic properties in order to fully describe the
compressible flow.
8.2. Sonic velocity and Mach number: Sonic velocity is defined as the speed with
which a disturbance (a sudden change in pressure/temperature/density) travels in a fluid
medium and normally indicated by the symbol ‘c’. Mach number is a dimensionless
quantity and is defined as the ration of the fluid velocity to the sonic velocity. Thus
𝑉
Mach number = M = ……………………………………….(8.1)
𝑐

Where V = fluid velocity and c = sonic velocity.

Compressible flow is roughly classified in six categories as shown below:

High-
Regime Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic
hypersonic

Mach <0.8 0.8–1.2 1.0 1.2–5.0 5.0–10.0 >10.0

331
8.3. Expression for sonic velocity for a gaseous medium: Consider a fluid enclosed in a
cylindrical pipe of cross sectional area A, whose one end is closed and the other end has a
frictionless piston as shown in Fig.8.1(a). Let suddenly a small push is given to the piston
so that it moves inwards with a velocity equal to dV. Because of this sudden push a
disturbance is
Wave front

dV p + dp , ρ +dρ,
h + dh
c p,ρ,h

Fig. 8.1 (a) : Fluid confined in a cylinder-piston arrangement as seen by a

stationary observer

created within the fluid and will result in change in the thermodynamic properties of the
fluid as indicated in the figure 8.1(a).The disturbance created by the sudden movement
of the piston will travel in the fluid medium with a velocity ‘c’ . It is very convenient to
apply the conservation equations (law of conservation of mass and law of conservation of
momentum) for the fluid system with respect to an observer sitting on the wave front. For
this observer the system will be as shown in Fig. 8.1(b).The conservation laws are
applied with the following assumptions:
(i) Fluid flow is steady and one dimensional
(ii) The fluid behaves as an ideal gas.
(iii) Wave front
Boundaries of control
volume

(C – dV),p+dp, c, p,ρ,h
ρ+dρ,h+dh

Fig. 8.1 (b) : Fluid confined in a cylinder-piston arrangement as seen by a observer

sitting on the wave front

The law of conservation of mass for the control volume shown gives

ρAc = (ρ + dρ)A (c – dV) ………………….(8.2)

Simplifying and neglecting the second order term (dρ dV) we get the following
expression for c:

332
 𝑑𝑉
c= 𝑑𝜌 ……………………(8.3)
( )
𝜌

Applying Newton’s second law for the control volume we have

ρAc [(c – cV) – c] = pA –[(p + dp) A

Simplifying and solving for dV we get

𝑑𝑝
dV = ……………………….(8.4)
𝜌𝑐

Substituting this expression in Eq.(8.3) and solving for c we get

𝑑𝑝
c = √(
𝑑𝜌
) ………………………..(8.5)

Since the sonic wave travels in the medium without any heat transfer taking place
between the fluid in the control volume and the surroundings and there is infinitesimal
change in the fluid properties because of the disturbance, the process can be considered
as reversible adiabatic i.e. “isentropic process”. Hence

𝝏𝒑
c = √( ) ………………………..(8.6)
𝝏𝝆 𝒔

If the fluid is assumed to behave as an ideal gas ,then for isentropic process we have the
relation
𝑝
=k …………………………(8.7)
𝜌𝛾

where k is a constant. From Eq. (8.7) we have ,

𝜕𝑝
(𝜕𝜌) = 𝑘 𝛾 𝜌(𝛾−1)
𝑠

𝜕𝑝 𝑝 𝛾𝑝
Or (𝜕𝜌) = 𝜌𝛾 𝛾 𝜌(𝛾−1) =
𝑠 𝜌

𝝏𝒑
Or ( ) = γ RT
𝝏𝝆 𝒔

Or c = √( γ RT) ………………………….(8.8)

8.4. Static and stagnation states of a fluid : In compressible flow, the kinetic and
potential energies of the fluid are often large and constitute major fractions of the total

333
energy of the fluid. It is therefore necessary to formulate equations based on the actual
state of the fluid including all the energies at the given point in the flow field. Hence it is
necessary to specify two fluid states known as “static state” and “stagnation state”
respectively.
8.4.1.Static state of a fluid: Consider a fluid flowing through a duct.In order to measure
the property of any fluid particle in the flow field, one can imagine two methods of
measurements, one in which the measuring instrument moves at the same local speed as
that of the fluid particle and another in which the instrument is stationary with respect to
the fluid particle whose property is being measured.The fluid property measured using
the first method is called the “static” property of the fluid, because in this method of
measurement the fluid particle is stationary with respect to the measuring instrument and
with reference to the instrument the fluid is said to be in static state.
8.4.2.The stagnation state (or total state) of a fluid: Stagnation state (or total state)is the
thermodynamic state attained by a flowing fluid, when it is brought to rest in an
isentropic work-free and steady flow process. During this process the kinetic and
potential energies of the fluid particle are brought to zero.The initial state for the process
is the static state.The stagnation state as defined above is an ideal state and not any true
state of the fluid.No real process is truly isentropic and perfectly free from heat exchange
with the surroundings.Even though it is practically impossible to achieve the stagnation
state, many of the properties measured with instruments like pitot tubes, thermocouples
etc.,these instruments will give readings which approximate stagnation properties closely
provided proper care is taken to account for errors in these measurements. Stagnation
property changes provide ideal values against which real process can be compared.
8.4.3.Relation between static and stagnation properties:
(i) Stanation enthalpy: Consider a steady isentropic flow of a fluid through a duct such as
a nozzle, diffuser, or some other flow passage with no shaft work.Assuming that the fluid
experiences little or no change in its elevation, the energy equation between any two
sections in the passage as shown in Fig. 8.2. can be written as follows.

h, V h0, V0 = 0
h

Fig. 8.2. Schematic for definition of stagnation enthalpy of a fluid

𝑉2 𝑉02
h+ = h0 +
2 2

334
If it is assumed that the fluid attains the stagnation state at section 0 – 0, then V0 = 0 and
the enthalpy at that section h0 will be
𝑽𝟐
𝐡𝟎 = h + …………………………………(8.9)
𝟐

h0 is the stagnation enthalpy(or total enthalpy) of the flowing fluid.Thus stagnation

enthalpy can be seen as the sum of the static enthalpy,h and the kinetic energy of the
fluid. If the fluid behaves as a perfect gas then Eq.( 8.9) can be written as follows:

𝑉2
cpT0 = cp T +
2

𝑉2
Or T0 = T + ……………………………(8.10)
2𝑐𝑝

In Eq. (8.10) T0 is the stagnation temperaturs and T is the static temperature of the fluid.

𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑐2 𝑉2 𝛾𝑅𝑇 (𝛾 −1)
For a perfect gas we have = ∗ = ∗ = M2T
2𝑐𝑝 𝑐2 2𝐶𝑝 𝑐2 2𝐶𝑝 2
Substituting the above expression in Eq.(8.10) we have

(𝜸 −𝟏)
T0 = T [ 1 + 𝐌𝟐 ] ………………………(8.11)
𝟐

If p is the static pressure of the fluid and p0 is the stagnation pressure of the fluid, then
following the definition of the stagnation state it follows that
𝛄
𝐩𝟎 𝐓 (𝛄 −𝟏)
𝐩
= ( 𝐓𝟎)
𝛄
𝐓 (𝛄 −𝟏)
p0 = p * ( 𝐓𝟎 ) ………………………(8.12)

Using the perfect gas equation, (p / ρ) = RT pressure p0 and p can be expressed in terms
of density and temperature and hence Eq. (8.13) in terms of densities ρ0 ,ρ can be written
as
𝟏
𝐓 (𝛄 −𝟏)
ρ0 = ρ * ( 𝐓𝟎 ) ………………………….(8.13)

8.4.4. Illustrative examples on static and stagnation properties of a fluid.

Example 8.1:Dry saturated steam at 1 atmospheric pressure flows through a pipe with
an average velocity of 300 m/s.Evaluate the stagnation (total) pressure and stagnation

335
 temperature of the steam (i) by using steam tables and (ii) by assuming that steam
behaves as a perfect gas with γ = 1.3.

Sketch:

h p0

h0

s
Known: (i) static pressure of sdry
0 = steam=p=1atm
s =1.013 bar; (ii) Velocity of steam =
V=300 m/s

Find: (i) p0 and (ii)T0

Assumptions:(i) potential energy of the fluid is negligible

Solution: (i)Solution using steam tables and Mollier chart : From steam tables: T =
Saturation temperature at p = 100 0 C
Static enthalpy, h = hg at 1.013 bar = 2675.9 kJ/kg

Stagnation enthalpy = h0 + V2/2 = 2675.9 + 3002 / (2*1000) = 2720.9 kJ/kg

Static entropy = s = sg at 1.013 bar = 7.3549 kJ/(kg-K) = stagnation entropy, s0.

From Mollier chart or from steam tables, corresponding to h0 and s0 we have p0 = 1.246
bar

And T0 = 1210C

(ii)Solution assuming that steam behaves as a perfect gas:

For a perfect gas c = √(γRT) = √[(1.3 * 461.5 * 373.15) = 473.15 m/s

300
Mach Number = M = V/c = 473.15 = 0.634

336
 (𝛾 −1) (1.3−1)
Stagnation temperature = T0 = T [ 1 + M 2 ] = (100 + 273.15) * (1 + ∗
2 2
0.6342 )
= 395.64 K = 122.49 0C

Example 8.2:The total pressure, the static pressure and the total temperature of Helium
at a certain point in a duct are 10 bar, 5 bar and 400 K respectively. Assuming Helium to
behave as a perfect gas with ratio of specific heats to be (5/3), determine the flow velocity
of Helium.

Sketch for the problem:

P0 ,p,T0

Known: p0 = 10 bar; p = 5 bar; T0 = 400 K ; γ = (5/3)= 1.667

Find: Flow velocity of helium,V

Assumptions: Molecular weight of helium = 4.0026

Solution:
8.314
Gas constant for Helium = R = 4.0026 = 2.077 kJ/(kg-K)

(𝛾 1)
𝑇0 𝑝0 𝛾
We know that = ( )
𝑇 𝑝

(𝜸 𝟏) 0.667
𝒑 𝜸 5 (1.667)
Solving for T we get, T= ( ) * T0 = ( ) * 400
𝒑𝟎 10

= 303.12 K

𝑉2
Now T0 = T + or V = √2cp [T0 – T]
2𝑐𝑝

𝛾𝑅 1.667∗2.077
For helium cp = (𝛾−1) = = 5.191 kJ/(kg-K)
0.667

Therefore V = √[2 * 5.191 *1000 *(400 – 303.120] = 1002.9 m/s

Example 8.3:At inlet to an R-12 refrigerant compressor, the flow Mach number is 0.8
and the total temperature is 280 K.Assuming that R-12 behaves as an ideal gas with a
molecular weight of 120.93 and ratio of specific heats of 1.10 evaluate (i) inlet velocity
and (ii) the ratio of total to static pressure.

337
Sketch for the problem:

compressor
M,T0

Known: M = 0.8 ; T0 = 280 K ; M* = 120.93; γ = 1.10

Find: (i) Inlet velocity,V ; (ii) p0 / p

Assumptions: Refrigerant R-12 behaves as an ideal gas

Solution: Relation between the static temperature and total temperature is given by

(𝛾 −1)
T0 = T [ 1 + M2 ]
2

T0 280
Or T= (𝛾 −1) 2 = (1.1−1)) = 271.32 K
[1+ M ] [ 1+ ∗ 0.82 ]
2 2

For R-12, gas constant ,R = Universal gas Constant / Molecular weight

8.314
= 120.93 = 0.06875 kJ/(kg-K) = 68.75 J/(kg-K)

Flow velocity = V = cM = √(γRT) *M = √(1.1*68.75 *271.32 ) / 0.8 = 114.6 m/s

(𝛾 −1) 𝟎.𝟏
Ratio T0 / T = [ 1 + M2 ] = 1 + * (0.8)2 = 1.032
2 𝟐

γ
1.1
p0 T (γ −1)
Ratio
p
= ( T0) = (1.032)0.1 = 1.414

Example 8.4:Air in a reservoir has a temperature of 270C and a pressure of 0.8 MPa.
The air is allowed to escape through a duct at a rate of 2.5. kg/s. Assuming that the air
velocity in the reservoir is negligible and that the flow through the channel is isentropic,
find (i) Mach number, (ii)the flow velocity, and (iii) the area at a section where the static
pressure is 0.6 MPa.

338
Sketch:

1
P0,T0

1
P1 ,T1 ,M1 ,V1

Known: The state of the fluid in the reservoir is stagnation state as the velocity of the
fluid in the reservoir is given to be negligible. Hence T0 = 27 + 273 = 300 K; p0 = 0.8
MPa; p1 = 0.6 MPa
m = 2.5 kg/s
Find: (i)M1 ; (ii) V1;(iii) A1
Assumptions: (i) The potential energy of the fluid is negligible.(ii)For air γ = 1,4 and cp
= 1.005 kJ/(kg-K)
Solution: (i) Since the flow process is isentropic and the potential energy is negligible the
stagnation temperature at section 1-1, i.e., T01 = T0 and p01 = p0

(𝛾− 1)
𝑇01 𝑝01 𝛾 𝑇01 300
Therfore = ( ) or T1 = (𝛾− 1) = 0.4
𝑇1 𝑝 1 𝑝 0.8 1.4
( 01) 𝛾 (
0.6
)
𝑝1

Or T1 = 276.3 K

V21
Now T0 = T1 +
2cp

Or V1 = √[2cp{T0 – T1}] = √[2*1005*{300 – 276.3}] = 218.26 m/s

(ii) Sonic velocity = c = √(γRT1) = √ [1.4*287*276.3] = 333.2 m/s

Hence Mach Number = M = V1/c = 218.26 / 333.2 = 0.655

0.6∗ 106
(iii) Density = ρ1 = p1 / RT1 = 287∗276.3 = 7.566 kg/m3

𝑚 2
Hence A1 = = = 1.21 *10 – 3 m2
𝜌1 𝑉1 7.566∗218.26

339
8.5. Effect of area variation on pressure and velocity for one dimensional isentropic
flow through a passage
Consider isentropic flow of an ideal gas through a passage of varying cross section in as
shown in Fig. 8.3.

A,h, A + dA, h+dh,, V + dV, ρ +

V,ρ,p
h
dρ,p +dp

Fig. 8.3. Schematic for fluid flow through an elemental control

volume

Let A, h, V,p,ρ be the area of the passage, the static enthalpy, the velocity, the static
pressure and the density of the fluid at entry to the control volume. Let the corresponding
values be A + dA, h+dh,, V + dV, ρ + dρ,p +dp at the exit of the control volume.
Assuming steady flow the mass balance equation can be written as

ρAV = constant ……………………………...(8.14)

Differentiating the above equation we get

ρAdV + AV dρ + ρVdA = 0

Dividing throught by ρAV we get

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐴
+ + =0
𝑉 𝜌 𝐴
𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝝆
Or =− − ………………………(8.15)
𝑨 𝑽 𝝆
For steady isentropic flow with negligible change in potential energy, the steady flow
energy equation for the control volume can be written as follows;

𝑉2 (𝑉+𝑑𝑉)2
h + 2 = (h + dh) + 2 ………………………(8.16)
Expanding the RHS of the above equation and neglecting higher order term (dv)2 we get
after simplification
dh + VdV = 0 ….. ..………………..(8.17)

340
Using one of the Tds equations namely Tds = dh – dp / ρ and noting that ds = 0 for an
isentropic process we have
dh = dp / ρ ………………………(8.18)

From equations (8.17) and (8.18) we have

dV = − dp/(ρV) ……………………….(8.19)

Substituting this expression for dV in Eq. (8.15) we get

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝜌
= − ………………………..(8.20)
𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌

For an ideal gas undergoing an isentropic process we have

𝑑𝑝
dρ = ……………………….(8.21)
𝑐2

Substituting this expression for dρ in Eq. (8.20) we have

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑝
= −
𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜌𝑐 2
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑃 𝑉2
Or = [1 – ]
𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑐2
𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑷
= [𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐 ] ……………………(8.22)
𝑨 𝝆𝑽𝟐

Substituting for dp / ρ in Eq.(8.19) we have

𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑽
= [𝑴𝟐 − 𝟏 ] ……………………(8.23)
𝑨 𝑽

It can be seen , from Eqs.(8.22) and (8.23) that when inlet velocity is such that M <1
(subsonic condition), as area decreases, the pressure decreases and velocity increases.
When the flow area A increases, pressure increases and velocity decreases. Hence for
subsonic flow, a conv ergent passage acts as a nozzle and a divergent passage acts as a
diffuser as shown Fig. 8.4(a) and 8.4(b) respectively.When M >1, i.e. when the inlet
velocity is supersonic, as area A decreases pressure increases and velocity decreases

M<1
M<1

(a) Subsonic Nozzle (b) Subsonic Diffuser

341
 M>1
M>1

(c) Supersonic Diffuser (d) Supersonic Nozzle

Fig. 8.4: Effect of area change in subsonic and supersonic flow at inlet

and as area increases, pressure decreases and velocity increases.Hence for supersonic
flow a convergent passage acts as a diffuser Fig.8.4 (c) and a divergent passage acts as a
nozzle,Fig.8.4(d).. If the velocity of flow has to be increased from subsonic velocity at
inlet to supersonic velocity, then this has to be achieved in a convergent-divergent nozzle
as shown in Fig.8.5.

M<1 M >1
Fig.8.5: Convergent-
Divergent
Nozzle

8.7. Choking in Isentropic flow and Critical properties: Consider the steady
isentropic flow of an ideal gas through a nozzle. At any section of the nozzle the mass
flow rate is given by
𝑚
m = ρAV or = ρV
𝐴

𝑚 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝0
Or = ρV = 𝑐 𝑀 = 𝑅𝑇 √(𝛾𝑅𝑇)M = 𝑝 √(𝛾𝑅𝑇)M
𝐴 𝑅𝑇 0 𝑅𝑇

𝛾
𝑇 (−(𝛾 −1)) 𝑝0 𝑀√𝛾
= ( 𝑇0 ) √(𝑅𝑇)

𝛾 1
𝑚 𝑇 (−(𝛾 −1)) 𝑇 2 𝑝 𝛾
Or = ( 𝑇0 ) ( 𝑇0 ) √𝑇0 √(𝑅) M
𝐴 0

342
 𝑚 𝑝0 𝛾 𝑀
= √( ) (𝛾+1) ……………………….(8.24)
𝐴 √𝑇0 𝑅 (𝛾−1) 2 2(𝛾−1)
(1+ 𝑀 )
2

Since p0, T0, R and γ are constants, it follows from Eq.(8.24) that (m/A) will depend only
𝜕 𝑚
on the Mach number,M and hence for maximum mass flow rate 𝜕𝑀 ( 𝐴 ) = 0.

Differentiating RHS of Eq. (8.24) and equating it to zero we get

𝜕 𝑝 𝛾 𝑀
( √𝑇0 √(𝑅) (𝛾+1) ) =0
𝜕𝑀 0 (𝛾−1) 2 2(𝛾−1)
(1+ 𝑀 )
2

(𝛾+1) (𝛾+1)
(𝛾−1) (𝛾+1) (𝛾−1) − 1 𝛾−1
2 2(𝛾−1) 2(𝛾−1)
Or (1 + 𝑀 ) –𝑀 (1 + 𝑀2 ) ( 2 ) 2𝑀 = 0
2 2 (𝛾 −1) 2

(𝛾+1)𝑀2
Or 1− (𝛾−1) 2 =0
2(1+ 𝑀 )
2

Or 2 + (γ – 1) M2 – (γ + 1) M2 = 0

Solving for M, we get M=1

Hence, discharge is maximum when M = 1.

We know that V = cM = √(γRT) M. By logarithmic differentiation, we get

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑀 1 𝑑𝑇
= + (8.25)
𝑉 𝑀 2 𝑇

We also know that

T (γ−1) −1
= [1 + M2] (8.25a)
T0 2

By logarithmic differentiation, we get

dT (γ −1)M2 dM
= − γ−1 (8.26)
T (1+ 2 M2 ) M

From Eqs (8.25) and (8.26) , we get

343
 𝛾 −1 2
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑀 𝑀
𝑉
=
𝑀
[1 – 2
𝛾 −1 2 ]
1+ 𝑀
2

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑀 1
Or
𝑉
=
𝑀
[ 𝛾 −1 2 ] (8.27)
1+ 𝑀
2

Substituting this expression for dV/V in Eq.(8.23) and simplifying we get

𝑑𝐴 1 1 𝑑𝑀
(𝑀2
= 𝛾 −1 2
𝐴 −1) 1+ 𝑀 𝑀
2

𝑑𝐴 (𝑀2 −1) 𝑑𝑀
Or = 𝛾 −1 2 (8.28)
𝐴 1+ 𝑀 𝑀
2

By substituting M=1 in Eq. (8.28), we get dA = 0 or A = constant. M=1 can occur only at
the throat and nowhere else, and this happens only when the discharge is
maximum. When M = 1 , the discharge is maximum and the nozzle is said to be
choked. The properties at the throat section when M = 1 is referred to as critical
properties and are designated by a superscript asterisk,*.Substituting M = 1 in Eq. (8.25a)
we have

𝑇∗ 𝛾 −1 − 1
= (1 + )
𝑇0 2

𝑻∗ 𝟐
Or = (8.29)
𝑻𝟎 𝜸+𝟏

The critical pressure ratio is then given by

𝒑∗ 𝟐 𝜸/(𝜸 −𝟏)
= ( ) (8.30)
𝒑𝟎 𝜸+𝟏

Eq. (8.30) gives the pressure ratio at the throat of the nozzle which gives maximum mass
flow rate. For air for which γ= 1.4, Eq. (8.30) gives

𝒑∗
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟖 (8.30a)
𝒑𝟎

For steam flow through the nozzle, γ has to be replaced by ‘n’ where n is the index for
isentropic flow of steam. For superheated steam at inlet to the nozzle, the value of n is

344
found to be 1.3 and therefore the critical pressure ratio for flow of superheated steam is
given by

𝑝∗ 2 𝑛/(𝑛 −1) 2 1.3/(1.3 −1)

=( ) = ( )
𝑝0 𝑛+1 1.3+1

𝒑∗
Or = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟔 (8.30b)
𝒑𝟎

For wet steam at inlet to the nozzle the index of expansion is given by

n = 1.035 + 0.1 x (8.30c)

where x is the quality of steam at inlet.If the steam is dry at inlet then x = 1 and hence n
= 1.135.

Therefore for dry steam at inlet to the nozzle, the critical pressure ratio will be

𝑝∗ 2 1.135/(1.135 −1)
= ( )
𝑝0 1.135+1

𝒑∗
Or = 𝟎. 𝟓77 (8.30d)
𝒑𝟎

For M = 1 Eq. (8.24) gives

𝑚 𝑝0 𝛾 1
= √( ) (𝛾+1)
𝐴∗ √𝑇0 𝑅 (𝛾−1) 2(𝛾−1)
(1+ )
2
(8.31)

Dividing Eq. (8.31) by Eq. (8.24) we get

(𝜸+𝟏)
𝑨 𝟏 𝟐 (𝜸−𝟏) 𝟐 𝟐(𝜸−𝟏)
= [{ } {𝟏 + 𝑴 }] (8.32)
𝑨∗ 𝑴 𝜸+𝟏 𝟐

From Eq. (8.32) we see that a choice of Ma gives a unique value of A/A* . The Fig.8.6
shows variation of A / A * with M. Note that the curve is double valued; that is, for a
given value of A/A* (other than unity), there are two possible values of Mach
number. This signifies the fact that a subsonic nozzle is converging and a supersonic
nozzle is diverging.

345
 M
Fig 8.6: Variation of A/A* with M in isentropic flow for = 1.4

8.8. Pressure distribution and choking in a nozzle:

8.8.1. Pressure distribution and choking in a convergent nozzle: Consider a

convergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 8.7(a). Figure 8.7(b) shows the pressure ratio
p/ p0 along the length of the nozzle.
The inlet conditions of the gas are at the stagnation state (p0, T0) which are constants. The
pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle is denoted by PE and the back pressure is PB which
can be varied by the adjustment of the valve. At the condition P0 = PE = PB there shall be
no flow through the nozzle. The pressure is P0 throughout, as shown by condition (i) in
Fig. 8.7(b). As PB is gradually reduced, the flow rate shall increase. The pressure will
decrease in the direction of flow as shown by condition (ii) in Fig. 8.7(b). The exit plane
pressure PE shall remain equal to PB so long as the maximum discharge condition is not
reached. Condition (iii) in Fig. 8.7(b) illustrates the pressure distribution in the maximum
discharge situation. When m/A attains its maximum value, given by substituting M = 1
Eq. (8.24), PE is equal to p* . Since the nozzle does not have a diverging section, further
reduction in back pressure PB will not accelerate the flow to supersonic condition. As a
result, the exit pressure PE shall continue to remain at p * even though PB is lowered
further.
The convergent-nozzle discharge against the variation of back pressure is shown in Fig.
8.8.I The maximum value of (m/A) at M = 1 is stated as the choked flow. With a given
nozzle, the flow rate cannot be increased further. Thus neither the nozzle exit pressure,
nor the mass flow rate are affected by lowering PB below p *. However for PB less than p
*, the flow leaving the nozzle has to expand to match the lower back pressure as shown
by condition (iv) in Fig. 40.7(b). This expansion process is three-dimensional and the
pressure distribution cannot be predicted by one-dimensional theory.

346
 Fig 8.7 (a) Compressible flow through a converging nozzle
(b) Pressure distribution along a converging nozzle for different values of back
pressure

Fig. 8.8 Mass flow rate and the variation of back pressure in a converging nozzle

8.8.1. Pressure distribution and choking in a convergent − divergent nozzle:

Consider the flow in a convergent-divergent nozzle (Fig. 8.9). The upstream
stagnation conditions are assumed constant; the pressure in the exit plane of the
nozzle is denoted by PE ; the nozzle discharges to the back pressure, PB .

347
 M

Fig 8.9: Pressure Distribution along a Converging-Diverging Nozzle for

different values of back pressure PB

With the valve initially closed, there is no flow through the nozzle; the pressure is
constant at P0. Opening the valve slightly produces the pressure distribution
shown by curve (i). Completely subsonic flow is discerned.

Then PB is lowered in such a way that sonic condition is reached at the throat (ii).
The flow rate becomes maximum for a given nozzle and the stagnation
conditions.

On further reduction of the back pressure, the flow upstream of the throat does not
respond. However, if the back pressure is reduced further (cases (iii) and (iv)), the
flow initially becomes supersonic in the diverging section, but then adjusts to the
back pressure by means of a normal shock standing inside the nozzle. In
such cases, the position of the shock moves downstream as PB is decreased, and
for curve (iv) the normal shock stands right at the exit plane.

The flow in the entire divergent portion up to the exit plane is now supersonic.
When the back pressure is reduced even further (v), there is no normal shock
anywhere within the nozzle, and the jet pressure adjusts to PB by means of oblique
shock waves outside the exit plane. A converging diverging nozzle is generally
intended to produce supersonic flow near the exit plane.

If the back pressure is set at (vi), the flow will be isentropic throughout the
nozzle, and supersonic at nozzle exit. Nozzles operating at PB (corresponding to

348
curve (vi) in Fig. 40.8) are said to be at design conditions. Rocket-propelled
vehicles use converging-diverging nozzles to accelerate the exhaust gases to the
maximum possible velocity to produce high thrust.

8.9. Illustrative examples on Isentropic flow through nozzles:

Example 8.5.Air with an inlet stagnation pressure of 5 bar and a stagnation

temperature of 1000C enters a convergent nozzle with an exit area of 150
mm2.Compute (i) exit velocity and (ii) mass flow rate if the nozzle exit pressure is
2.64 bar.Assume isentropic flow.

Sketch: 1

P2,T2,ρ2,
p01, A2,V2
T01

Known: p01 = 5 bar; T01 = 100 + 273 = 373 K; A2 = 150 * 10−6 m2;p2 = 2.64 bar

Find: (i) V2 ; (ii) m

Assumptions: (i) Flow is isentropic ; (ii) Potential energy is negligible; (iii) for
air γ = 1.4

Solution: (i) Since the flow is isentropic the exit static temperature is given by
𝛾 −1 0.4
𝑝 ( 𝛾 ) 2.64 1.4
T2 = T01 (𝑝 2 ) = 373 * ( 5 ) = 310.73 K
01

Also T02 = T01

𝑉22
Hence T02 = T2 +
2𝑐𝑝

Or V2 = √[2cp{T02 – T2}] = √ [ 2 * 1005 * (373 – 310.73)] = 353.78 m/s

(ii) Density at the exit section is given by

𝑝2 2.64∗ 102 𝑘𝑔
𝜌2 = = 0.287∗310.73 = 2.96
𝑅𝑇2 𝑚3

349
Mass flow rate = m = 𝜌2 A2 V2 = 2.96 * 150 * 10 −6 * 353.78 = 0.157 kg/s

Example 8.6.A supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to be designed for M = 2 with the
throat section of area 0.11 m2. The supply pressure and temperature at the nozzle
inlet, where the velocity is neglible, are 70 kPa and 370C respectively. Compute
the mass flow rate, the exit area of the nozzle and the fluid properties at the throat
and exit. Take γ = 1.4.

Sketch: The velocity in the nozzle changes from almost zero (M << 1) to M = 2 at
the exit the nozzle is a convergent-divergent nozzle as shown below

Throat section

M2

V0, p0 ,T0

Fig.E8.5: Figure for example 8.5

Known: V0 = 0 ; p0 = 70 kPa ; T0 = 37 + 273 = 310 K ; At = 0.11 m2; Mach

Number at exit section = M2 = 2; γ = 1.4

Find: (i) pt,Tt, ρt, Vt ; (ii) m, ; (iii) T2, p2, ρ2, V2, ; (iv) A2

Assumptions: (i) The flow through the nozzle is isentropic

(ii) Potential energy is negligible

Solution: (i) For a convergent divergent nozzle the pressure at the throat, pt is
given by
𝑝𝑡 𝑝∗ 2 𝛾/(𝛾 −1)
= = (𝛾+1 ) = 0.528 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛾 = 1.4
𝑝0 𝑝0

Hence pt = 0.528 * 70 = 36.96 kPa

Temperature at the throat section is given by

2 2
Tt = T* = 𝛾+1 𝑇0 = 1.4+1 ∗ 310 = 258.33 K

Hence Vt = ct = c* = √(γRT*) = √[1.4 * 287 * 258.33]

= 322.18 m/s
𝑝𝑡 36.96 𝑘𝑔
Density at the throat = 𝜌𝑡 = = = 0.499
𝑅𝑇𝑡 0.287∗258.33 𝑚3

350
(ii)Mass flow rate = m = 𝜌𝑡 At Vt = 0.499 * 0.11 * 322.18 = 17.68 kg/s

(iii) The static temperature T2 at the exit section is given by

T2 (γ−1) −1
= [1 + M22 ]
T0 2

(γ−1) −1 1
Hence T2 = T0 [1 + M22 ] = 310 * (1.4−1) = 172.22 K
2 [1+ ∗ 22 ]
2

Pressure at the exit section is given by

γ 1.4
T2 (γ −1) 172.22 (1.4−1)
p2 = p0 ( ) = 70 * ( 310 ) = 8.95 kPa
T0

Density at the exit section is given by

𝑝2 8.95 𝑘𝑔
𝜌2 = = 0.287∗172.22 = 0.181 𝑚3
𝑅𝑇2

Sonic velocity at the exit section is given by

c2 = √(γR𝑇2 ) = √ (1.4 * 287 * 172.22) = 263.06 m/s

Therefore V2 = c2 M2 = 263.06 * 2 = 526.12 m/s

Hence area at the exit section is given by

𝑚 17.68
At = 𝜌 = 0.181∗526.12 = 0.186 m2
2𝑉2

Example 8.7 .

351
 CHAPTER 9

Availability and Irreversibility

9.1. Introduction: There are two related approaches which can be used to quantify the
irreversibility of any real process. One approach makes use of the concept of entropy
generation and lost work and the second approach makes use of the concept of
availability (also called as exergy) and irreversibility (loss of availability or exergy
destruction).In this chapter the second approach is illustrated.
In order to carry out the availability analysis (also called as second
law analysis), it is necessary to develop the availability equation (exergy equation). This
equation is simply the equation combining first and second laws of thermodynamics. By
employing the concept of availability, a term called “second law efficiency” is
introduced. This efficiency is a more accurate and more meaningful measure of any
thermodynamic process.
The availability equation is similar to the energy equation except that
the energy equation is a statement of law of conservation of energy where as the
availability equation can be looked upon as a statement of the principle of degradation of
energy. This principle can be stated as follows:

Exergy in – Exergy out = Change in stored exergy + exergy destruction ……….(9.1)

In the above equation exergy destruction is a positive zero quantity for any real process
and equal to zero for a thermodynamically reversible process. The exergy equation for
closed and opens systems will be discussed later in this chapter after introducing the
concepts of reversible work and reversible useful work.

9.2. Reversible Work: As a preliminary step in the process of developing the availability
equation, it is necessary to prove that a system produces maximum work during a process
if it pursues a reversible path. Or, conversely, it would be necessary to prove that, when
work is done on a system, reversible work represents the minimum work required for
attaining a specified end state of the system.
Consider a closed system surrounded by an environment at temperature
T0 and pressure p0. When the system experiences a differential change in its
thermodynamic state, the change in the energy of the system dE is independent of the
process as energy is a property of the system. Thus for two processes, one reversible and
other irreversible, operating between the same end states, the change in energy is only a
function of initial and final states of the system. Hence

(dE)r = (dE)i

where subscripts ‘r’ and ‘i’ refer to reversible and irreversible processes respectively. But

352
according to first law, the change in energy dE is a result of interactions involving both
heat and work with the environment or,

dE = dQ − dW

The difference would be identical for reversible and irreversible processes. Therefore

(dQ)r − (dW)r = (dQ)i − (dW)i ………………………….(9.2)

For a reversible process, (dQ)r = T0 dS, where as for an irreversible process

(dQ)i < T0 dS.

Since the quantities of heat are different, it follows that

(dQ)r > (dQ)i.

Therefore, from Eq. (9.2) it follows that

(dW)r > (dW)i ………………………………………..(9.3)

When work is done by the system, dW is positive and therefore Eq. (9.3) shows that the
work done by a system during a reversible process is more than the work done during an
irreversible process for the same end states of the system. When work is done on the
system, dW is negative and therefore Eq.(9.3) shows that the work done on a system
during a reversible process is less than the work done on a system during an irreversible
process for the same end states of the system. In any irreversible process some work must
be done to overcome the dissipative effects which cause irreversibility.

It may also be shown that all reversible processes operating between the same end states
will produce identical amount of work, provided the system exchanges heat with the
environment only.

9.3. Reversible work in a Non-flow Process (Closed System):Consider a closed system

at an initial state defined by pressure p1 and temperature T1 surrounded by an
environment at a pressure p0 and temperature T0. Let the system undergoes a change of
state from state 1 to state 2 along either of the two paths shown in Fig 9.1(a) and 9.1(b).In
both the cases, the process involves a reversible adiabatic expansion to a pressure p* and
then reversible isothermal energy transfer that brings the system to state point 2 at
pressure p0.The intermediate pressure p* may be either less than the final pressure as in
Fig. 9.1(a) or greater than the final pressure as in Fig. 9.1(b). The total work involved is
the algebraic sum of the work interactions in the two processes and represents the
maximum work done by the system between states 1 and 2.For the adiabatic process 1 –
a, the work transfer according to the first law is

353
Q1-a − W1-a = Ea – E1 and Q1-a = 0

Hence W1-a = E1 – Ea.

For the reversible isothermal process a – 2 the work transfer is

T p1 T
p1
1
p0 p*
1
p* p0
T0
T0
a a 2
2

s
s
(a) (b)

Fig 9.1 : Reversible work in a non-flow process

Wa-2 = Qa-2 − (E2 – Ea)

2 2
= ∫(dQ)r − (E2 – Ea) = ∫T0 dS − (E2 – Ea)
a a

= T0 (S2 – Sa) − (E2 – Ea)

= T0 (S2 – S1) − (E2 – Ea)

The total work is the sum of work transfers for processes 1 – a and a -2, or

(Wrev)1-2 = (E1 – Ea) + [T0 (S2 – S1) − (E2 – Ea)]

Or (Wrev)1-2 = −[ (E2 – E1) – T0(S2 – S1)] ……………………(9.4)

[ Note:- If (Wrev)1-2 is positive it represents maximum work done by the system and if it
is negative it represents the minimum work done on the system,as the system undergoes a
process between the specified initial and final states]

354
E represents the total energy i.e.

_
E = U + m[V2 /2 + gz ]………………………………..(9.5)

Hence Eq. (9.4) can be written as :

_ _
(Wrev)1-2 =−[(U2 – U1) + m [½ (V2 − V12) + g (z 2 – z1)] – T0(S2 – S1) ] ……….(9.6)
2

9.4 Useful work:-The work done by a work producing device is not always entirely in a
usable form. For example, when a gas in a piston-cylinder device expands, part of the
work done by the gas is used to push the atmospheric air out of the way of the piston.
This work which cannot be recovered and utilized for any useful purpose and is equal to
the atmospheric pressure p0 times the volume change of the system. Hence the useful
work is the difference between the actual work Wact and the surroundings work Wsurr,

Wuseful = Wact – Wsurr

When the system volume changes from V1 to V2 and the surroundings pressure is p0, the
surroundings work is given by

Wsurr = p0(V2 – V1) …………………………………………(9.7)

When a system is expanding and doing work, part of the work is used to overcome the
atmospheric pressure, and thus Wsurr represents a loss. When a system is compressed,
however, the atmospheric pressure helps the compression process, and thus W surr
represents a gain. It should be noted that Wsurr has significance for only systems whose
volume changes during the process. It has no significance for cyclic process and systems
whose boundaries remain fixed during a process such as rigid tanks and steady flow
devices.
9.5 Reversible Work in a Flow Process: In developing an expression for reversible
work in a flow process, let us consider a control surface ‘σ’ which envelops an open
system as shown in Fig. 9.2. Let the boundary of the open system coincide with the
Control surface at those locations at which heat or mass is transferred. The heat
Transfer and mass transfer in the open system are then the same as in the control volume.
Lat dQ0 and dW be the heat and work interactions with the environment. The
total work done on the system may consist of electrical, mechanical and magnetic work
in addition to the flow work as the fluid flows through the control surface. Then the
equation for first law for the system can be written as follows:

[Energy entering the system – Energy leaving the system]

= Increase of energy within the system
_ _
dW + dQ0 + dm1[h1 + (V12/2) + gz1] − dm2[h2 + (V22/2) + gz2]
_

355
 = d[U + (mV2/2) + mgz]σ ……………(1.8)

dm2

dW

T0

dQ0

dm1

Fig.1.2: Flow system

Now consider the heat interaction between the system and the environment. Although
the the temperature may vary at different locations within the system, by assuming that
heat is transferred only at those locations at which the temperature of the system is same
as that of the environment, reversible heat interaction is achieved.The reversible heat
interaction is given by

dQ0 = T0 dS.

In a system where both heat and mass transfer occurs across the control surface, the total
entropy change of the system is
(dS)σ = (dQ0) / T0 + dm1s1 − dm2s2

= dS + dm1s1 − dm2s2

Hence dQ0 = T0 [(dS)σ − dm1s1 + dm2s2] ………………………….(1.9)

Substituting this expression for dQ0 in Eq. (1.8) and solving for the reversible work we
get
_
dWrev = − T0 [(dS)σ − dm1s1 + dm2s2] − dm1[h1 + (V12/2) + gz1]
_ _
+ dm2[h2 + (V22/2) + gz2] + d[U + (mV2/2) + mgz]σ
_ _
Or dWrev = dm2[h2 – T0s2 + (V22/2) + gz2] – dm1[h1 – T0s1 + (V12/2) + gz1]
_
+ d[U − T0 S+ (mV2/2) + mgz]σ ……………………………(9.10)

356
Eq. (9.10) gives reversible work done on a system as a function of the inflow and outflow
fluid properties, the initial and final states of the system as well as the temperature of the
environment. For a non-flow process (closed system) dm1 = dm2 = 0. When this
condition is put in Eq. (9.10) it reduces to

dWrev = d[U − T0 S+ (mV2/2) + mgz]σ

which when integrated gives Eq.(9.4).

9.6. Reversible work for a steady flow process: For steady flow, dm1 = dm2 = dm, and

d[U − T0 S+ (mV2/2) + mgz]σ = 0. Substituting these conditions in Eq. (9.10) we get

_ _
dWrev = dm[h2 – T0s2 + (V22/2) + gz2] – dm[h1 – T0s1 + (V12/2) + gz1]

or per unit mass the reversible work is given by

wrev = (dWrev /dm) =[h2 – T0s2 + (V22/2) + gz2] – [h1 – T0s1 + (V12/2) + gz1]
_ _
or wrev = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1) + (V22 – V12) / 2 + g(z2 – z1) …………..……..(9.10)

Example 9.1:- Calculate the maximum work developed when air expands in a piston-
cylinder arrangement from 600 kPa and 150 0C to 150 kPa and 50 0C.Take T0 = 300 K
and p0 = 100 kPa.

Given: p1 = 600 kPa; T1 = 150 + 273 = 423 K; p2 = 150 kPa;

T2 = 50 + 273 = 323 K; T0 = 300 K; p0 = 100 kPa;

Air is assumed to behave as a perfect gas with Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K);R = 0.286 kJ/(kg-K)

Hence Cv = 0.719 kJ/(kg-K).

Solution: Since air is undergoing an expansion process in a piston cylinder arrangement

it is a closed system. The reversible work for a closed system is given by Eq.(9.6) as

(Wrev)1-2 = − [(U2 – U1) – T0(S2 – S1)] .

Per unit mass the reversible work is given by

(wrev)1-2 = − [(u2 – u1) – T0(s2 – s1)] ……………………………………………(1)

Now (u2 – u1) = Cv(T2 – T1) = 0.719 x (323 – 423) = − 71.9 kJ/kg.

357
s2 – s1 = Cp ln(T2 / T1) – R ln (p2 / p1)

= 1.005 x ln (323 / 423) – 0.286 x ln (150 / 600) = 0.1254 kJ/(kg-K)

Hence T0(s2 – s1) = 300 x 0.1254 = 37.62 kJ/kg

(wrev)1-2 = − [− 71.9 − 37.62] = 109.01 kJ/kg

Example 9.2:- A centrifugal compressor handles 25 kg/min of air. Air enters the
compressor at 1 bar and 150C and leaves the compressor at 2 bar and 94 0C. The
environment temperature is 21 0C. What is the actual and minimum power required to drive
the compressor?Neglect heat interaction and changes in kinetic and potential energies between
inlet and exit of compressor.

Given: m = 25 /60 = 0.417 kg/s; p1 = 1 bar; T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K ; p2 = 2 bar;

T2 = 94 + 273 = 367 K; T0 = 21 + 273 = 294 K; z2 – z1 = 0 ; V22 – V12 = 0;
dQ0 = 0;
To find : (i) (Wact)1-2 ; (ii) (Wrev)1-2

2 Applying steady flow energy equation to the

compressor and neglecting the changes in
kinetic and potential energies and also the heat
interaction with the environment we have
W1-2
(i) (Wact)1-2 = m (h2 – h1) = m Cp(T2 – T1)

= 0.417 x 1.005 x [367 – 288]

= 33.11 kW
1
(ii) The equation for reversible work is given by

(wrev)1-2 = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1) + (V22 – V12) / 2 + g(Z2 – Z1)

Neglecting the changes in kineticand potential energies we have

(wrev)1-2 = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1)

= Cp(T2 – T1) – T0 [ Cp ln (T2 / T1) – R ln (p2 / p1)]

= 1.005x [367 – 288] – 294 x [1.005 x ln(367/ 288) – 0.286 ln (2/1)]

= 66.05 kJ/kg

358
 Hence (Wrev)1-2 = m (wrev)1-2 = 0.417 x 66.05 = 27.54 kW

9.7 Availability:- When heat interaction takes place between a system and the
environment only, the maximum work that can be performed by the system indicates the
energy availability of the system. Availability represents a complete property that
depends on the state of both the system and the environment. In performing the
maximum work, the system undergoes only reversible processes before it finally reaches
thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment. At this state (called as the dead
state)no further interaction between the system and the environment occurs.
The concept of availability is used in determining the effectiveness of a
process to perform work. The effectiveness of a process during which work is produced
is the ratio of the actual work done to the maximum possible work that can be obtained if
the process were reversible.Actual processes will have effectiveness less than unity’
The expressions derived for the reversible work in non-flow and in
steady flow processes are used in defining the availability of a system.

9.8.1.Availability or Exergy for a non-flow process (closed system) :- Consider a non-

flow process in which the system exchanges heat with environment only, which is at
temperature T0. Let the state of the system change from an initial state 1 to a final state 0,
at which the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the environment.The
reversible work for this process according to Eq. (9.4) is

(Wrev)1-0 = −[ (E0 – E1) – T0(S0 – S1)]

If the work done on the surroundings is subtracted from (Wrev)1-0 we get the reversible
useful work that can be produced from the system .
0
Thus (Wrev,useful)1-0 = (Wrev)1-0 − ∫p0dV
1

= −[ (E0 – E1) – T0(S0 – S1)] − p0(V0 – V1)

= (E1 + p0V1 – T0S1) − (E0 + p0V0 – T0S0)

= (E1 – E0) + p0(V1 – V0) – T0(S1 – S0)

(Wrev,useful)1-0 represents the total reversible useful work delivered as the system
undergoes a reversible process from the given state(state 1) to the dead state and this is
called
“availability or exergy” of the system and represented by the symbol ‘Φ’.

Thus Φ = (E – E0) + p0(V – V0) – T0(S – S0). ………………………………..(9.11)

If changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible then E – E0 = U – U0.

Then the availability function is given by

Φ = (U – U0) + p0(V – V0) – T0(S – S0). ………………………………..(9.11a)

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On a unit mass basis the exergy φ is given by

φ = (u – u0) + p0(v – v0) – T0(s – s0) …………………………………….(9.12)

where u0,v0, and s0 are the properties of the system evaluated at the dead state.It should
be noted that the availability of the system is zero at the dead state since u = u 0, v = v0
and s = s0 at the dead state.
When system undergoes a change of state from state 1 representing an
availability Φ1 to state 2 representing an availability Φ2 , the reversible useful work that
may be obtained during this change of state is the difference between the two
availabilities.

Thus Φ2 – Φ1 = (E2 – E1) + p0(V2 – V1) – T0(S2 – S1) ……………………(9.13)

If changes in kinetic and potential energies of the system are negligible then

Φ2 – Φ1 = (U2 – U1) + p0(V2 – V1) – T0(S2 – S1) ……………………..(9.13a)

9.8.2.Availability (Exergy) Equation For a Closed System:- Consider a system at

temperature T undergoing an infinitesimal change of state.Let the environment be at T0
and p0.Then the exergy equation for the process can be written as Eq.(9.1) which is
restated here once again as follows.

[dΦ]net inflow – [dΦ]destroyed = dΦsystem ……………………..(9.14)

Where [dΦ]net inflow = Net Exergy into the system ; [dΦ]destroyed = exergy destruction
and dΦsystem = Change in stored exergy of the system.

In a closed system exergy transfer across the boundaries of the system is due to heat
transfer as well as work transfer. Exergy transfer due to heat transfer can be obtained as
follows.When the system is at temperature T, the reversible work that can be obtained is
given by
dWrev = ηrev dQ, where dQ is the heat transfer from the system to a reversible
heat engine.

Or dWrev = (1 – T0 / T) dQ

Hence Exergy Transfer due to heat = [dΦ]heat = dWrev

Or [dΦ]heat = (1 – T0 / T) dQ …………..(9.14a)

Exergy transfer by work is [dΦ]work = [dW – dWsurr ]= [dW – p0dV ] (9.14b)

Hence [dΦ]net inflow = (1 – T0 / T) dQ −[dW – p0dv]

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Exergy destruction during the change of state = [dΦ]destroyed = T0 dSgen

Substituting these expressions in Eq. (9.14) and rearranging we get the exergy equation in
differential form as follows:

dΦsystem = (1 – T0 / T) dQ −[dW – p0dv] − T0 dSgen ………………………….(9.15)

When a closed system is under going a change of stste from state 1 to state 2 the exergy
equation for this change os state can be obtained by integrating the above equation as:

Φ2 − Φ1 = ∫ (1 – T0 / T) dQ − [W1-2 − p0(v2 – v1)] – T0Sgen …………………..(9.16)

If we the changes in kinetic and potential energies are included then the complete
availability or exergy equation for a closed system is given by

Φ2 − Φ1 = ∫ (1 – T0 / T) dQ − [W1-2 − p0(v2 – v1)] – T0Sgen

_ _
− m[ (V22 − V12)/2] − m[g(z2 – z1)] …………………….. (9.17)

9.9. Availability or Exergy for a flow stream (open system):- The exergy per unit
mass of a flowing fluid can be obtained using Eq.(9.12) and adding the additional
components associated with the flow of the fluid. The additional components are (i) the
kinetic energy per unit mass V 2/2, (ii) the potential energy gZ and (iii) the flow energy
component
(p – p0 v). The term p0v is the flow work to be done on the surroundings at pressure p0
and which is not available to do work.Hence exergy per unit mass of a flowing fluid can
be written as follows.
_
ψ = (u – u0) + p0(v – v0) – T0(s – s0) + V 2 /2 + gz + (p – p0)v

Replacing u by (h – pv) and u0 by (h0 – p0v0) the above expression reduces to

_
ψ = [(h – pv) – (h0 – p0v0)] + p0(v – v0) – T0(s – s0) + V 2 /2 + gz + (p – p0)v
_
or ψ = (h – h0) – T0(s – s0) + V 2 /2 + gz …………………......(9.18)

The availability change (exergy change) per unit mass of a fluid stream as it undergoes a
process from state 1 to stae 2 is given by
_ _
ψ2 − ψ1 = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1) + (V22 − V12) /2 + g (z2 – z1)………………....(9.19)

It should be noted that exergy change of a closed system or a flowing fluid represents
the maximum amount of useful work that can be done (or the minimum amount of useful
work that needs to be supplied if it is negative) as the system changes from state 1 to state
2 in a specified environment, and hence represents the reversible useful work Wrev,useful..It

361
is independent of the type of process executed, the kind of system used and the nature of
energy interactions with the surroundings.It should also be noted that exergy of a closed
system cannot be negative, where as the exergy of a flowing stream can be negative at
pressures below the environment pressure p0.

9.10. Irreverssibility or Exergy Destruction: Exergy is a property which determines the

quality of energy of a system and it helps in comparing the work potentials of different
energy sources.While evaluating the exergy of any system it is assumed that the final
state is the dead state. But in practice hardly we have any situation in which the system
comes to dead state. Therefore evaluation of exergy alone is not sufficient to study
systems operating between two fixed states.
There are two quantities which are very useful in the thermodynamic
analysis of systems undergoing a process between two fixed states. They are (i) reversible
work (which has already been explained) and (ii)irreversibility (also called as exergy
destrtuction).
The difference between the actual work Wact and the surroundings work
Wsurr is called the actual useful work Wact,useful.Thus

Wact,useful = W − Wsurr ………………………………….(9.20)

The difference between the reversible useful work Wrev,useful and the actual useful work
Wact,useful is called irreversibility or exergy destruction I. It is expressed as

I = Wrev,useful – Wact,useful ……………………………….(9.21)

For a work producing device or process, and

I = Wact,useful − Wrev,useful ………………………………....(9.21a)

for a work absorbing device. For a totally reversible process, the actual and reversible
work terms are identical and thus the irreversibility is zero.
Irreversibilities such as friction, mixing, chemical reactions, heat transfer through a
finite temperature difference, unrestrained expansion, sudden expansion or comprssion
always generate entropy. Anything that generates entropy destroys exergy. The exergy
destroyed is proportional to the entropy generated and is expressed as

I = T0 Sgen …………………………………………………..(9.22)

Where Sgen is the entropy generated during the irreversible process.

Example 9.3:- A 200 m3rigid tank contains compressed air at 1 MPa and 300 K.
Determine how much work can be obtained from this air if the environment conditions
are 100 kPa and 300 K.

Given : V1 = 200 m3; p1 = 1 MPa; T1 = 300 K; p0 = 100 kPa ; T0 = 300 K;.

362
To find : Wrev,useful

Solution: Assumptions : (i) air behaves as a perfect gas; (ii) kinetic and potential energies
of air are negligible
The maximum work that can be obtained from the air is the reversible useful work which
is equal to the exergy of air at the given state

Hence Wrev,useful = Φ1 = mφ1 = m[(u1 – uo) + p0(v1 – v0) – T0(s1 – s0)] …………..(1)

p1V1 1 x 10 3 x 200
Now m = ---------- = ------------------- = 2323 kg
RT1 0.287 x300

(u1 – u0) = Cv(T1 – T0) = 0 ; v1 = V1 / m = 200 / 2323 = 0.0861 m3/kg;

RT0 0.286 x 300

v0 = -------- = ----------------- = 0.858 m3/kg
p0 100

p0(v1 – v0) = 100 x (0.0861 – 0.858) = − 77.19 kJ/kg.

(s1 − s0) = Cp ln (T1 / T0) − R ln (p1 / p0) = 0 − 0.286 x ln (1 x 10 3 / 100) = − 0.658 kJ/kg

T0(s1 − s0) = 300 x (− 0.658 ) = − 197.56 kJ/kg

Therefore Φ1 = 2323 x [ 0 + (− 77.19) − (− 197.56)]

= 279,619 kJ

Example 9.4:- Air is compressed isothermally inside a cylinder from 300 K and 1.0 Mpa
to 10 Mpa. The actual work required is 200 kJ/kg.The pressure and temperature of the
environment are 101.325 kPa and 300 K respectively. For the compression process
determine (i) the actual useful work, (ii) the ideal useful work and (iii) the irreversibility
per unit mass.

Solution: The following properties of air are assumed: R = 0.286 kJ /)kg-K);

Cp = 1.005 kJ /(kg-K); Cv = 1.005 – 0.286 = 0.719 kJ / (kg-K).

Given : T1 = T2 = T0 = 300 K ; p1 = 1.0 Mpa ; p2 = 10 Mpa ; p0 = 101.325 kPa;

w1-2 = W1-2 / m = − 200 kJ / kg

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 State 1
State 2

Isothermal Process

Schematic for example 9.4

(i) w1-2,useful = w1-2 − p0(v2 – v1)

Now v1 = RT1 / p1 = ( 0.286 x 1000 ) x300 / (1 x 10 6) = 0.0858 m3 / kg.

v2 = v1 (p1 / p2) = 0.0858 x 1 / 10 = 0.00858 m3 / kg.

Hence w1-2,useful = − 200 – 101.325 x [0.00858 – 0.0858]

= −200 + 7.824 = − 192.177 kJ / kg

(ii) (φ2 − φ1) = − [(u2 – u1) + p0(v2 – v1) − T0(s2 – s1)]

= −[Cv(T2 – T1) + p0(v2 – v1) − T0 {Cv ln (T2 /T1) + R ln (v2 / v1)}]

= −[ 0 + 101.325 (0.00858 – 0.0858) − 300 x{ 0 + 0.286 x ln (0.00858 / 0.0858) }]

= −189.737 kJ/kg.

(iii) For a compression process,

Irreversibility per unit mass = I / m = |wact,useful| − |wideal,useful |

= 192.177 −189.737

= + 2.44 kJ/kg.

364
Example 9.5:- Nitrogen, initially at 1380 kPa and 700 K, undergoes a constant pressure
process in which 346.7 kJ/kg of heat is removed. The lowest available temperature is 289
K and the lowest available pressure is 101 kPa. Determine (i) the change of availability
and (ii) the maximum useful work.

Solution: Given: p1 = 1380 kPa; T1 = 700 K; q1-2 = − 346.7 kJ/kg; T0 = 289 K ;

p0 = 101 kPa.Assume for N2 the following: Cv = 0.7434 kJ/(kg-K); R = 0.2968 kj/(kg-K)

Cp = [0.7454 + 0.2968] = 1.0422 kJ/(kg-K)

To find : (i) φ2 − φ1 ; (ii) wmax,useful .

By definition the change in availability is given by

φ2 − φ1 = (u2 – u1) + p0(v2 – v1) − T0(s2 – s1)

For a constant pressure process first law equation is

q1-2 = (h2 – h1) = Cp (T2 – T1)

346.7
Hence T2 = T1 + q1-2 / Cp = 700 − ----------------- = 366.7 K
1.005

u2 – u1 = Cv[T2 – T1] = 0.7434 x [366.7 – 700]

= − 247.8 kJ/kg

v2 = RT2 / p2 = 0.2968 x 366.7 / 1380 = 0.0789 m3/kg.

v1 = RT1 / p1 = 0.2968 x 700 / 1380 = 0.1506 m3 / kg.

p0(v2 – v1) = 101x [0.0789 – 0.1506] = − 7.242 kJ/kg.

T0( s2 – s1) = T0 Cp ln (T2 / T1) = 289 x 1.0422 x ln (366.7 / 700)

= − 194.352 kJ/kg

Hence (φ2 − φ1) = − 247.8 − 7.242 + 194.352 = − 60.69 kJ/kg

(ii) Maximum useful work that can be obtained during the process is equal to the
decrease in the availability of the system.

wmax,useful = 60.69 kJ/kg

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Example 9.6:- Calculate the maximum work developed when air expands in a piston-
cylinder arrangement from 600 kPa, 150 0C to a final state of 150 kPa, 50 0C. Also find
the availability at the initial and final states, maximum useful work and change in
availability. Take T0 = 300 K and p0 = 100 kPa.(VTU – July 2007)

Solution: Given: p1 = 600 kPa; T1 = 150 + 273 = 423 K; p2 = 150 kPa;

T2 = 50 + 273 = 323 K; T0 = 300 K; p0 = 100 kPa.

Assume for air Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) ; R = 0.286 kJ/(kg-K) ;Cv = 0.719 kJ/(kg-K)

(i) Maximum work per unit mass neglecting kinetic and potential energies for a closed
system is given by (Refer Eq.9.6)

(wrev)1-2 = − [(u2 – u1) – T0(s2 – s1)]

Now (u2 − u1) = Cv(T2 – T1) = 0.719 x (323 – 423) = − 71.9 kJ/kg

T0(s2 – s1) = T0[Cp ln (T2 / T1) – R ln (p2 / p1)]

= 300 x [ 1.005 x ln (323/423) − 0.287 x ln(150 / 600) ]

= 38.03 kJ/kg

Hence (wrev)1-2 = − [ −71.9 − 38.03] = 109.93 kJ/kg

(ii) Availability per unit mass at state 1 = φ1 = (u1 – u0) + p0(v1 – v0) – T0(s1 – s0)

(u1 – u0) = Cv(T1 – T0) = 0.719 x (423 – 300) = 88.44 kJ/kg

p0(v1 – v0) = p0 [ (RT1 / p1) − (RT0/p0)] = 0.287 x [(100 x 423 / 600) − 300]

= − 65.87 kJ/kg.

T0(s1 – s0) = 300 x [ 1.005 x ln (423/300) − 0.286 x ln (600/100)]

= − 50.14 kJ/kg

Hence φ1 = 88.44 + ( – 65.87) – (− 50.14) = 72.71 lJ/kg.

(u2 – u0) = 0.719 x (323 – 300 ) = 16.54 kJ/kg

p0(v2 – v0) = (poRT2 / p2) – RT0 = 0.287 x [ (100 x 323 / 150) – 300] = − 24.3 kJ/kg

T0(s2 – s0) = 300 x [1.005 x ln (323/300) – 0.286 x ln (150/100)] = − 12.52 kJ/kg

Hence φ2 = 16.54 + (− 24.3) − (− 12.52) = 4.76 kJ/kg

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Change in availability = φ2 – φ1 = 4.76 – 72.71 = − 67.95 kJ/kg.

Maximum useful work = (wrev,useful) = − (φ2 – φ1 ) = 67.95 kJ/kg

Example 9.7:- Refrigerant – 134a is to be compressed from 0.14 MPa and −100C to 0.8
MPa and 500C in a steady flow compressor. The environment conditions are 200C and 95
kPa. Determine the exergy change of the refrigerant during this process and the
minimum work input required to drive the compressor per unit mass of the refrigerant.

2
Given: p1 = 0.14 MPa; p2 = 0.8 Mpa;

T1 = − 10 0C; T2 = 50 0C;

T0 = 20 0C; p0 = 95 kPa.
Work input
To find : (i) (φ2 – φ1) (ii) (wmin )1-2

From tables of properties of R-134a we

have
h1 = 243.4 kJ/kg; s1 = 0.9606 kJ/(kg-K)
1
h2 = 284.39 kJ/kg;s2 = 0.9711 kJ/(kg-K)

For a steady flow process the change in exergy is given by Eq.(9.15) as

ψ2 − ψ1 = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1) + (V22 − V12) /2 + g (z2 – z1).

Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energies we have

ψ2 − ψ1 = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1)

= [284.39 – 243.4] – (20 + 273) x [0.9711 – 0.9606] = 37.9 kJ/kg

(Note: The availability has increased during the process due to work absorbed by the
fluid system)

(wmin)1-2 = Increase in the availability = ψ2 − ψ1 = 37.9 kJ/kg

Example 9.8:- The exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to heat water in an
adiabatic heat exchanger. The exhaust temperature of the gases leaving the turbine is
2600C. The exit temperature of the gases from the heat exchanger is 120 0C.Water enters

367
the heat exchanger at 65 0C. The flow rates of the gas and water are 0.38 kg/s and 0.5
kg/s, respectively. The constant pressure specific heat of gas is 1.09 kJ/kg-K. The lowest
available temperature is 35 0C. Find the loss of availability.

Given: T1 = 260 + 273 = 533 K;T2 = 120 +273 = 293 K; Cpg = 1.09 kJ/kg-K;mg = 0.38

kg/s; T3 = 65 + 273 = 338 K; mw = 0.50 kg/s;Cpw = 4.19 kJ/kg-K;

From steam tables s3 = sf at 650C = 0.8935 kJ/(kg-K); s4 = sf at 93 0C = 1.2271 kJ/(kg-K)

The schematic and the T-s diagram for the example are shown in Fig. E1.8.

Applying steady flow energy equation to the heat exchanger and neglecting the changes
in kinetic and potential energies we have

Rate of Energy loss of hot gases = Rate of energy gain of cold water

mg(h1 – h2) = mw(h4 – h3) or mgCpg(T1 – T2) = mw Cpw(T4 – T3)

mgCpg(T1 – T2) 0.38 x 1.09 x (260 – 120)

Or T4 = T3 + ---------- -------- = 65 + ---------------------------------- = 93 0C
Cpw 4.2

Availability change of hot gases is given by

(ψ2 – ψ1) = mg[Cp(T2 – T1) – T0(s2 – s1)]

= 0.38 x [1.09 x (393 – 533 ) – 308 x 1.09 x ln (393 / 533)]

= − 19.11 kW

Similarly availability change of cold water is given by

(ψ4 – ψ3) = mw [Cpw (T4 – T3) – T0(s4 – s3)]

368
 T

gas out (2) gas in (1)

1
4
water in water out (4)
(3)

s
Fig: E1.8: Schematic and T-s diagram for example 1.8.

= 0.5 x [ 4.2 x (93 – 65) – 308 x (1.2271 – 0.89350)]

= + 6.61 kW
Net loss of availability = ΔΦ = − 19.11 + 6.61 = − 12.5 kW

Example 1.9:- Making use of the availability equation, determine the maximum thermal
efficiency of a heat engine operating between a high temperature heat reservoir at T H
and a low temperature heat reservoir at TL.

Solution: A heat engine is a closed system undergoing a continuous cyclic process.

Hence the availability equation (1.15) for a cyclic process can be written as

∫dΦ = ∫(1 – T0 / T) dQ − ∫[dW – p0dv] − T0 ∫dSgen

cycle cycle cycle cycle

Since both Φ and V are properties, dΦ = dV = 0 for a cyclic process. Also heat engine
efficiency will be maximum when the engine is reversible and hence dSgen = 0. Therefore
the above equation reduces to

∫ dW = ∫(1 – T0 / T) dQ
cycle cycle

Or ∫dW = ∫ dQ − T0 ∫(dQ/T)………………………………(1)
cycle cycle cycle

369
The LHS of the above equation represents the net work output from the reversible engine
Wrev.

Heat Reservoir at TH

QH

Carnot Wrev
Engine

QL

Heat Reservoir at TL

∫dQ = QH – QL (Note that QL is heat rejected by the engine )

∫dQ / T = QH / TH − QL / TL.

Hence Eq.(1) can be written as

Wrev = (QH – QL) − (QH / TH − QL / TL.)

By first law Wrev = QH – QL .

Therefore it follows that (QH / TH − QL / TL.) = 0

Or QL / QH = TL / TH

For a heat engine thermal efficiency = η = 1 – (QL / QH)

Hence for a reversible engine, η = 1 – (TL / TH)

1.11. Second Law Efficiency:- If we recall the definition of the thermal efficiency of a
heat engine, it is defined as the ratio of net work output from the engine to the amount of
heat absorbed by the engine.In this definition heat and work are given the same
weightage. Similarly the COP of a refrigerator is defined as the ratio of the heat
removed from the low temperature reservoir to the work input to the refrigerator.Though
these types of efficiencies do serve some useful purposes, they do not give an accurate
measure of thermodynamic performance of a given system.This fact is highlighted by
means of the following example. Consider two heat engines A and B both having the

370
same thermal efficiency, say 30 %.Let engine A be supplied heat from a source at 600 K,
while engine B be supplied heat from a source at 1000 K.Both the engines reject heat to

Source at 600 K Source at 1000 K

Engine A Engine B

Sink at 300 K

Fig. 1.3: Two heat engines have same thermal efficiency but different
maximum thermal efficiencies

to a medium at 300 K as shown in Fig. 1.3. It appears at first sight that both the engines
are performing equally well as both of them are converting same fraction of heat
received from their respective sources. In the light of second law of thermodynamics,
these engines at best can perform as reversible engines whose thermal efficiencies are
given by

ηrev,A = 1 – 300 / 600 = 0.5 = 50 %

ηrev,B = 1 – 300 / 1000 = 0.7 = 70 %

Now it is apparent that engine B has a greater work potential than engine A as it converts
70 % of the heat absorbed into work output, where as engine A converts only 50 % of
the heat it absorbs into work output. It is therefore obvious from this example that first
law efficiency alone is not sufficient to realistically measure the performance of
engineering systems.In this section the concept of “second law efficiency” , which is
based on the concept of exergy and exergy destruction is introduced. This efficiency is
also called as “exergetic efficiency”.
In general any kind of efficiency η is defined as
output
η = ------------- ……………………………………(a)
input

371
 what we want
or η = --------------------------- ……………………….(b)
{what we have to pay
to get what we want}

If all the quantities in Eq. (a) or (b) are expressed in units of exergy, we will have a
second law efficiency.There could be different interpretations as to what constitutes
output and what constitutes input, and hence we could have different expressions of
second law efficiency for the same process.But regardless of the interpretations of input
and output for a given process, the upper limit of any second law efficiency is 100 %,
which corresponds to ideal case with no exergy destruction.

Second – Law Efficiency for a Heat Engine:For a heat engine what we get is the work
output W, where as what we pay is the heat absorbed by the engine QH. Now work W is
pure exergy, while the exergy content of QH is (1 – T0 / TH) QH. Therefore the second law
efficiency for the heat engine can be written as

W (W / QH) ηth
ηII = ---------------------- = ------------------ = ------------------- ……………….. (1.23)
(1 – T0 / TH) QH (1 – T0 / TH) (1 – T0 / TH)

If TL = T0, then (1 – T0 / TH) = (1 – TL / TH) which is the thermal efficiency of a Carnot

cycle working between the temperature limits of TL and TH. Since 1 – T0 / TH or
1 – TL / TH is less than unity , the second law efficiency is always greater than the thermal
efficiency.Also since (1 - TL/TH) is equal to the Carnot efficiency which is the maximum
efficiency between any two temperature limits it follows that the second –law efficiency
ηII less than unity.

Second – Law Efficiency for a Refrigerator:- Second – law efficiency for a refrigerator
may be defined as the ratio of the minimum work required to the actual work required to
remove the same amount of heat QL between the same temperature limits. Thus

Wmin ( QL / Wact) (COP)act

ηII = -------------- = --------------- = ---------------- …………………………….(1.24)
Wact (QL / Wmin) (COP)ideal

(COP)ideal = COP of a carnot refrigeration cycle = TL / (TH – TL)

Similarly for a heat pump,

Wmin ( QH / Wact) (COP)act

ηII = -------------- = --------------- = ---------------- …………………………….(1.24)
Wact (QH / Wmin) (COP)ideal,hp

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Where QH is transferred to the high temperature heat reservoir and

(COP)ideal,hp = TH / (TH – TL) is the COP of a Carnot heat pump.

Second – law efficiency for pumps and compressors:- Pumps and compressors are work
absorbing devices. Under steady-state steady-flow conditions “what we have to pay” is
the useful work input to the devices and what we get is increase in the exergy content of
the flowing stream. Hence
(ψout – ψin)
ηII = -------------------- ………………………………(1.25)
win

Second – law efficiency for turbines:- For turbines what we get is the work output and
what we have to pay for is the drop in exergy content of the flowing stream. Thus for a
turbine
wout
ηII = ------------------ ………………………………..(1.26)
(ψin – ψout)

Second – law efficiency for a throttling process:- Under steady-flow steady-state

conditions the change in exergy per unit mass between inlet and exit conditions is given
by Eq.(1.19) as

ψout − ψin = (hout – hin) – T0(sout – sin) + (Vout2 − Vin2) /2 + g (zout – zin)

For a throttling process hout = hin ; zout = zin; ans Vout = Vin.

Therefore ψout − ψin = – T0(sout – sin)

Or ψin = ψout + T0(sout – sin)

T0(sout – sin) represents irreversibility per unit mass I / m.

Hence ψin = ψout + I/m .

The second - law efficiency for the process can be written as

ψout
ηII = -------- …………………………………………(1.27)
ψin
Second – law efficiency for a heat exchanger:- In a heat exchanger one flowing stream
will give up exergy (this is “whet we have to pay”) and another stream will gain exergy
(this is “what we get”).If changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible, the
second law efficiency for the exchanger can be written as

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 Exergy gained by the heated stream
ηII = ---------------------------------------------------
Exergy supplied by the heating stream

mcold (ψout − ψin)cold

= ------------------------- ……………………………………..(1.28)
mhot (ψin − ψout)hot

Example 9.10:- For the simple steam power plant shown in Fig.E9.10, (a) make a first
law analysis and (b) make a second law analysis.

Turbine

2 wT

HEAT
SOURCE
3
AT 1500 K Boiler
qin

Condenser qout to
1 surroundings
at 300 K

Pump
4
Fig. E1.10: Schematic for example 1.10
The thermodynamic states at various locations are as follows:

State 1: sub-cooled liquid water at 7.5 kPa; State 2: steam at 3000 kPa and 400 0C;

State 3: steam at 7.5 kPa and 90 % quality; State 4: Saturated liquid water at 7.5 kPa.

Neglect the changes in kinetic and potential energies; Neglect Pump work; Heat transfer
takes place only in boiler and condenser.

Solution: The enthalpies and entropies at various locations are as follows.

h4 = hf at 7.5 kPa = 168.77 kJ/kg (From steam tables)

s4 = sf at 7.5 kPa = 0.5763 kJ/(kg-K); Since pump work is neglected h1 = h4 and s1 = s4.

h2 = 3232.5 kJ/ kg ; s2 = 6.9246 kJ/kg;

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h3 = hf + x3 hfg = 168.77 + 0.9 x 2406.2 = 21334.35 kJ/kg

s3 = sf + x3 sfg = 0.5763 + 0.9 x 7.6760 = 7.4847 kJ/kg

(i)First Law analysis:

Applying first law for the boiler we have per unit mass

qin = h2 – h1 = 3232.5 – 168.77 = 3063.73 kJ/kg

Applying first law for the turbine we have

wT = h2 – h3 = 3232.5 – 2334.35 = 898.15 kJ/kg.

Applying first law for the condenser we have

qout = h3 – h4 = 2334.35 – 168.77 = 2165.58 kJ/kg

Since pump work is negligible, net work output = wN = wT 898.15 kJ/kg

wN 898.15
Thermal efficiency = ηth = ------------ = --------------- = 0.293 = 29.3 %
qout 3063.73

(ii)Second law analysis:

Exergy input to the plant from the source = (1 – T0 / Tsource) qin

= (1 – 300 / 1500) x 3063.73

= 2450.98 kJ/kg

Exergy added to the water in the boiler = ψ2 − ψ1 = (h2 – h1) – T0(s2 – s1)

= (3232.5 – 168.77) – 300 x (6.9246 – 0.5763)

= 1159.24 kJ/kg

Hence exergy destroyed in heat addition process = 2450.98 – 1159.24

= 1291.74 kJ/kg
Second-law efficiency of the cycle is given by

wN 898.15
(ηII)cycle = --------------- = ------------- = 0.775 = 77.5 %

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 ψ2 − ψ1 1159.24

wN
Second-law efficiency of the entire plant = (ηII)plant = --------------------------------------
Exergy available for the plant

898.15
= -------------- = 0.366 = 36.6 %
2450.98

Exergy destroyed in the turbine = (ψ2 − ψ3) – wT

= (h2 – h3) – T0(s2 – s3) – (h2 – h3)

= T0(s3 – s2) = 300 x (7.4847 – 6.9246)

= 168.03 kJ/kg

Exergy destroyed in the condenser = ∫(1 – T0 / T) dQ + (ψ3 − ψ4)

= (ψ3 − ψ4) (Because T = T0 in the condenser)

= (h3 – h4) – T0(s3 – s4)

= (2334.35 – 168.77) – 300 x (7.4847 – 0.5763)

= 93.06 kJ/kg

Exergy accounting for the cycle:

Exergy In – Exergy Out = Total exergy Destroyed in the cycle

1159.24 – 898.15 = 168.03 + 93.06

261.09 = 261.09 kJ/kg

Second law efficiency for the cycle can also be defined as

Total Exergy Destroyed 261.09

ηII = 1 − -------------------------------- = ------------- = 0.775 = 77.5 %
Exergy Input to the cycle 1159.24

Exergy accounting for the plant:

Exergy in − exergy out = Total Exergy destruction

2450.98 – 898.15 = 1291.74 + 168.03 + 93.06

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 1552.83 = 1552.83 kJ/kg

Second law efficiency for the plant is given by

Total Exergy Destroyed 1552.83

ηII = 1 − -------------------------------- = ------------- = 0.366 = 36.6 %
Exergy Input to the Plant 2450.98

1.12 Exercise Problems:

1.1 Argon gas is contained in a closed system at 5.0 MPa and 300 0C.The pressure and
temperature of the environment are 101.325 kPa and 300 K. Assuming that argon
behaves as a perfect gas determine the maximum useful work that could be obtained from
the gas.

1.2 Five kilograms of steam is contained in a closed system at 5.0 MPa and 400 0C.If the
pressure and temperature of the environment are 101.325 kPa and 300 K determine the
maximum useful work that could be obtained.

1.3 A rigid tank having a volume of 2.0 m3 contains air at 1500 kPa and 100 0C. The
pressure and temperature of the environment are 101.325 kPa and 300 K respectively.
Assuming that air behaves as a perfect gas, determine the non-flow exergy of air in the
tank.

1.4 Five kilograms of air is heated quasi-statically in a constant pressure process from
101.325 kPa and 25 0C to 100 0C.Determine the change in availability of air due to
heating. Assume the environment conditions to be 101.325 kPa and 300 K.

1.5 Two kilograms of metal having a temperature of 850 0C is quenched by immersing it

in a tank containing 100 kg of water at a temperature of 30 0C.The pressure and
temperature of the environment are 101.325 kPa and 300 K. Determine the irreversibility
of the quenching process.Assume the specific heat of the metal to be 0.465 kJ/(kg-K) and
that of water to be 4.187 kJ/(kg-K).

1.6 A rigid tank contains steam at 100 kPa and 100 0C. Heat is added to the steam from a
source at 550 0C until its pressure is doubled.The pressure and temperature of the
environment are 101.325 kPa and 300 K. Determine (i) the change in the availability of
steam and (ii) the irreversibility of the process.

1.7 Nitrogen is compressed polytropically from 100 kPa and 250C to 700 kPa with the
polytropic index equal to 1.3. Heat transfer is with the environment at 250C. Assumimg
that Nitrogen behaves as a perfect gas, determine (i) the actual useful work required, (ii)
the reversible useful work and (iii) thermodynamic lost work. The environment
conditions are 101.325 kPa and 250C. Assume for nitrogen Cp = 1.0380 kJ/(kg-K) and

377
Cv = 0.7412 kJ/(kg-K)

1.8 Making use of the availability equation, deduce the coefficient of performance of a
reversible refrigerator operating between a low temperature reservoir at T L and a high
temperature reservoir at TH.

1.9 Making use of the availability equation, deduce the coefficient of performance of a
reversible heat pump operating between a low temperature reservoir at TL and a high
temperature reservoir at TH.

1.10 A heat engine operates between two constant but different temperature heat
reservoirs at temperatures of 10000C and 200 0C. If the thermal efficiency of the engine is
40 % determine its second-law efficiency.Assume T0 = 300 K.

1.11 A heat engine operates between two constant but different temperature heat
reservoirs at temperatures of 20000C and 200 0C. The net work output from the engine is
2000 kJ and the heat input is 5000 kJ.What is the second-law efficiency if the
temperature of the environment is 300 K.

1.12 A heat engine operates between two constant but different temperature heat
reservoirs at temperatures of 10000C and 200 0C.If the second-law efficiency is 100 %,
what is the thermal efficiency of the heat engine. Assume T0 = 300 K.

1.13 A refrigerator operates between two heat reservoirs at temperatures of 20 0C and

5 0C.If the COP is 3.0, what is its second-law efficiency? Assume T0 = 20 0C.

1.14 A refrigerator operates between two heat reservoirs at temperatures of 20 0C and

5 0C.What is its second-law efficiency, if 1000 kJ of work input is required to produce
4000 kJ of refrigeration ? Assume T0 = 20 0C.

1.15 A heat pump operates between temperatures of 10 0C and 20 0C.If the second – law
efficiency is 100 %, What is the COP of the heat pump? Assume T0 = 20 0C

1.16 Water is heated in a steady-state steady-flow heat exchanger from 25 0C to 50 0C

with heat coming from a heat reservoir at 250 0C. If the mass flow rate of water is 0.5
kg/s, determine (i) the reversible useful work for the process, and (ii) the irreversibility of
the process.Assume environment conditions to be 101.325 kPa and 300 K.

1.17 Water enters a steam generator at 2.2 MPa and 100 0C and leaves as steam at 2.0
Mpa and 4000C. The heat source is a heat reservoir at 800 0C.For steady flow rate of 500
kg/h of steam, determine (i) the change in the availability of the flowing steam in kJ/h,
(b)the availability of heat added to the steam and (iii) second-law efficiency of the
process. Assume p0 = 101.325 kPa and T0 = 300 K

1.18 Five kilograms of air is to be heated from 15 0C and 100 kPa to 50 0C in steady-
state steady-flow heat exchanger. Hot steam enters the heat exchanger at 200 kPa and

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1500C and flows out as water at 120 0C. The environment conditions are 101.325 kPa and
300 K. Determine (i) the change in the availability of air in kJ, (ii) the change in the
availability of steam in kJ, (iii) the irreversibility of the process and (iv) the second-law
efficiency of the process.

1.19 A stream of steam enters an adiabatic mixing chamber at 1500 kPa and 300 0C.
Another stream of steam enters at 1500 kPa and quality 90 %.The mass flow rates of the
two streams are equal.The mixture leaves the chamber at 1500 kPa. Determine (i) the
temperature (or quality if it is a wet vapour) of the mixture, and (ii) the irreversibility of
the mixing process. Assume p0 = 101.325 kPa and T0 = 300 K.

1.20 For the indirect-fired (external combustion) air-turbine power plant shown in
Fig.P1.20 (a) make a first law analysis. (b) make a second-law analysis.

HEAT RESERVOIR
AT 1200 K
Air Heater
Qin
Turbine
2 3

wC
wT

Compressor

1
4

Fig. P1.20 : Schematic for problem 1.20

The thermodynamic states at various locations of the plant are as follows:

At compressor in let : 100 kPa and 15 0C ; at exit of air heater : 800 0C;
At exit of air turbine : 100 kPa; p2 / p1 = p3 / p4 = 7 ;
Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 85 % ;
Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 85 %. Assume air to behave as a perfect gas with
Cp = 1.045 kJ/kg-K ; γ = 1.36 ; p0 = 100 kPa; T0 = 15 0C.

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 QUESTION BANK FOR APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
Unit I : Chapter 1: Reciprocating Compressor
A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS ( 1 to 2 Marks )

1.The compressor capacity of a reciprocating compressor is directly proportional to __

a) Speed b) Pressure c) Volume d) All
2. The discharge temperature of two stage compressor compared to single stage one for
the same overall pressure ratio is ____
a) Lesser b) Same c) Higher d) None
3. The volumetric efficiency of the compressor ______ with the increase in altitude of
place
a) increases b) decreases c) does not change d) None
4. The ratio of isothermal power to actual measured input power of a compressor is
known as:
a) Isothermal efficiency b) Volumetric Efficiency c) Barometric efficiency
d) None
5. For every 4°C raise in air inlet temperature of an air compressor, the power
consumption will
increases by_____
a) 2% b) 1% c) 3% d) 4%
6. Identify the correct statement for air compressors.
a. For every 5.5oC drop in the inlet air temperature, the increase in energy consumption is
by 2%.
b. For every 4 oC rise in the inlet air temperature, the decrease in energy consumption is
by 1%
c. For every 4 oC rise in the inter air temperature, the increase in energy consumption is
by 1%
d. The energy consumption remains same irrespective of inlet air temperature
7. Reduction in the delivery pressure of a Compressor working at 7 bar, by 1 bar would
reduce the power
consumption by
a) 6 to 10 % b) 2 to 3 % c) 12 to 14 % d) None of the above
8. Which of the following parameters are not required for evaluating volumetric
efficiency of the
compressor?
a) Power b) Cylinder bore diameter c) Stroke length d) FAD
9. The work required to compress unit mass of air
(i) increases with increase in clearance ratio; (ii) decreases with increase in clearance
ratio ; (iii) remains same irrespective of the clearance ratio
10. For two stage compressor with inter cooling, the intermediate pressure is: (i) the
logarithmic mean of the inlet and exit pressures; (ii) the arithmetic mean of the inlet and
exit pressures; (iii) the geometric mean of the inlet and exit pressures; (iv) none of these

380
 B. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 3 to 5 marks )

1. Give major classifications of reciprocating compressors .

2. Why inter-coolers are required for multi-stage reciprocating compressors?
3.Give at least three examples where reciprocating compressors are used.
4. Differenetiate between single acting compressor and double acting compressor
5. Differentiate between single stage compressor and two stage compressor
6. . Differentiate between single cylinder compressor and two cylinder compressor
7.What is the relation between the speed of the compressor N in rpm and the number of
cycles per minute Nc for a double acting compressor with cylinder cross sectional area A
and the piston rod cross sectional area a ?
8.Define isothermal efficiency and adiabatic efficiency for a reciprocating compressor.
9.Define free air delivered (FAD) as applied to a reciprocating air compressor. What is
the standard units in which it is expressed?
10. What is the difference between ideal volumetric efficiency and actual volumetric
efficiency.
11. Draw the actual p-v diagram for a reciprocating compressor and explain how the
deviations in the actual compressor are taken into account to calculate the actual work
required to drive the compressor.
12. What is the differenc3e between perfect intercooling and imperfect intercooling as
applied to a multi stage compressor.
13. What is diagram factor as applied to a reciprocating compressor?
14.What methods are employed to see that the compression index for compression
process in a reciprocating compressor is reduced in an actual compressor?
15.How the pressure drops across the inlet valve and delivery valve are accounted while
making a thermodynamic analysis of an actual reciprocating compressor?
16. What are the differences between the reciprocating air compressor and the
reciprocating compressor used to compress a refrigerant in a vapour compression
refrigeration cycle?

381
 C. LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 06 to 08 marks )

1.Staring from the basic principles obtain an expression for work don per cycle in a single
stage air compressor with clearance if the compression index is nc and expansion index is
ne. Express your answer in terms of the pressure ratio developed (level: difficult)
2. Obtain an expression for the ideal volumetric efficiency for a single stage air
compressor in terms of the pressure ratio, clearance ratio and the index of expansion. List
all the assumptions made.( level : average)
3.Show that the volumetric efficiency of a real compressor with expansion index ne is
given by
1
𝛿𝑝1 𝑝 𝑛
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 = (1 − ) {1 + 𝐶 [1 − (𝑝2 ) 𝑒 ]}
𝑝1 1

where δp1 is the pressure difference between the atmospheric pressure and the suction
pressure p1 , C is the clearance ratio and p2 is the delivery pressure. (level : average)
4. Show that for a two stage air compressor with perfect intercooling, the work is equally
divided between the two stages.List all the assumptions made.( level : average)
5. Show that for an ideal three stage air compressor with perfect intercooling the pressure
ratio for all the three stage s are same and equal to the cube root of the overall pressure
ratio for the compressor (level : difficult)
6.Show that the total energy transfer as heat between the fluid and the surroundings
during the compression process and during intercooling put together for each stage of a
multi stage compressor is given by
𝑛
Qcompression + QIntercooler = ṁ(𝑛 −1) 𝑅(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
where Qcompression is the heat transfer rate during compression process per unit time,
QIntercooler is the heat transfer rate in the intercooler per unit time , ṁ is the mass of air
compressed per unit time, T2 is the temperature of air after compression from the stage,
T1 is the suction temperature for the stage and n is the index of compression. Assume
perfect intercooling.(level : difficult)
7.Draw a schematic and the p-V diagram for a single cylinder two stage air compressor
with clearance, showing the direction of flow of air as well as the thermodynamic states
in the schematic and the direction of the process in the p-V diagram. Assume that there is
a pressure loss in the intercooler.( level : average)
8. Draw a schematic and the p-V diagram for a two cylinder two stage air compressor
with clearance showing the direction of flow of air as well as the thermodynamic states
in the schematic and the direction of the process in the p-V diagram. Assume that there is
pressure loss in the intercooler.( level : difficult)
9. Sketch the p-V diagram for a real compressor indicating the pressure drop across the
two valves as well as valve fluttering and explain how do to account for the pressure
drops and valve fluttering while evaluating the actual work required to drive the
compressor.( level : average)

D. NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (8 TO 12 Marks)

382
1.An ideal compressor has a displacement volume (stroke volume) of 14 litres and a
clearance volume of 0.7 litre. It receives air at 100 kPa and discharges at 500 kPa. The
compression is polytropic with index equal to 1.3 and expansion is isentropic. Assuming
that air behaves as a perfect gas, determine (i) work done on air per cycle and (ii) the
error involved in calculation of work done if the index for compression and for
expansion are both equal to 1.3.
2. A double acting compressor, with a piston displacement of 0.05 m 3 per stroke,
operates at 500 rpm. The clearance is 5 percent and it receives air at 100 kPa and
discharges at 600 kPa. The compression is polytropic according to the law pV 1.35 =
constant. Determine the power required to drive the compressor and the mass of air
delivered in kg/s if the suction temperature is 27 C.
3. A single acting air compressor has a cylinder of bore 15 cm and the piston stroke is 25
cm. The crank speed is 600 rpm.Air is taken from atmosphere (1 bar and 27 C) and is
delivered at 11 bars.Assuming polytropic compression of the type pV 1.,25 = C, find the
power required to drive the compressor if its mechanical efficiency is 80 % and the
compressor has a clearance which is 1/20th of the stroke volume. How long will it take to
deliver 1 m 3 of air at the compressor inlet conditions. Also find the volumetric efficiency
of the compressor.
4. A reciprocating compressor has a 5 % clearance with a bore and stroke of 25 x 30 cm.
The compressor operates at 500 rpm. Air enters the cylinder at 27 C and 95 kPa and
discharges at 2000 kPa. If the indices for both comprssion and expansion are equal to 1.3
Determine (i) volumetric efficiency, (ii) the volume of air handled at inlet conditions in
m3/s, (iii) the power required to drive the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 90
%, (iv) the mass of air delivered in kg/s, (v) the mass of air in the clearance space.
5. A single cylinder single acting air compressor takes air from atmosphere (1.0315 bar
and 25 C) and delivers at 9 bar.The compressor running at 900 rpm, delivers 1 kg of air
per minute. The compression index is 1.25. The stroke to bore ratio is 1.25 and the
mechanical efficiency is 83 %. Calculate : (i) the cylinder dimensions, (ii) the power
required to drive the compressor, and (iii) the heat transfer during compression process.
List the assumptions needed to solve this problem.
6. A single-cylinder double acting air compressor is to deliver air at 10 bar, starting from
atmospheric air at 20 C. The cylinder bore is 15 cm and the stroke is 20 cm. The
compressor speed is 600 rpm.Assuming the temperature of the delivered air to be 200 C,
find, (i) the mass of air delivered in kg/min, (ii) the index of compression, and (iii) the
power needed to drive the compressor. Assume that the effective cylinder area on the
piston side is 90 % of the total area.
7. A single acting single cylinder air compressor runs at 750 rpm. The heat transfer
during compression is 1/3rd of the total compression work. The working pressure limits
are 1 bar and 10 bar.If the clearance volume is 1/30th of the stroke volume and if the
stroke to bore ratio is 1.2, compute (i) the index of compression, (ii) the volumetric
efficiency (iii) the cylinder dimensions to deliver 1 kg/min of air taken from atmosphere
at 30 C.
8. A single cylinder single acting air compressor uses “isothermal” compression to
compress 0.7 kg/min of air from 1 bar and 25 C to 7 bar, while running at 600 rpm. The
clearance volume is 1/25th of the stroke volume which is 1.2 litres. If the actual area of

383
the indicator diagram is 10 % greater than the theoretical and the mechanical efficiency is
81%, calculate (i) the volumetric efficiency, (ii) the index of expansion and (iii) actual
power required to drive the compressor. Neglect all pressure drops.
9. The following data refer to a single acting air compressor: Suction pressure = 1 bar;
Receiver pressure = 10 bar; Loss of pressure due to valve resistance at inlet = 0.05 bar;
pressure drop at the exit valve = 0.33 bar; Cylinder bore = stroke = 12.0 cm; Clearance
volume = 1/25th of stroke volume; Index for expansion and compression = 1.25;
Mechanical efficiency = 80 %.If the receiver capacity is 600 litres and if it takes 8
minutes to fill it to 10 bar starting from 1 bar, find the maximum power required to drive
the compressor. Assume that the receiver temperature remains at 25 C throughout the
filling process. Also determine the mass of air compressed the volumetric efficiency and
the speed of the compressor.
10. A single stage double acting air compressor running at 1000 rev/min delivers air at 25
bar. The suction conditions are 1 bar and 40 C. The free air conditions are 1.013 bar and
15 C and the free air delivered is 0.25 m 3 / min. The clearance volume is 3 % and the
stroke to bore ratio is 1.2 : 1. Calculate the cylinder dimensions and the volumetric
efficiency. Assume that n = 1.3 for both compression and expansion processes. Also
calculate the indicated power and isothermal efficiency.
11. A two-cylinder, two stage air compressor delivers 2 kg/min of air at 25 bar, taking in
air at 1 bar and 30 C. The compression index is 1.25. Neglecting clearance calculate (i)
the intermediate pressure for minimum power, (ii) heat transfer during intercooling and
(iii) power required to drive the compressor.(iv) what would have been the power
required if single stage air compressoreis used for the same suction and delivery
conditions and to deliver the same quantity of air.
12. A two stage, double acting air compressor operates at 150 rpm. The conditions of air
at the beginning of compression are 97.9 kPa and 27 C. The low pressure cylinder with a
bore and stroke of 35 X 38 cm discharges the air at 379 kPa to the intercooler. The air in
the intercooler suffers a pressure drop of 17.2 kPa and enters the high pressure cylinder at
29 C. The discharge pressure is 2000 kPa. Compression and expansion processes in both
the stages are according to the law pV 1.3 = C. The surroundings are at 100 kPa and 20 C.
The percent clearance is 5 % for each cylinder. Determine (i) “free air” capacity in m 3/s,
(ii) the heat loss in the intercooler, (iii) the total power required, (iv) optimum interstage
pressure, (v) diameter of the hp cylinder if the stroke is same for both the stages (vi) the
heat loss in the low-pressure and high-pressure compression processes
13. A two-stage air compressor is required to take in 1500 litres of free air per minute at 1
bar and 25 C. The delivery pressure is 20 bar. The heat transfer during compression,
which may be assumed to be polytropic, is double that in the intercooler for the first
stage, and 1/3rd of the total compression work for the second stage. Assuming the
intercooler effectiveness to be 0.83 and an intermediate pressure as the geometric mean
of the suction and delivery pressures of the compressor, find the power required to drive
the compressor assuming a mechanical efficiency of 80 %.
14. A multistage single acting compressor compresses air from 1 bar and 25 C to 30 bar.
The maximum temperature in each stage is limited to 100 C. The cylinder heads are
cooled so that the heat transfer during compression is 0.7 times that in the intercooler,
where the air returns to its initial temperature. Find the index of compression, the number
of stages (assume perfect intercooling), the compression pressures, the temperature at the

384
end of compression and the power required to drive the compressor to compress 1000
litres per minute of air for minimum work input.
15.An air compressor is tested and it is found that the electric motor used 37.3 kW when
the compressor handled 0.189 m3 /s of air at 101.4 kPa and 300 K and discharge pressure
is at 377.1 kPa. Determine (a) overall adiabatic efficiency and (b) overall isothermal
efficiency.
16.Calculate the volumetric efficiency of a single cylinder, double acting compressor
with a bore and stroke of 45 cm x 45 cm. The compressor is tested at 150 rev/min and
found to deliver a from 101.3 kPa and 300 K to 675 kPa at a rate of 0.166 m3/s when the
index is 1.33 for both expansion and compression processes.
17. A 6.93 kW single cylinder double acting air compressor has mechanical and
volumetric efficiencies of 82 % and 87 % respectively.The bore is 12 cm and the stroke is
15 cm.The effective area on the ptsto side is 90 % of the total piston area.The
compression index is 1.3 and the crank speed is 500 RPM.Determine (i) the rate of
delivery of air from the compressor, (ii)the delivery pressure, and (iii) the index of
expansion.Assume the clearance to be 1/32 of the swept volume.
18. A two stage air compressor is required to deliver 42 kg/min of air from 99 kPa and
305 K to 1275 kPa. The compressor operates at 205 RPM. Compression and expansion
processes follow the law pV1.25 = constant. Both the cylinders have a clearance of 3.5 %.
There is a pressure drop of 20 kPa in the intercooler. The low pressure cylinder
discharges air at the optimum pressure into the intercooler. The air enters the high
pressure cylinder at 310 K. The intercooler is water cooled with water entering at 295 K
and leaving at 305 K. Determine (a) “free air” in m3/s, (b) the low pressure and high
pressure discharge temperatures, (c)the optimum interstage pressure, (d) the cooling
water required in the intercooler in kg/s, (e) the theortical power required to drive the
compressor, (f) the low pressure cylinder dimensions if L/D ration is 0.70 and (g) the
output of the electric motor driving the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 85 %.
19.A multistage air compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 25 0C and compresses it to 20
bars. Assume perfect intercooling and that the amount of energy rejected by air in the
inter cooler is equal to the amount of energy rejected by air during the compression due
to cooling of the cylinder. The compressor runs at 900 rpm and delivers 3 kg/min of air.
All the pistons have a stroke of 17 cm. Find (i) the index of compression; (ii)The number
of stages if the discharge temperature from each stage is not to exceed 400 K; (iii)the
temperature and pressure at the end of each stage; (iv) Power input to the compressor if
the mechanical efficiency is 0.8 for each stage.
20.A single acting air compressor with two stages is to supply air at 70 bar while running
at 250 rpm. Each cylinder has a stroke of 15 cm and compressor air flow rate is 0.5
kg/min. The compression law in each cylinder is pV1.3 = constant. The intercooler
effectiveness is 0.81, while the external air temperature is 25 C.Find the suitable
diameters for the low and high pressure cylinders as well as power absorbed by the
compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 0.85.
21.A single-stage, double acting reciprocating air compressor is guranteed to deliver 0.24
m3/s of free air with a clearance of 3 % and inlet conditions of 100 kPa and 21 C and a
discharge pressure of 725 kPa. When tested under these conditions the compression and
expansion processes follow the law pV 1.34 = constant. Determine (i) the piston
displacement in m3 / s ; (ii) the capacity and discharge pressure if the % clearance is held

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constant and the compressor is operated at an altitude of 1800 m, where the barometric
pressure is 604 mm of mercury and the temperature is 21 C.
22..A single – stage, single acting reciprocating compressor deals with 1410 litres of free
air per minute aat 0.97 atm and 20 0C.The delivery pressure is 15 bar.Clearance volume is
4% of stroke volume.If this is converted into a two-stage compressor with aan inter
cooler and runs at the same speed as before, find the increase in the volume of free air
delivered and the power required under conditions of maximum efficiency. Assume n =
1.32 for both compression and expansion and that the effectiveness of the inter cooler is
0.85.
23.Asingle stage, single acting air compressor works for 15 minutes and delivers air at 8
atg at a place where the barometer reading and temperature are 750 mm of Hg and 300C
respectively. It runs at 750 rpm. The clearance volume is 1/30th of the swept volume. The
compression and expansion indices are 1.2 and 1.35 respectively. It is to operate under
the ambient conditions of 640 mm of Hg and 50C. It compresses air up to 8 atg and has
the same indices of compression and expansion. Taking the cylinder bore and piston
stroke to be 90 mm and 100 mm respectively, find for the latter ambient conditions, the
volumetric efficiency, the time taken to deliver the same mass of air as done earlier in 15
minutes and the power required to drive the compressor if its mechanical efficiency is 80
%.

Unit I : Chapter 2: Testing of IC Engines

A. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS ( 1 to 2 Marks )

1. In a four stroke cycle, the minimum temperature inside the engine cylinder occurs at
the
(a) beginning of suction stroke ; (b) end of suction stroke ; (c) beginning of exhaust
stroke;
(d) end of exhaust stroke

2. The thermal efficiency of an air standard Otto cycle for a compression ratio of 5.5 will
be
(a) 25 % ;(b) 50 % ; (c) 75 % ; (d) none of these

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3. The condition to be maintained to determine the frictional power of a diesel engine in a
laboratory is:
(a) the speed of the engine is to be kept constant for all loads; (b) the load on the engine
to be kept constant for all speeds; (c) the fuel consumption to be kept constant for all
loads; (d) none of the above

4. The ratio of indicated thermal efficiency to the corresponding air standard cycle
efficiency is called as : (a) Net efficiency; (b) relative efficiency; (c) brake thermal
efficiency; (d) mechanical efficiency

5. Compression ratio of IC. engines is defined as:

(a) the ratio of volumes of air in cylinder before compression stroke and after
compression stroke ; (b) volume displaced by piston per stroke and clearance volume in
cylinder; (c) ratio of pressure after compression and before compression; (d) swept
volume/cylinder volume
6. In a diesel engine, the fuel is ignited by : (a) spark; (b) injected fuel; (c) heat resulting
due to compression of air supplied for combustion; (d) igniter.
7.Morse test is conducted to determine; (a) Brake power of a multi cylinder diesel engine;
(b) Indicated power of a multi cylinder IC engine; (c) Brake power of a multi cylinder
petrol engine
(d) none of these

8.The air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle as compared to that for Diesel cycle for the
same
compression ratio is (a) same; (b) less; (c) more ; (d) more or less same depending on
power
rating

9. An engine indicator is used to determine the following: (a) speed; (b)temperature; (c)
mean effective pressure and Indicated power mean effective pressure; (d) brake power

10.The thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle (a) increases with increase in cut-off ratio;
(b) ) decreases with increase in cut-off ratio; (c) is independent of the cut-off ratio ;

B.SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 3 to 6 marks )

1. An engine working on air standard Otto cycle has a cylinder diameter of 10cm and
stroke length of 15 cm. The ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4. If the clearance volume is
196.3 cc and the heat supplied per kg of air per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. Find work output per
kg of air.
2. For an engine operating on air standard Otto cycle, the clearance volume is10% of the
swept volume. The specific heat ratio of air is 1.4. Calculate the air standard
cycle efficiency.
3.List different methods of determining the frictional power of an IC engine in a
laboratory.
4. What are the different methods of finding the brake power of an ICengine:
5. List the different methods of finding the Indicated power of an IC engine.

387
6. A test on a Petrol engine was conducted for a particular load for 10 minutes . During
this period the fuel consumed is found to be 25 cc.If the specific gravity of petrol is 0.85
determine the fuel consumed in kg/hr.
7.List the merits and demerits of 4-stroke engine against 2-stroke engine.
8. What is “Willan’s Line method” as applied to an IC engine?

9. The following data were recorded while conducting a test on a single cylinder constant
speed diesel engine. Time taken to consume 10 cc of fuel at no load = 92 seconds. Time
taken to consume 10 cc of fuel at rated power of 4.2 kW = 20.5 seconds. If the specific
gravity of the fuel is 0.9 determine the frictional power in kW using Willan’s line
method.

10. Consider two engines with the following details:

Engine I : Four-stroke, four cylinder, SI engine with Indicated power of 40 kW and
mean piston speed of 10 m/s.Engine II: Two stroke, two cylinder, SI engine with
indicated power of 10 kW. If the mean effective pressure of both the engines are same
and the ratio of bore of the engine I to that of engine II is 2, determine the mean piston
speed of engine II.

C.NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (8 TO 12 Marks)

2.1.The following observations have been made from the test of a four cylinder, two –
stroke petrol engine. Diameter of the cylinder = 10 cm; stroke = 15 cm; speed = 1600
rpm; Area of indicator diagram = 5.5 cm2; Length of the indicator diagram = 55 mm;
spring constant = 3.5 bar/cm; Determine the indicated power of the engine.
2.2.A gasoline engine (petrol engine) working on Otto cycle consumes 8 litres of petrol
per hour and develops 25 kW. The specific gravity of petrol is 0.75 and its calorific value
is 44,000 kJ/kg. Determine the indicated thermal efficiency of the engine
2.3.The bore and stroke of a water cooled, vertical, single-cylinder, four stroke diesel
engine are 80 mm and 110 mm respectively.The torque is 23.5 N-m.Calculate the brake
mean effective pressure.
What would be the mean effective pressure and torque if the engine rating is 4 kW at
1500 rpm?
2.4.Find the air fuel ratio of a four stroke, single cylinder, air cooled engine with fuel
consumption time for 10 cc is 20.4 s and air consumption time for 0.1 m3is 16.3 s. The
load is 7 N at the speed of 3000 rpm. Find also the brake specific fuel consumption in
kg/kWh and brake thermal efficiency.Assume the density of air as 1.175 kg/m 3 and
specific gravity of the fuel to be 0.7. The lower heating value of the fuel is 43 MJ/kg and
the dynamometer constant is 5000.
2.5.A six cylinder, gasoline engine operates on the four stroke cycle. The bore of each
cylinder is 80 mm and the stroke is 100 mm. The clearance volume in each cylinder is 70
cc. At a speed of 4000 rpm and the fuel consumption is 20 kg/h. The torque developed is

388
150 N-m. Calculate (i) the brake power, (ii) the brake mean effective pressure, (iii) brake
thermal efficiency if the calorific value of the fuel is 43000 kJ/kg and (iv) the relative
efficiency if the ideal cycle for the engine is Otto cycle.
2.6.An eight cylinder, four stroke engine of 9 cm bore, 8 cm stroke and with a
compression ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has 54 cm arm.
During a 10 minute test, the dynamometer scale beam reading was 42 kg and the engine
consumed 4.4 kg of gasoline having a calorific value of 44,000 kJ/kg. Air at 27 C and 1
bar was supplied to the carburetor at a rate of 6 kg/min. Find (i) the brake power, (ii) the
brake mean effective pressure, (iii) the brake specific fuel consumption, (iv) the brake
specific air consumption, (v) volumetric efficiency , (vi) the brake thermal efficiency and
(vii) the air fuel ratio.
2.7.A gasoline engine working on four- stroke develops a brake power of 20.9 kW. A
Morse test was conducted on this engine and the brake power (kW) obtained when each
cylinder was made inoperative by short circuiting the spark plug are 14.9, 14.3, 14.8 and
14.5 respectively. The test was conducted at constant speed. Find the indicated power,
mechanical efficiency and brake mean effective pressure when all the cylinders are firing.
The bore of the engine is 75mm and the stroke is 90 mm. The engine is running at 3000
rpm..

2.8.The following observations were recorded during a trail of a four – stroke, single
cylinder oil engine.
Duration of trial = 30 min ; oil consumed = 4 litres ; calorific value of oil = 43 MJ/kg ;
specific gravity of fuel = 0.8 ; average area of the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm2; length of
the indicator diagram = 8.5 cm; Indicator spring constant = 5.5 bar/cm; brake load = 150
kg; spring balance reading = 20 kg; effective brake wheel diameter = 1.5 m ; speed = 200
rpm ; cylinder diameter = 30 cm ; stroke = 45 cm ; jacket cooling water = 10 kg/min ;
temperature rise of cooling water = 36 C. Calculate (i) indicated power, (ii) brake power,
(iii) mechanical efficiency, (iv) brake specific fuel consumption, (v) indicated thermal
efficiency, and (vi) heat carried away by cooling water.
2.9.A four stroke gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 25 cm and stroke 45 cm. The
effective diameter of the brake is 1.6 m.The observations made in a test of the engine
were as follows.
Duration of test = 40 min; Total number of revolutions = 8080 ; Total number of
explosions = 3230; Net load on the brake = 80 kg ; mean effective pressure = 5.8 bar;
Volume of gas used = 7.5 m3; Pressure of gas indicated in meter = 136 mm of water
(gauge); Atmospheric temperature = 17 C; Calorific value of gas = 19 MJ/ m3 at NTP;
Temperature rise of cooling water = 45 C; Cooling water supplied = 180 kg.Draw up a
heat balance sheet and find the indicated thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency.
Assume atmospheric pressure to be 760 mm of mercury.
2.10. A test on a two-stroke engine gave the following results at full load.
Speed = 350 rpm; Net brake load = 65 kg ; mean effective pressure = 3 bar ; Fuel
consumption = 4 kg/h ; Jacket cooling water flow rate = 500 kg/h ; jacket water
temperature at inlet = 20 C ; jacket water temperature at outlet = 40 C ; Test room
temperature = 20 C ; Temperature of exhaust gases = 400 C; Air used per kg of fuel = 32
kg ; cylinder diameter = 22 cm ;stroke = 28 cm; effective brake diameter = 1 m ;
Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ/kg ; Mean specific heat of exhaust gases = 1 kJ/kg –

389
K.Find indicated power, brake power and draw up a heat balance for the test in kW and
in percentage.

UNIT II : Chapter 3: Vapour Power Cycles

A.Objective Type (1 to 2 Marks)
1. Rankine cycle efficiency of a good steam power plant may be in the range of
(a) 15 to 20%
(b) 35 to 45%
(c) 70 to 80%
(d) 90 to 95% .

2. Rankine cycle operating on low pressure limit of p1 and high pressure limit of p2
(a) has higher thermal efficiency than the Carnot cycle operating between same pressure
limits
(b) has lower thermal efficiency than Carnot cycle operating between same pressure
limits
(c) has same thermal efficiency as Carnot cycle operating between same pressure limits
(d) may be more or less depending upon the magnitudes of p1 and p2.

3. Rankine efficiency of a steam power plant

(a) improves in summer as compared to that in winter
(b) improves in winter as compared to that in summer
(c) is unaffected by climatic conditions
(d) none of the above.

4. Rankine cycle comprises of

(a) two isentropic processes and two constant volume processes
(b) two isentropic processes and two constant pressure processes
(c) two isothermal processes and two constant pressure processes
(d) none of the above.

5. In Rankine cycle the work output from the turbine is given by

(a) change of internal energy between inlet and outlet
(b) change of enthalpy between inlet and outlet
(c) change of entropy between inlet and outlet
(d) change of temperature between inlet and outlet.

6. Regenerative heating i.e., bleeding steam to reheat feed water to boiler

(a) decreases thermal efficiency of the cycle
(b) increases thermal efficiency of the cycle

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(c) does not affect thermal efficiency of the cycle
(d) may increase or decrease thermal efficiency of the cycle depending upon the point of
extraction of steam.

7. Regenerative cycle thermal efficiency

(a) is always greater than simple Rankine thermal efficiency
(b) is greater than simple Rankine cycle thermal efficiency only when steam is bled at
particular pressure
(c) is same as simple Rankine cycle thermal efficiency
(d) is always less than simple Rankine cycle thermal efficiency.

8. In a regenerative feed heating cycle, the optimum value of the fraction of steam
extracted for feed heating
(a) decreases with increase in Rankine cycle efficiency
(b) increases with increase in Rankine cycle efficiency
(c) is unaffected by increase in Rankine cycle efficiency
(d) none of the above.

9. In a regenerative feed heating cycle, the greatest economy is affected

(a) when steam is extracted from only one suitable point of steam turbine
(b) when steam is extracted from several places in different stages of steam turbine
(c) when steam is extracted only from the last stage of steam turbine
(d) when steam is extracted only from the first stage of steam turbine.

10. The maximum percentage gain in Regenerative feed heating cycle thermal efficiency
(a) increases with number of feed heaters increasing
(b) decreases with number of feed heaters increasing
(c) remains same unaffected by number of feed heaters
(d) none of the above.

B.SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS ( 3 to 6 marks )

1.Obtain an expression for the thermal efficiency of a simple Rankine cycle in terms of
the condensation temperature and the thermodynamic temperature at which heat is
supplied to the cycle.

2. Discuss with the help of a T-s /h-s diagram .the effects of varying the condenser
pressure on the performance of a Rankine cycle.

3. Discuss with the help of a T-s/h-s diagram .the effects of varying the boiler pressure on
the performance of a Rankine cycle.

4. Discuss with the help of a T-s/h-s diagram .the effects of varying the temperature of
steam at inlet to the turbine on the performance of a Rankine cycle.

5.What are the assumptions made while analyzing a Simple Rankine cycle?

391
6. What are the properties to be satisfied by an ideal working fluid to be used in a
Rankine cycle?

7.What are the merits and demerits of steam power plant cycle over Gas turbine cycle for
power generation?

8.Define the following with respect to a steam power plant: (i) steam rate ; (ii) heat rate
and write down the units in which they are normally expressed. Show the comparison on
a T-s diagram.

9.Compare the performance of a Rankine cycle with that of a Carnot cycle in terms of
work out put and thermal efficiency when both the cycles are working between the same
temperature limits.

10.Draw a schematic diagram and T-s diagram for an ideal reheat cycle having two
stages of expansion with reheating of steam back to its original temperature and also
write down the expression for thermal efficiency in terms of enthalpies at the salient
points of the cycle.

C.NUMERICAL PROBLEMS (8 TO 12 Marks)

3.1. In a simple Rankine cycle, dry saturated steam at 20 bar expands to a pressure of 1
atmosphere. Determine (i) the pump work, (ii) turbine work, (iii) network output, (iv)
thermodynamic mean temperature at which heat is supplied, (v) thermal efficiency, (vi)
quality of steam entering the condenser, and (vii) specific steam consumption in kg/kWh.
What would be the (i) network output, (ii) cycle efficiency, (iii) specific
steam consumption in kg/kWh and (iv) quality of steam entering the condenser if the
condenser pressure is reduced to 0.06 bar and compare the performance of the two cycles.
3.2. Compare the performance of simple Rankine cycle with boiler exit steam conditions
of 20 bar and dry saturated with that of another simple Rankine cycle with boiler exit
steam conditions of 30 bar and dry saturated in terms of (i) net work output, (ii) heat
supply, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) steam rate and (v) quality of steam entering the
condenser. Assume the condenser pressure to be 0.06 bar for both the cycles.
3.3. Compare the performance of an ideal reheat cycle with that of a simple Rankine
cycle in terms of (i)net work output, (ii) thermal efficiency, (iii) steam rate, and (iv)
quality of steam entering the condenser assuming the following data. Boiler exit
conditions are 15 bar and 300 C. Condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Reheater pressure is 4
bar. The steam is reheated at constant pressure back to its original temperature in the
reheater.
3.4. In a simple Rankine cycle, steam conditions at the boiler exit are 10 bar and 300 C.
In the pipe line between the boiler exit and turbine inlet, there is an energy loss of 50
kj/kg and a drop in pressure of 0.5 bar. The steam expands in the turbine to a pressure of
0.09 bar. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.86 and that of the pump is 0.70.
Determine (i) the condition of steam entering the turbine, (ii) actual pump work per unit
mass of water, (iii) turbine work per unit mass of steam (iv) net work output and thermal
efficiency of the cycle, and (v) quality of steam entering the condenser.

392
3.5. In a reheat steam cycle, the boiler exit conditions are 25 bar and 300 C. The exit
pressure of steam at the end of first stage is 5 bar. The steam is then reheated to 300 C
before expanding in the second turbine to 0.05 bar. Assuming the high and low pressure
turbines to have efficiencies of 87% and85 % respectively, find (i) the thermal energy
input in the reheater, (ii) the cycle efficiency, (iii) specific steam consumption and (iv)
power output for a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s.

3.6.Steam at 50 bar and 350 C expands to 12 bar in a high pressure stage, and is dry
saturated at the stage exit. This is now reheated to 280 C without any pressure drop. The
reheated steam expands in an intermediate stage and again emerges as a dry saturated
steam at a lower pressure. The steam is once again reheated to 280 C at constant pressure
before it is finally expanded in the low pressure stage to 0.05 bar. Assuming the work
output is the same for the high and intermediate stages, and the efficiencies of the high
pressure stage and low pressure stage are equal, find (i) efficiency of the high pressure
stage, (ii) pressure of steam at the exit of the intermediate stage, (iii) total power output
from the three stages for a mass flow rate of 1 kg/s, (iv) condition of the steam entering
the condenser, and (v) thermal efficiency of the cycle.
3.7.Consider a steam power plant operating on a regenerative cycle under ideal
conditions and with one open type feed water heater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa
and 600 C and the condenser pressure is 10 kPa. If steam is bled at 1.2 MPa to heat the
feed water in the heater determine (i) fraction of steam bled out from the turbine to heat
the feed water and (ii) the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Draw a schematic diagram of
the plant and represent the cyle on a T-s diagram.
3.8. In a steam power plant the condition of steam at inlet to the turbine is 20 bar and 300
C and the condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Two feed water heaters which are of direct
contact type (open type) operate at optimum temperatures. Determine (i) quality of steam
at turbine exhaust, (ii)fraction of steam bled out for each feed water heater, (iii)the steam
rate and (iv) plant efficiency. Sketch the cycle on T-s diagram.
3.9. Consider a steam power plane that operates on an ideal reheat-regenerative cycle
with two open type feed water heaters, and one reheater.Steam eneters the turbine at 15
MPa and 600 C and the condenser pressure is 10 kPa.Some steam is extracted at 4 MPa
for the high pressure feed water heater and the remaining steam is reheated in a reheater
at the same pressure to 600 C.The feed water comes out of the high pressure heater as a
saturated liquid corresponding to the bled steam pressure.Steam for the low pressure
open feed water is extracted from the low pressure turbine at 0.5 MPa . Determine the
mass of steam bled out for each feed water heater per unit mass of steam generated in the
boiler and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.Draw a schematic diagram of the plant and
the corresponding T-s diagram
3.10.Steam is supplied at 70 bar and 450 C to a turbine with three stages and the
condenser pressure is 0.05 bar. After expansion to 6.5 bar in the first stage, a part of the
steam is bled for feed-water heating in a closed type feed water heater.The rest of the
steam is reheated to 450 C, before admitting to the second stage. After expansion to 0.56
bar in this stage, some more steam is bled out for feed water heating in a second heater
which is also a closed type.The rest of the steam is expanded in the third stage. The
efficienciec of the first, second and third stage turbine are 0.89, 0.87 and 0.85
respectively.Assuming that at each heater the feed water is heated to its saturation

393
temperature corresponding to the bled steam pressure and the bled steam which
condenses in the high pressure heater is cascaded back to thelow pressure heater and the
bled steam which condenses in the low pressure heater is cascaded back to the
condenser.Determine (i) total turbine work per kg of steam generated in the boiler, (ii)the
overall cycle efficiency and the specific steam consumption. Draw the schematic and T-s
diagrams for the plantNeglect pump work.
3.11.In a binary vapour cycle using mercury and steam,saturated mercury vapour at 4.5
bar enters the mercury turbine and leaves at 0.04 bar.The mercury condenser generates
saturated steam at 15 bar which is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.04 bar.(i) Find the
overall efficiency of the cycle. (ii) If 50,000 kg/h of steam flows through the steam
turbine, determine the mercury mass flow rate. (iii) Assuming that all processes are
reversible, determine the useful work done in the binary cycle for the specified steam
flow. The properties of mercury are as given below.

p(bar) T( 0C) hf hg sf sg vf vg
kJ/kg kJ/(kg-K) m3/kg

4.5 450 62.93 355.98 0.1352 0.5397 79.9x10 -6 0.068

0.04 216.9 29.98 329.85 0.0808 0.6925 76.5x10 -6 5.178

3.12. In a cogeneration plant, the power load is 5.6 MW and the heating load is 1.163
MW. Steam is generated at 40 bar and 500 C and is expanded isentropically through a
turbine to a condenser pressure of 0.06 bar. The heating load is supplied by extracting
steam from the turbine at 2 bar which is condensed in the process heater to saturated
liquid water at 2 bar and then pumped back to the boiler. Calculate (i) the steam
generation capacity of the boiler in tones/h, (ii) the heat input to the boiler in MW, and
(ii) the heat rejected to the condenser in MW. Dram a schematic of the plant.
3.13.The net power output of the turbine in an ideal reheat-regenerative cycle is 100
MW. Steam enters the HP turbine at 90 bar and 550 0C. After expansion to 7 bar, some of
the steam enters an open type feed water heater and the balance is reheated to 400 0C,
after which it is expanded in the LP turbine to 0.07 bar. (i) What is the steam flow rate at
inlet to the HP turbine?(ii) Find the cycle efficiency. (iii) If the temperature rise of
cooling water circulated in the condenser is 10 0C, what is the mass flow rate of cooling
water required in the condenser.

3.14. In a modern high-pressure steam power plant, steam is admitted to a HP turbine at

100 bar and 450 0C. At the HP turbine exit , where the steam at 10 bar is just dry-
saturated, a portion of it is drawn off for feed water heating and the rest is reheated to 500
0
C.This steam now expands in a LP turbine to 0.01 bar and steam comes out of this
turbine as dry-saturated and then enters the comdenser.Assuming that the feed water
comes out of the heater as a saturated liquid corresponding to the bled steam pressure,
determine (i)mass of bled steam per unit mass of steam generated in the boiler, (ii) the
turbine efficiencies, (iii) power output from the plant for 50,000 kg/h of steam generated
in the boiler, (iv) plant thermal efficiency and (v) specific steam consumption in kg/kWh.

394
3.15.Consider a cogeneration plant with regenerative heating of feed water as sown in
Fig. P3.15. Steam enters the turbine at 6 MPa and 450 0C and expands at 0.4 MPa. At this
pressure, 60 % of the steam is extracted from the turbine, and the remainder expands to
10 kPa. Part of the extractd steam is used to heat the feed water in an open type feed
water heater. The rest of the extracted steam is used for process heating and leaves the
process heater as a saturated liquid at 0.4 MPa. It is subsequently mixed with the feed
water leaving the feed water heater, and the mixture is pumped to boiler pressure before
it enters the boiler.Assuming ideal conditions determine the mass flow rate of steam
through the boiler for a net power output of 15 MW. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram.

Turbine
Boiler
4
5

Process
2 Heater
9
Condenser
1 8 Feed water 7
Heater
6 Pump

Pump Mixing Chamber

Fig. P3.15 : Schematic for problem 3.15

UNIT III : Chapter 4: Gas Power Cycles

A.Objective Type (1 to 2 Marks)
1. The air standard Otto cycle comprises
(a) two constant pressure processes and two constant volume processes
(b) two constant pressure and two constant entropy processes
(c) two constant volume processes and two constant entropy processes
(d) none of the above.

2. Greater the difference between jet velocity and aeroplane velocity

(a) greater the propulsive efficiency
(b) less the propulsive efficiency
(c) unaffected is the propulsive efficiency
(d) none of the above.

3. The thermal efficiency of theoretical Otto cycle

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(a) increases with increase in compression ratio
(b) increases with increase in isentropic index γ
(c) does not depend upon the pressure ratio
(d) follows all the above.

4. The work output of theoretical Otto cycle

(a) increases with increase in compression ratio
(b) increases with increase in pressure ratio
(c) increases with increase in adiabatic index γ
(d) follows all the above.

5. For same compression ratio

(a) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of Diesel cycle
(b) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is less than that of Diesel cycle
(c) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is same as that for Diesel cycle
(d) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle cannot be predicted.

6. In air standard Diesel cycle, at fixed compression ratio and fixed value of adiabatic
index (γ)
(a) thermal efficiency increases with increase in heat addition cut-off ratio
(b) thermal efficiency decreases with increase in heat addition cut-off ratio
(c) thermal efficiency remains same with increase in heat addition cut-off ratio
(d) none of the above.

7. Thermal efficiency of a gas turbine plant as compared to Diesel engine plant is

(a) higher
(b) lower
(c) same
(d) may be higher or lower.

8. For a jet propulsion unit, ideally the compressor work and turbine work are
(a) equal
(b) unequal
(c) not related to each other
(d) unpredictable.

9. Thermal efficiency of closed cycle gas turbine plant increases by

(a) reheating
(b) intercooling
(c) regenerator
(d) all of the above.

10. With the increase in pressure ratio thermal efficiency of a simple gas turbine plant
with fixed turbine inlet temperature
(a) decreases
(b) increases

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(c) first increases and then decreases
(d) first decreases and then increases.

11. The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine cycle with ideal regenerative heat exchanger
is
(a) equal to work ratio
(b) is less than work ratio
(c) is more than work ratio
(d) unpredictable.

12. In a two stage gas turbine plant reheating after first stage
(a) decreases thermal efficiency
(b) increases thermal efficiency
(c) does not effect thermal efficiency
(d) none of the above.

13. In a two stage gas turbine plant, reheating after first stage
(a) increases work ratio
(b) decreases work ratio
(c) does not affect work ratio
(d) none of the above.

14. In a two stage gas turbine plant, with intercooling and reheating
(a) both work ratio and thermal efficiency improve
(b) work ratio improves but thermal efficiency decreases
(c) thermal efficiency improves but work ratio decreases
(d) both work ratio and thermal efficiency decrease.
B. Short Answer Questions (3 to 6 marks)
1.What are the assumptions made in the analysis of air standard IC engines cycles?
2.Show that the efficiency of an air standard Otto cycle depends only on the compression
ratio.
3.List the four processes of an air standard diesel cycle
4.With the help of p-v and T-s diagrams, show that for the same maximum pressure and
temperature of the cycle. ηDiesel > ηDual > ηOtto
5.What are the three basic components of an open cycle gas turbine plant and what are
their functions?
6.Show that the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle is a function of only the pressure
ratio.
7.What are the methods employed to improve the net work out put of an ideal gas turbine
plant and the method employed to improve the thermal efficiency of the plant?

397
8. Obtain an expression for the thermal efficiency of an ideal gas turbine plant fitted with
an ideal exhaust heat exchanger in terms of the pressure ratio and the maximum cycle
temperature ratio.
9.With the help of flow and T-s diagrams explain the air standard cycle for a jet
propulsion plant.
10.Define propulsive power and propulsive efficiency for a jet engine.

C.Numerical Problems (8 to 12 Marks)

4.1:- A Carnot cycle using air as the working substance works between temperature
limits of 900 K and 300 K. The pressure limits are 60 bar and 1 bar. Determine (i)
pressure at salient points of the cycle, (ii) the heat supplied per unit mass of air, (iii) net
work output per unit mass of air, (iv)mean effective pressure and (v) thermal efficiency
of the cycle
4.2:- The maximum pressure and temperature in a Carnot gas power cycle are limited to
20 bar and 400 C. The volumetric ratio of isentropic compression is 6 and volumetric
ratio of isothermal expansion is 1.5. Assuming that air is the working substance and the
volume of air at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 0.1 m3, determine (i) the
minimum temperature in the cycle, (ii) change in entropy during isothermal expansion
process, (iii) thermal efficiency of the cycle, (iv) power output from the cycle if there are
200 cycles per minute and (v) mean effective pressure.
4.3:- In an air-standard Carnot cycle, 110 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to the working fluid
at 1110 K. Heat is rejected at 273 k. The minimum pressure in the cycle is 1 bar. Find (i)
thermal efficiency, (ii) mean effective pressure.
4.4:- An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. The conditions at the beginning of
compression stroke are 100 kPa and 17 C. If the heat added during the cycle is 800 kJ/kg
find (i) temperatures and pressures at salient points of the cycle, (ii) net work output per
unit mass of air, (iii)thermal efficiency of the cycle, (iv) mean effective pressure, (v)
compression ratio corresponding to maximum work output, (vi) maximum work output
and (vii) thermal efficiency corresponding to maximum work output.
4.5:- An air standard Otto cycle is to be designed according to the following
specifications.
Pressure at the start of the compression process = 101 kPa ;
Temperature at the start of compression process = 300 K;
Compression ratio = 8;
Maximum pressure in the cycle = 8.0 MPa;
Find (i) the net work output per unit mass of air, (ii) cycle efficiency, and (iii)MEP.

4.6:- From the p – V diagram of an engine working on Otto cycle, it is found that the
pressure in the cylinder after 1/8th of the compression stroke is completed is 1.4 bar. After
5/8th of the compression stroke is completed, the pressure is found to be3.5 bar. The
maximum cycle temperature is limited to 1000 C.If the compression process is according
to the law pV1.35= constant, find (i) the compression ratio, (ii) work output per unit mass

398
of air, and (iii) thermal efficiency. Assume the minimum temperature in the cycle to be
27 C.
4.7:- Derive an expression for thermal efficiency in terms of compression ratio and
maximum cycle temperature ratio for a cycle which is similar to Otto cycle except that
the compression process is isothermal.Compare the efficiency and work output of this
cycle with that of an Otto cycle having the same compression ratio of 6 and same
maximum cycle temperature ratio of 5.
4.8:- An air standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 14. The air condition at the
beginning of compression is 1 bar and 27 C.The maximum temperature in the cycle is
2500 C. Determine (i) temperature and pressure at salient points of the cycle, (ii) net
work output per unit mass of air, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) specific air consumption in
kg/kWh, and (v) MEP.
4.9:- A diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16. The temperature before compression is
300 K and after expansion it is 900 K. Determine (i) Maximum Cycle temperature (ii)Net
work input per unit mass of air, (iii) the air standard efficiency and (iv) MEP if the
minimum pressure in the cycle is 1 bar (v) specific air comsumption in kg/kWh
4.10:- In an air standard diesel cycle, the pressure at the end of expansion is 240 kPa and
temperature is 550 C. At the end of compression process, the pressure is 4.2 MPa and
temperature is 700 C. Determine (i) the compression ratio, (ii) the cut-off ratio, (iii) heat
supplied per unit mass of air, and (iv) cycle efficiency.
4.11:- An oil engine works on diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 20. Heat addition
takes place up to 10 % of the stroke. Initial pressure and temperature of air are 1 bar and
27 C.The bore and stroke of the engine are 16 cm and 20 cm respectively. The
compression process is according to the law pV 1.32= constant and the expansion process
is according to the law pV 1.30= constant. Find (i) the pressure and temperature at salient
points of the cycle, (ii) the net work output per unit mass of air, (iii) MEP, (iv) thermal
efficiency of the engine, (v) relative efficiency with respect to air standard efficiency.
4.12:- In an air standard diesel cycle, air is compressed isentropically from 26 C and 105
kPa to 3.7 MPa. The entropy change during heat rejection process is − 0.6939 kJ/kg-K.
Determine (i) heat supplied per unit mass of air, (ii)thermal efficiency, (iii) maximum
temperature in the cycle, and (iv) temperature at the start of the heat rejection process.
4.13:- The compression and expansion ratios of an oil engine working on a dual cycle are
9 and 5 respectively. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 30 C. The heat
added at constant pressure is twice that added at constant volume. Determine the thermal
efficiency and the mean effective pressure.\
4.14:- The maximum and the compression pressures in a dual cycle are 64 bar and 32 bar
respectively. The compression curve is polytropic with index n = 1.35. The pressure in
the cycle after 1/3rd of the compression stroke is completed is 1.65 bar. If 60 percent of
the energy addition occurs at constant volume while 40 percent occurs at constant
pressure, find (i) the compression ratio, (ii) the suction pressure, (iii)work output if the
expansion index is 1.34, and (iv) thermal efficiency.
4.15:- . A diesel engine works between the temperatures of 1250 C and 25 C. The energy
addition during combustion is 550 kJ /kg. A dual combustion cycle operates between the
same temperature limits, and has the same total energy addition as for diesel cycle except
that this energy is equally divided between the constant volume and constant pressure
processes. Compare the efficiencies of the two cycles. Hence show using T-s diagram

399
that the diesel cycle is more efficient than the dual cycle under the same maximum and
minimum temperatures as well as the same amount of heat addition.
4.16:- In a dual cycle, two thirds of the total energy added occurs at constant volume.. If
the compression ratio is 15, and the maximum pressure in the cycle is 53 bar,
compute(i)the temperatures at the salient points of the cycle, and (ii) thermal efficiency.
Assume standard conditions of air at the start of the compression process. Assume the
minimum temperature and pressure in the cycle to be 27 C and 1 bar.
4.17:- An air standard Brayton cycle has air entering the compressor at 100 kPa and 27
0
C. The pressure ratio is 10 and themaximum allowable temperature in the cycle is 1350
K. Determine (i)temperatures at salient points of the cycle, (ii) compressor and turbine
work per unit mass of air, (iii)net work output and work ratio, (iv)thermal efficiency of
the cycle, (v) specific air consumption in kg/kWh, and (vi) improvement in the thermal
efficiency of the cycle if a regenerator with 100 % effectiveness is incorporated in the
cycle.
4.18:- If the simple gas turbine cycle of example 3.17 is modified such that there are
two stages of compression with intercooling in between the stages, determine the net
work output per unit mass of air and the thermal efficiency of the modified cycle.
Assume the pressure ratio for each stage is such that the work output from the cycle is
maximum.Assume the overall pressure ratio, the minimum cycle temperature and the
maximum cycle temperature to be same as that in example 3.17.
4.19:- An ideal gas turbine cycle has an overall pressure ratio Rp. The compession takes
place in two stages with intercooling in between the stages. If R1 and R2 are the pressure
ratios for the first and second stages of compresion show that for maximum work output
from the cycle
R1 = R2 = √Rp.
Also obtain expressions for the maximum net work output and for the corresponding
thermal efficiency in terms of Rp and the maximum cycle temperature ratio ‘t’.Also draw
the schematic and T-s diagrams for the cycle
4.20:- Determine the net work output and thermal efficiency of an ideal gas turbine cycle
having two stages of compression with intercooling in between the stages and two stages
of expansion with reheating in between the stages. The overall pressure ratio for the cycle
is 4 and the maximum cycle temperature is 900 0C Assume that the atmospheric
temperature is 15 0C and the cycle is designed for maximum work output.
Draw the schematic and T-s diagrams for the cycle.What would be the improvement in
the thermal efficiency if an ideal regenerator is incorporated in the cycle?
4.21:-The pressure ratio of an open cycle gas turbine cycle is 6. The compressor inlet
conditions are 1 bar and 15 0C. The maximum temperature in the cycle is 800 0C. The
isentropic efficiency of compressor is 85 % and that of the turbine is 90 %. The
combustion efficiency is 95 %. There is a pressure drop of 2 % of the inlet pressure in the
combustion chamber. The calorific value of the fuel used is 42,000 kJ/kg.Assuming that
the values of γ and Cp remain same throughout the cycle and equal to 1.4and 1.005
kJ/(kg-K) respectively determine (i)net work output per unit mass of air, (ii) air-fuel ratio,
(iii) thermal efficiency of the plant, (iv) specific fuel combustion in kg/kWh, and (v)
power output from the plant for a mass flow rate of air of 1.0 kg/s.
4.22:-The isentropic discharge temperature of air flowing out of a compressor is 195 0C,
while the actual temperature is 240 0C. The conditions of air at compressor inlet are 1 bar

400
and 170C. If the air fuel ratio in the combustion chamber is 75:1 and net power output is
650 kW, compute (i)the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine and (ii) the
overall cycle efficiency. Assume that the plant consumes 5.2 kg/min of fuel and the
calorific value of the fuel used is 42,000 kJ/kg. Assume Cp = 1.005 kJ/(kg-K) and γ = 1.4
for air and Cp = 1.148 kJ/(kg-K) and γ = 1.33 for products of combustion.
4.23:- Determine the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine cycle having two stages of
compression and two stages of expansion with an overall pressure ratio of 4 and a
maximum cycle temperature of 900 0C. The compressor inlet temperature is 15 0C. The
compression stages have efficiencies of 80% each and the turbine stages have
efficiencies of 85% each. Assume that the pressure ratio for the two stages of
compression and expansion are chosen for maximum work output from the cycle.
What would be the improvement in thermal efficiency if a regenerator of 85%
effectiveness is incorporated in the cycle? Draw the schematic and T-s diagram for the
cycle.
4.24:- Determine the specific work output, specific fuel consumption and cycle efficiency
for a gas turbine power plant using a regenerator and having the following specifications:
Compressor pressure ratio = 4.0
Turbine inlet temperature = 1100 K;
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 0.85;
Isentropic efficiency of the turbine = 0.87;
Mechanical transmission efficiency = 0.99;
Combustion efficiency = 0.98;
Heat exchanger effectiveness = 0.80;
Combustion chamber pressure loss = 2 % of compressor delivery pressure;
Heat exchanger air side pressure loss = 3 % of compressor delivery pressure;
Heat exchanger gas side pressure loss = 0.04 bar
Calorific value of the fuel used = 42,000 kJ/kg
Compressor inlet conditions = 1 bar and 300 K

4.25:- In a closed cycle gas turbine plant, the compressor inlet and exit pressures are 5
bar and 32.5 bar respectively. After passing through a regenerator with an effectiveness
of 0.83, the air is heated in a nuclear reactor to a temperature of 945 K. the pressure drop
in the regenerator and the reactor reduces the air pressure at turbine inlet to 31.5 bar.
After expansion to5 .25 bar in the turbine with an efficiency of 0.88, the air passes
through the regenerator and a cooler before being ready to enter the compressor whose
efficiency is 0.80.The temperature of air at compressor inlet is 20 0C. Calculate (i) cycle
thermal efficiency, (ii) the turbine and compressor power, (iii) the heat transfer in the
reactor and the mass flow rate of air if the net power output from the plant is 650 kW.
Draw the schematic diagram for the plant.
4.26:- A turbojet aircraft flies with a velocity of 259 m/s at an altitude where the air is at
34.5 kPa and – 400C. The compressor has a pressure ratio of 10, and the temperature of
the gases at the turbine inlet is 1093 0C. Air enters the compressor at a rate of 45.36
kg/s.Dtermine (a) the temperature and pressure at theturbine exit, (b) the velocity of the
gases at the nozzle exit, and (c) the propulsion efficiency.
4.27.Obtain an expression for the specific work output of a gas turbine plant in terms of
the pressure ratio, isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine and the

401
maximum and minimum temperatures T3 and T1 and show that for maximum power
output the pressure ratio is given by
𝑇3 𝛾/2(𝛾 −1)
Rc = [𝜂𝑇 𝜂𝐶 ]
𝑇1
Where ηT and ηC are the isentropic efficiencies of turbine and compressor respectively.
UNIT IV : Chapter 5 : Refrigeration Cycles
A.Objective Type (1 to 2 Marks)
1. A refrigeration system
a. Removes heat from a low temperature body and delivers it to a high temperature body
b. Removes heat from a high temperature body and delivers it to a low temperature body
c. Rejects energy to low temperature body
d. None of the above
2. The capacity of domestic refrigerator is in the range of
a. 0.1 to 0.3 TR b. 0 to 3 TR c. 3 to 5 TR d. None of the above

3. In a vapour compression system the condition of refrigerant before passing

through the condenser is
a. Superheated vapour b. Wet vapour
c. Saturated liquid d. None of the above
4. The desirable property of a refrigerant is
a. Low boiling point b. High critical temperature
c. High latent heat of vaporization d. All of the above
5. In a vapour compression refrigeration plant, sub-cooling the refrigerant before it
enters the throttle valve, the refrigeration effect
a. decreases ; b. increases ; c. remains same ;
6. The COP of an ideal air refrigeration cycle depends on
a. the compressor pressure ratio and the maximum cycle temperature ratio
b. maximum cycle temperature ratio ; c. the compressor pressure ratio ; none of these
7. One ton of refrigeration is equal to
a. 3 kW ; b. 3.8 kW ; 4 kW; none of these
8.

402
 B.Short Answer Questions (3 to 6 Marks)
1.Define the following terms : (i) refrigeration; (ii)refrigeration effect; (iii) refriferant;
(iv) refrigerated space.
2.Explain the working of an ideal air refrigeration cycle with help of a schematic diagram
and T-s diagram.
3.Why air refrigeration system is preferred in aircraft?
4. Explain the working of an ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle with help of a
schematic diagram and p-h and T-s diagrams
5.Explain the working of ammonia-water absorption refrigeration cycle with help of a
schematic diagram.
6. List the properties of a fluid required to be used as a refrigerant in a vapour
compression cycle.
7. Discuss the effect of sub-cooling the refrigerant on the performance of a vapour
compression cycle.
8.Explain with the help of a schematic and T-s diagrams the working of a cascade
refrigeration system.
9.Explain with the help of a schematic and T-s diagrams the working of a vapour
compression refrigeration cycle employing atwo stage compressor.

C.Numerical Problems (8 to 12 Marks)

5.1:- A reversed Carnot cycle is used for heating and cooling. The work supplied is 10
kW. If the COP is 3.5 for cooling determine (a) the ratio of maximum temperature to
minimum temperature in the cycle , (b) refrigeration effect in tons and (c) COP if the
cycle is used as a heat pump.
5.2:- An ideal air refrigeration cycle has the following specifications:
Pressure of air at compressor inlet = 101 kPa;
Pressure of air at turbine inlet = 404 kPa;
Temperature of air at compressor inlet = −6 C;
Temperature of air at turbine inlet = 27 C;
Determine (i) The COP of the cycle, (ii) Power required to produce 1 ton of refrigeration,
and (iii) air circulation rate per ton of refrigeration.

5.3:- In an air refrigerating machine, the compressor takes in air at 1 bar and 10 C. After
compression to 5.5 bar, the air is cooled to 30 C before expanding it back to 1 bar.
Assuming ideal conditions, determine (i) refrigeration effect per unit mass of air,(ii)heat
rejected by air per unit mass in the intercooler, and (ii) COP of the cycle,
In an actual plant using the above cycle, the air flow rate is 1700 kg / h and the
relative COP of the actual plant is 0.65. Determine the power required for the actual plant
for the same refrigerator.

5.4:- An air refrigeration system is to be designed according to the following

specifications:
Pressure of air at compressor inlet = 101 kPa;
Pressure of air at compressor exit = 404 kPa;
Temperature of air at compressor inlet = − 6 C;
Temperature of air at turbine inlet = 27 C;

403
Isentropic efficiency of compressor = 85 %;
Isentropic efficiency of turbine = 85 %;
Relative pressure drop in each heat exchanger = 3 %
Capacity of the plant = 1 ton
Determine (a) COP of the cycle, (ii) Power required in kW, and (iii) air circulation rate.

5.5:- An air refrigerator unit uses a reciprocating compressor and a reciprocating

expander. 5 kg / min of air at 30 C (ambient temperature is 25 C) and 4.8 bar expand
behind a piston to 1 bar. The expansion is according to the law
pv1.35= constant. After expansion, the air enters a cold chamber where its temperature
rises to 0 C and the it is compressed back to 4.8 bar according to the law
pv1.28 = constant. Determine (a) the power required to drive the unit if the mechanical
efficiencies of the expander and the compressor are both equal to 85 %, (b) capacity of
the refrigerator in tons, (c) energy rejected by air to the ambient during the cooling
process at 4.8 bar and (d) the actual COP of the plant.

5.6:- In an ideal air refrigeration cycle, air after compression in the compressor is first
cooled in an intercooler and then passed through a regenerative heat exchanger. It is then
expanded in a turbine and after expansion the air flows through the regenerative heat
exchanger where it exchanges heat with the air coming from the intercooler. Then the
cold air is passed through the cold chamber before it enters the compressor.(a) Draw the
schematic layout of the plant.(b) obtain an expression for the COP of the cycle in terms
of the pressure ratio of the compressor and the temperature ratio of the compressor inlet
temperature to the turbine inlet temperature.
5.7 :- An air refrigeration unit takes in air from a cold chamber at 5 C and compresses it
from 1 bar to 6.5 bar. The index of compression is 1.25. The compressed air is cooled to a
temperature which is 10 C above the ambient temperature of 30 C before being expanded
isentropically in an expander. Neglecting the clearance volume of the compressor and
expander find the COP and the amount of air circulation per minute if 2000 kg of ice at 0
C is to be formed per day from water at 25 C. What will be the tonnage of the unit?
5.8:- In an ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle using ammonia, the evaporator
temperature is – 15 0C and the condensation temperature is 30 0C. The refrigerant is in
dry saturated vapour state at entry to the compressor. If there is no subcooling of the
refrigerant, determine (i) The COP of the unit, (ii) power required to drive the compressor
per ton of refrigeration, and (iii) heat transfer from the refrigerant in the condenser per
ton of refrigeration.
5.9:- In a vapour compression refrigerator using ammonia as the refrigerant, the
condensation and evaporator temperatures are 330C and – 12.5 0C respectively. The
vapour temperature entering the condenser is 120 0C and the swept volume of the
compressor is 400 lpm.The liquid refrigerant emerging from the condenser is sucooled by
4 0C. Determine (i) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, (ii) the mass flow rate of
ammonia neglecting the clearance volume of the compressor, (iii) capacity of the
refrigerator in tons, and (iv) COP of the unit.
5.10:- An ammonia refrigerating machine has a condensation temperature of 35 0C and
an evaporator temperature of – 15 0C.Assuming dry compression in the compressor
determine (i) theoretical piston displacement per ton of refrigeration, (ii)theoretical power

404
required to drive the compressor, and (iii) the COP of the plant. What woruld be the
corresponding values if wet compression is employed instead of dry compression.
5.11:- A vapour compression refrigerator uses R-12 (Freon – 12) as the refrigerant. The
refrigerant leaves the compressor at 1200 kPa and 80 0C and enters the expansion valve
at 320C. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a dry saturated vapour at – 15 0C. The
produces 50 ton of refrigeration. Determine (i) the mass flow rate of refrigerant required,
(ii) the compressor power, (iii) the COP and (iv) the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor.
5.12:- An ideal vapour compression refrigerating system uses a subcooling – super
heating heat exchanger with 10 0C of super heat added to the refrigerant in the heat
exchanger before it enters the compressor.The evaporator operates at – 30 0C and
thecondenser pressure is 1.4 MPa. There is a cooling requirement of 50 ton. If the
refrigerant is R-12 determine (i) the mass flow rate of refrigerant, (ii)the COP, (iii)the
degree of subcooling, (iv) compressor power and (v) the second law efficiency. Draw the
schematic diagram and represent the cycle both on T-s and p-h diagrams
5.12:- Calculate the power required for an ammonia refrigeration system which has a
two-stage cascade arrangement. The capacity of the plant is 30 ton and the condensation
temperature is 40 0C. The cascade condenser is a direct contact type. The evaporator
temperature is – 30 0C. Also calculate the COP and compare the performance of this
plant with the one which employs single stage system.
5.13:-An ideal vapour compression refrigeration plant uses R-12 and has two
evaporators. One evaporator has to handle a refrigeration load of 5 ton at 50C and the
second evaporator has to handle a load of 7 ton at – 18 0C. The condenser pressure is 9.6
bar. Asssume that refrigerant eneters the compressor as dry saturated vapour.

405
 UNIT IV : Chapter 6 : Air Conditioning
B.Short Answer Questions (3 to 6 Marks)
1.What is the difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature?
2. What is the difference between dew point temperature and wet bulb temperature?
3. What is adiabatic saturation temperature?
4.What is the difference between specific humidity and relative humidity?
5. What is the difference between absolute humidity and relative humidity?
6. What is the difference between humidity ratio and relative humidity?
7. What is the difference between wet bulb temperature and adiabatic saturation
temperature?
8. Explain with the help of a schematic adiabatic saturation process.
9. What is degree of saturation and what is its value for saturated air.
10. What is the difference between saturated air and unsaturated air?
11. Explain with the help of a schematic and the Psychrometric chart sensible heating of
moist air and obtain an expression for the capacity of the heating coil required in kW in
terms of the properties of air before heating and after heating.
12. Explain with the help of a schematic and the Psychrometric chart sensible cooling of
moist air and obtain an expression for the capacity of the cooling coil required in kW in
terms of the properties of air before heating and after heating.
13. Explain the cooling and dehumidification of moist air and obtain an expression for
the capacity of the cooling coil.
14. Explain the adiabatic mixing of two air streams and obtain expressions for (i) the
specicific humidity after mixing and (ii) specific enthalpy after mixing in terms of the
properties of the two air streams.
C.Numerical Problems (8 to 12 Marks)
6.1:- Moist air at 40 0C,101.325 kPa, and a relative humidity of 60% initially is cooled at
a constant mixture pressure to 20 0C. Determine:
(a) The final relative humidity.
(b) Change in specific humidity.

6.2:-The pressure and temperature in a room are 101.325 kPa and 25 0C. If the relative
humidity is 40% determine:
(a) Saturation pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb temperature,(b) The dew point
temperature,(c) Specific humidity and(d) Degree of saturation.

6.3:- Moist air is at a temperature of 21 0C under a total pressure of 736mm of Hg. The
dew point temperature is 15 0C. Find:
(a) Partial pressure of water vapour,(b) Relative humidity,(c) Specific humidity,
(d) Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air and (e) Specific volume of air per kg of dry air.

6.4:- When the DBT is 35 0C, WBT is 23 0C and the barometer reads 750mm of Hg.
Calculate:(a) Relative humidity,(b) Humidity Ratio,(c) Dew point temperature,
(d) Density, and (e) Enthalpy of atmospheric air.

406
 6.5:- A sample of air has DBT of 35 0C and 25 0C respectively. The barometer reads
760mm of Hg. Calculate:
(a) Humidity ratio, Relative humidity and Enthalpy of the sample.
(b) Humidity ratio, Relative humidity and Enthalpy if the air were adiabatically saturated.
The use of steam tables only is permitted.

6.6:- Find the heat transfer rate required to warm 40 m3/min of air at 32 0C and 90%RH
to 50 0 C without the addition of moisture.
6.7:- Air at 15 0C and 80%RH is conditioned to 25 0C and 50%RH. Determine the
amount of water added per kg of dry air. Assuming the make up water is added at 15 0C
determine the heat supplied during the process.
6.8:- Warm air is to be cooled by an adiabatic humidification process. At the beginning
of the process, the air is at 45 0C and 30%RH. The final temperature is 30 0C . Determine:
(a) The amount of water added to the air.
(b) The final relative humidity.
Solve the problem using steam tables only and compare the answers with those obtained
using psychrometric chart.
Assume the total pressure of air to be 101.325 kPa.

6.9:- Air is to be conditioned from a DBT of 40 0C and a RH of 50% to a final

DBT of 20 0C and a final RH of 40% by a dehumidification process
followed by a reheat process. Assume that the entire process is carried out at a constant
pressure of 101.325 kPa. Determine:
(a) The amount of water to be removed from air.
(b) The temperature of air leaving the dehumidifier.
(c) Refrigeration in tons for an air flow rate of 0.47 m3/s and heating required in kW.

6.10:-A Stream of air at atmospheric pressure, 20˚ C and 30% RH, flows at a rate of 15
m3/min and mixes adiabatically with another stream of air at 35˚ C and 80% RH at 20
m3/min. For the mixed stream calculate:
(a) Specific Humidity,(b)Temperature,(c) Relative Humidity and(d) Specific Volume.
6.11:-Atmospheric air at 12˚ C and 25 % RH is to be conditioned to a humidity
ratio of 0.005 kg of water vapor / kg of dry air as it enters an insulated room with a flow
rate of 60 m3 / min. Assuming that the humidifying water is at 12˚ C. Determine RH, the
Temperature of the conditioned air and heat transfer per rate for the following
humidifying process.
(a) Constant Dry Bulb Temperature (b) Constant Relative Humidity (c) Adiabatic
evaporative process.

407
 6.12:-The appended figure shows the air condition in a central air conditioning plant,
provided with a refrigeration circuit. It is meant to supply conditioned air at 20˚ C Dry
bulb temperature and 66% RH. The return air is 300 kg / min. While the make up air is
20 kg / min taken from atmosphere.

mw,hf
evaporator 5
2
2 3 4
1 . .
1 QR Q4-5

3’
3 4 5
m3’, T3’
Heating coil

Expansion
valve compressor
condenser
Section 1-1: Entry of fresh air for make-up at Tdb1= 400C and φ1= 22 % RH;

Section 2-2 : Entry of return air at Tdb2 = 300C and φ2= 70 % RH;

Section 3-3 : Tdb3 = 200C; m3’ = 3 kg/min ; T3’ = 200C;

Tdb3 = 20 0C ; Section 5 – 5 : Tdb5 = 200C and φ5= 66 % RH ;

Compressor work = 90 kW.

Find:
(a) The heat transfer at the cooling coil.
(b) The amount of the humidification per hour.
(c) The heating coil capacity and
(d) The COP of the refrigeration from unit.
6.13: 39.6 m3/min of a mixture of recirculated room air and outdoor air enters a cooling
coil at 31 0C DBT and 18.5 0C WBT. The effective surface temperature of the coil is4.4
0
C. The surface area of the coil is designed so as to give 12.5 kW of refrigeration with
the given entering state of air. Determine the dry and wet bulbtemperatures of air leaving
the coil and the coil bypass factor.

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 UNIT V : Chapter 7 : Thermodynamics of Combustion
B.Short Answer Questions (3 to 6 Marks)
1. Define the following terms: (i) Enthalpy of formation; (ii)Adiabatic flame temperature;
(iii)Enthalpy of combustion
2. Differentiate between the lower calorific value and the higher calorific value
3.Write down the first law equation for reactive systems explaining each term in the
equation.
4. What do you mean by stoichiometric air?
5. Expalin how Orsat is used to determine the percent of various components in the
exhaust gas emission.
B.Numerical Examples(8 to 12 Marks)
7.1. The volumetric composition of the dry products of combustion of an unknown
hydrocarbon fuel, CxHy, are : CO2 : 12.1 % ; O2 :3.8 %; CO: 0.9 %; N2: 83.2
%.Determine (i) the chemeical formula of the fuel, (ii) the air-fuel ratio and (iii) the
percent excess air used.
7.2. Propane (C3H8) reacts with air in such a ratio that an analysis of the products of
combustion gives CO2: 11.5 % ; O2: 2.7 %; CO: 0.7 %. What is the percent theoretical air
used?
7.3.Octane (C8H18) is burnt with150% excess air (250% of theoretical air). Find the molal
mass analysis of the products of combustion, and the volume of air required at 1 bar and
250C. Also find the dew point temperature of the combustion products at 1 bar.
7.4. A type of lignite with the composition 51.9% carbon, 4.0% hydrogen, 20.5% oxygen,
1.0% nitrogen, 0.6% sulphur,16% water and 6% ash is burnt with 130 % theoretical air.
Find (i) theoretical air-fuel ratio, (ii)the actual air-fuel ratio and (iii) the mass of products
per kg of fuel.
7.5.A combustible gas has the following composition by volume: CO = 9%; H2 = 46%;
CH4 = 34%; Ethylene (C2H4) = 4%; O2 = 2% ; N2 = 2.5 %; CO2 = 2.5%. Assuming 150
% theoretical air supply find (i) the air-fuel ratio and (ii) composition of the products.
7.6. A combustible gas with a composition by volume of H2 = 45% ; CH4 = 30 % ; C2H6
= 15 %; and N2 = 10 % is burnt in air. The composition of the dry products of
combustion is: CO2 = 7.18% ; CO = 0.16 %; O2 = 5.89 %; N2 = 86.77 %.Find (i) the
actual air-fuel ratio on a volume basis and (ii) the percent of theoretical air.
7.7.A heating oil with composition by weight has C = 86% ; and H2 = 14% . when it is
burnt, the product gases haave the following composition by weight: CO2 = 10.2% ; CO
= 3% ; O2 = 3.5%; N2 = 83.3%. Find (i) percent theoretical air and (ii) fraction of un-
burnt carbon
7.8. A solid fuel which has a composition by weight of C = 78% ; H2 = 6% ; O2 = 9.8%;
N2 = 1.2 % ; Ash = 5 %; It is burnt in air and orsat analysis of products of combustion
gave the following: CO2 = 12.5%; CO = 0.09% ; O2 = 5.6% and the rest is nitrogen.The
refuse removed from the ash pit is found to contain 3330% carbon by weight. Find (i) the
actual air-fuel ratio and (ii) percent excess air.

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 UNIT V : Chapter 8 : Thermodynamics of One-dimensional Compressible flow

B.Short Answer Questions (3 to 6 Marks)

1.A high speed aircraft is cruising in still air. How will the temperature of air at the nose
of aircraft differ from the temperature of air at some distanmce from the aircraft?
2. Define static state and stagnation state of a fluid
3.What is the relation between stagnation pressure, static pressure in terms of stagnation
temperature and static temperature?
4. What is the relation between stagnation density, static density in terms of stagnation
temperature and static temperature?
5. Define sonic velocity and obtain an expression for sonic velocity for an ideal gas in
terms of the temperature, ratio of specific heats and the gas constant.
6.Determine the stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure of air flowing with a
velocity of 470 m/s, temperature of 245 K and pressure of 44 kPa.
7.Air at 300 K is flowing in a duct with a velocity of 100 m/s. Determine the temperature
that a stationary probe inserted into the duct will read.
8.Is the sonic velocity in a specified fluid medium a fixed quantity, or does it change as
the properties of the medium change? Justify your answer
9. In which medium does a sound wave travel faster: in air at 1 bar and 200C or in air at5
bar and 200C? Justify your answer
10. Define Mach number and does the mach number of a gas flowing at a constant
velocity remain constant? Explain.
C.Long Answer Questions (8 to 12 marks)
1.Consider a converging nozzle with sonic velocity at the exit section of the nozzle. Now
the nozzle exit area is reduced while the nozzle inlet conditions are maintained constant.
What will happen to (a) velocity at the exit section, (b) the mass flow rate through the
nozzle. Explain with reasons.
2. A gas initially at supersonic velocity enters an adiabatic converging duct. Discuss how
this will affect (a) the velocity, (b) the temperature, (c) pressure, and (d) the density of the
fluid.
3. A gas initially at supersonic velocity enters an adiabatic diverging duct. Discuss how
this will affect (a) the velocity, (b) the temperature, (c) pressure, and (d) the density of the
fluid.
4. A gas initially at subsonic velocity enters an adiabatic diverging duct. Discuss how this
will affect (a) the velocity, (b) the temperature, (c) pressure, and (d) the density of the
fluid.
5.Consider subsonic flow in a converging nozzle with fixed inlet conditions.What is the
effect of reducing the back pressure to the critical pressure on (a) the exit velocity, (b) the
exit pressure and (c) the mass flow rate through the nozzle?
6. Consider subsonic flow in a converging nozzle with fixed inlet conditions and critical
pressure at the nozzle exit. What is the effect of reducing the back pressure well below
the critical pressure on (a) the exit velocity, (b) the exit pressure and (c) the mass flow
rate through the nozzle?
7.Conssider a converging nozzle and a converging-diverging nozzle having the same
throat areas.For the same inlet conditions, compare the mass flow rate through both the
nozzles.

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8.Consider the isentropic flow of a fluid through a converging-diverging nozzle with a
subsonic velocity at the thoat section. How does the diverging section affect (a) velocity,
(b)the pressure, aand (c) the mass flow rate of the fluid?
9. Show that for isentropic flow of a gas through a converging-diverging nozzle , the
mass flow rate through the nozzle is maximum if the Mach number at the throat section
is unity.
10. Show that for isentropic flow of a gas through a converging nozzle , the mass flow
rate through the nozzle is maximum if the Mach number at the exit section is unity.
D.Numerical Examples ( 8 to 12 Marks)
8.1:Dry saturated steam at 1 atmospheric pressure flows through a pipe with an average
velocity of 300 m/s.Evaluate the stagnation (total) pressure and stagnation temperature
of the steam (i) by using steam tables and (ii) by assuming that steam behaves as a perfect
gas with γ = 1.3.

8.2:The total pressure, the static pressure and the total temperature of Helium at a certain
point in a duct are 10 bar, 5 bar and 400 K respectively. Assuming Helium to behave as a
perfect gas with ratio of specific heats to be (5/3), determine the flow velocity of Helium.

8.3:At inlet to an R-12 refrigerant compressor, the flow Mach number is 0.8 and the total
temperature is 280 K.Assuming that R-12 behaves as an ideal gas with a molecular
weight of 120.93 and ratio of specific heats of 1.10 evaluate (i) inlet velocity and (ii) the
ratio of total to static pressure.

8.4:Air in a reservoir has a temperature of 270C and a pressure of 0.8 MPa. The air is
allowed to escape through a duct at a rate of 2.5. kg/s. Assuming that the air velocity in
the reservoir is negligible and that the flow through the channel is isentropic, find (i)
Mach number, (ii)the flow velocity, and (iii) the area at a section where the static
pressure is 0.6 MPa

8.5.Air with an inlet stagnation pressure of 5 bar and a stagnation temperature of 100 0C
enters a convergent nozzle with an exit area of 150 mm2.Compute (i) exit velocity and (ii)
mass flow rate if the nozzle exit pressure is 2.64 bar.Assume isentropic flow.

8.6.A supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to be designed for M = 2 with the throat section
of area 0.11 m2. The supply pressure and temperature at the nozzle inlet, where the
velocity is neglible, are 70 kPa and 370C respectively. Compute the mass flow rate, the
exit area of the nozzle and the fluid properties at the throat and exit. Take γ = 1.

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