A.
DEFINITION
CELL - basic structural & functional unit of the body adapted to perform one or few functions
- beginning of vitality or life
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
NUCLEUS
“Control Center of the Cell” / “Headquarter of the Cell”
o metabolic processes
o cell growth
o reproduction
Most body cells have a single nucleus, although some, such as mature RBC, have none. In contrast,
skeletal muscle cells that are multinucleated.
Contains large quantities of DNA (genes) → determine the characteristic of the cell’s proteins, as well as
the intracellular enzymes that controls & promotes reproduction of the cell itself
(+) Genes
Cell’s hereditary units, Controls cellular structure & direct cellular activities
Arranged in single file along chromosomes
CHROMOSOMES
Contains large amounts of RNA, DNA, & proteins
Human somatic cells: 46 chromosomes (23 inherited from each parent
A long molecule of DNA that is coiled together with several proteins
The total genetic information carried in a cell or an organism is its genome
B. BASED ON CELL ENERGY REQUIREMENT
CYTOPLASM
Clear, fluid portion of the cytoplasm
Where organelles can be found
Functional area of a cell
Site of many chemical reactions
ORGANELLES
Specialized structures that have characteristic shapes & that perform specific functions in cellular growth,
maintenance, & reproduction
Has its own set of enzymes that carry out specific reactions “Little Organs”
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
a network of tubules and vesicles that connects cell membrane, golgi complex & nuclear membrane
provides intercommunication between the exterior & interior of the cell
Serves as mini-circulatory system for the cell since it provides a network of channels for carrying
substance from one part of the cell to another
Types:
Rough ER/Granular ER
With ribosomes
Function: synthesizes glycoproteins & phospholipids that are transferred into cellular organelles, inserted
into the plasma membrane or secreted during exocytosis
Smooth ER/Agranular ER
lipid synthesis
GOLGI APPARATUS
“Principal Traffic Director for Cellular Proteins”
Collection of membranous tubules and vesicles located near the nucleus
found mostly in actively secreting (glandular) cells
its number reflects the secretory activity of the cell
LYSOSOMES
“Digestive system of the cell”
Contains hydrolytic or digestive enzymes
Digests engulfed materials
AUTOPHAGY: digest OWN organelle, & return it to the cytosol for reuse (AUTOPHAGY) organelle to be
digested is enclosed by AUTOPHAGOSOME → fuses with lysosome
Can destroy own cells (AUTOLYSIS)
Sometimes operates in extracellular digestion (e.g. Sperm cells → aids in penetration of the oocyte)
MITOCHONDRIA
rod-shaped or sausage-shaped, double walled with inner wall extending inward from cristae
“Powerhouse of the cell”- ATP GENERATING ORGANELLE OF THE CELL
Present in all areas of each cell’s cytoplasm, (muscles, liver, kidney)
Mitochondrial genes are inherited only from your mother
the head of the sperm lacks mitochondria
its number reflects the metabolic activity of the cell
contains DNA making mitochondria self-replicating
CYTOSKELETON
framework of the cell
skeleton of the cell
prevents disorganization in the cytosol
Microfilaments- Helps generate movement
Provides mechanical support (strength & shape of the cell)
Intermediate Filaments- Provide mechanical strength
Microtubule - Resist pulling forces on the cell and help form desmosomes
Microtubules With tubulin
E.g.: Flagellum of the sperm; centrioles; mitotic spindle
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
provides cell mobility / locomotion
Dominant component: MICROTUBULES
1. CILIA -Numerous, short, hair like projections
2. FLAGELLA - Moves the entire cell (e.g.: Sperm cell’s tail)
OTHER ORGANELLES
Secretory Vesicles
Carries synthesized proteins and to be delivered to the outside of the cell via EXOCYTOSIS
Centrosome
Located near the nucleus
Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis
CELL MEMEBRANE
“gatekeeper of the cell”
thin, pliable, elastic structure that is composed mainly of phospholipids and proteins
outer, limiting membrane separating the cell’s internal components from the extracellular material &
external environment
regulates the passage of substances
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL:
the membrane is a mosaic of proteins floating like icebergs in a sea of lipids
COMPOSITION
Phospholipids (75%)
Heads
Hydrophilic (Soluble in H2O)
Tail / Fatty Acid radical
Hydrophobic (Soluble only in Fats)
Impermeable to H2O soluble substances (ions, glucose, urea)
Permeable to fat-soluble substances (O2, CO2, alcohol)
Cholesterol (25%)
Also, lipid in nature (because of the steroid nucleus that is highly fats)
Controls the fluidity of the membrane
Determine the degree of the permeability of the bilayer to H2O soluble constituents of the body fluid
Glycolipids (5%)
appears only in the membrane that faces the ECF → asymmetric on its two sides
Cell Membrane Proteins
globular masses floating in the lipid bilayer
Composition: GLYCOPROTEINS
Two Types:
Integral Proteins
Peripheral Proteins
Membrane Permeability
Permeable to non-polar, uncharged molecules (e.g.: O2, CO2, steroids)
Impermeable to ions & charges or polar molecules (e.g.: glucose) cannot pass through the tail of the lipid
bilayer (not fat soluble)
Slightly permeable to H20 & urea
B. GRADIENTS ACROSS
THE CELL MEMBRANE
Concentration Gradient
Difference in the concentration of a chemical from one region of the cell to another region
ECF: O2 and Na+
ICF: CO2 and K+
Electrical Gradient
aka Membrane Potential / Electrical Potential
Differences in the electrical charges between two environments of the cell
Resting Membrane Potential (RMP):
Plasma membrane is more NEGATIVE INSIDE
more POSITIVE OUTSIDE
C. TRANSPORT PROCESS ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
TRANSPORT PROCESSES
Passive Transport
Substance moves ALONG the concentration / electrical gradient using only its own kinetic energy
Active Transport
The use of ATP by the cell to enable a certain substance to move AGAINST the concentration / electrical
gradient.
DIFFUSION
Random mixing of particles that occurs in a solution because of the particle’s kinetic energy
Move along their concentration gradient
Simple Diffusion
Kinetic movements of molecules or ions occurs through a membrane opening or spaces without any
interaction with a carrier protein
Facilitated Diffusion
Requires interaction of a carrier protein which aids passage of the molecules or ions through the
membrane
OSMOSIS
net movement of solvent (H20) through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of:
lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration
higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration
Osmotic Pressure
Force exerted by the solute in a solution
Proportional to the concentration of the solute particles that cannot cross the membrane
(↑ solute concentration → ↑ Osmotic pressure)
Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
Energy is derived from direct breakdown of ATP
Secondary Active Transport
Energy is derived secondarily from energy output that has been stored in the form of ionic substance
between the two sides of the cell membrane
Primary Active Transport
Na-K Pump
pumps Na ions outwards & at the same time pumps K inwards through the cell membrane of all cells
Responsible for maintaining Na-K concentration across the cell membrane
Importance: Control the volume of each cell
Calcium Pump
Calcium ions are normally maintained at extremely low concentration in the ICF of all body cells
Two pumps:
Cell membrane (pumps calcium to the outside of the cell)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum & Mitochondria (pumps calcium into one or more intracellular vesicular
organelles of the cell)
Transport in Vesicles
Vesicles:
Small, spherical sac that has budded off from an existing membrane
Transport a variety of substance from one structure to another within the cell
Pinocytosis
aka “CELL DRINKING”
Requires energy from the cell (ATP)
Also needs calcium ions which will react with the contractile protein filaments
Only means by which most large molecules (protein molecule) can enter the cell
Phagocytosis
aka “CELL EATING”
Involves large solid particles instead of molecules (worn-out cells, tissue debris, bacterium, virus)
Phagocytes: macrophages & neutrophils
Receptor-Mediated
aka LIGAND GATING
LDL, transferrin, some vitamins, antibodies, hormones
D. CELL LIFE CYCLE
An orderly sequence of events by which a somatic cell duplicates its contents & divides in two.
Human cells, except for gametes, contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes / Homologues
MAJOR PERIODS
Interphase
a period of high metabolic activity wherein the cell replicates its DNA
Cell Division
reproduction of cells as they become damaged, diseased, or worn out
also occurs during growth of tissues
INTERPHASE
G1 Phase
The interval between the mitotic phase & S phase
it duplicates most of its organelles & cytosolic component but not its DNA
Lasts for 8 to 10 hours
S Phase
The interval between the G1 & G2 phase
Lasts for 8 to 10 hours
(+) DNA replication
DNA’s helical structure uncoils
G2 Phase
The interval between the S phase & mitotic phase
Lasts for 4 to 6 hours
cell growth continues & enzymes & other proteins are synthesized in preparation for cell division
E. CELL DIVISION
Types of Cell Division
Mitosis
CYTOKINESIS + CYTOKINESIS = two identical daughter cells
Each daughter cell has the same number & kind of chromosomes as the original cell
Meiosis
Produces gametes – sperm & oocytes
the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is reduced by half
Phases of Mitosis
Prophase
Nuclear membrane disintegrates
Nucleoli disappear
Centriole pairs separate, move to opposite poles of the nucleus and form spindle fibers
Replicated chromosomes attach to individual spindle fibers by their centromere
Metaphase
Replicated chromosomes aligned along equator.
Anaphase
Centromeres of the chromosomes split
Motor proteins in kinetochores pull chromosomes toward poles
Telophase
New sets of chromosomes extend into chromatin
New nuclear membrane is formed from the rough ER
Nucleoli reappear
