SECONDARY DESIGN ELEMENTS

Federal Republic of Nigeria

Federal Ministry of Works

Highway Manual Part 1: Design

Volume II

Secondary Design Elements

2013
 FOREWORD

The vision statement of the Federal Ministry of Works is to elevate Nigerian roads to a
standard where they become National economic and socio-political assets, contributing to the
Nation‟s rapid growth and development, and to make Federal roads functional, safe,
pleasurable, and an avenue for redeeming Nigerians‟ trust and confidence in Government.
This vision statement is in tune with the Transformation Agenda of the President of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria, His Excellency, Dr Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, GCFR. Based on
the foregoing, our mission is to use the intellectual, management and material resources
available to the Ministry to make Nigerian roads functional all the time. The principal goal of
the Ministry is to drive the transformation agenda by improving road transport infrastructure
for the overall socio-economic derivable benefits and development of our great country,
Nigeria.

In exercising this mission and in discharging its responsibilities, the Ministry identified the
need for updated and locally relevant standards for the planning, design, construction,
maintenance and operation of our roads, in a sustainable manner. One of the main reference
documents for this purpose is the Highway Manual, which previously included Part 1: Design
and Part 2: Maintenance. Both current parts of the Highway Manual were first published in
1973 and 1980 respectively and have been subjected to partial updating at various times
since then. The passage of time, development in technology, and a need to capture locally
relevant experience and information, in the context of global best practices, means that a
comprehensive update is now warranted.

The purpose of the Highway Manual is to establish the policy of the Government of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria with regard to the development and operation of roads, at the
Federal, State and Local Government levels, respectively. In line with this objective, the
Manual aims to guide members of staff of the Ministry and engineering practitioners, with
regard to standards and procedures that the Government deem acceptable; to direct
practitioners to other reference documents of established practice where the scope of the
Manual is exceeded; to provide a nationally recognized standard reference document; and to
provide a ready source of good practice for the development and operation of roads in a cost
effective and environmentally sustainable manner.

The major benefits to be gained in applying the content of the Highway Manual include
harmonization of professional practice and ensuring uniform application of appropriate levels
of safety, health, economy and sustainability, with due consideration to the objective
conditions and needs of our country.

The Manual has been expanded to include an overarching Code of Procedure and a series of
Volumes within each Part that cover the various aspects of development and operation of
highways. By their very nature, the Manual will require periodic updating from time to time,
arising from the dynamic nature of technological development and changes in the field of
Highway Engineering.
The Ministry therefore welcomes comments and suggestions from concerned bodies, groups
or individuals, on all aspects of the document during the course of its implementation and use.
All feed back received will be carefully reviewed by professional experts with a view to
possible incorporation of amendments in future editions.

Arc. Mike Oziegbe Onolememen, FNIA, FNIM.

Honourable Minister
Federal Ministry of Works,
Abuja, Nigeria
May, 2013
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Highway Manual has been updated by the Road Sector Development Team (RSDT), of
the Federal Ministry of Works, with credit assistance from the World Bank‟s Federal Roads
Development Project (FRDP). This update draws upon the original Manual, which was
compiled between 1973 and 1980. The new Manual reflects recent developments in Road
Design and Maintenance, in addition to latest research findings and updated references.
Furthermore, it includes accepted practices that have been developed with the extensive
effort of numerous organisations and people involved in the road sector. The assistance of all
who have contributed is hereby gratefully acknowledged. Special acknowledgement is due to
the following persons, who have been particularly involved and provided specific input that
has been incorporated into the Manual:
Review Project Management Team:
Person Organisation
Engr. Ishaq D. Mohammed Director Highways/Unit Manager, RSDT
Engr. Chike Ngwuocha Highway Engineer, RSDT

Peer Review Group:

Person Organisation
Engr. B Giwa Independent Consultant
Prof. Y. A Jimoh University of Ilorin
Prof. K. J. Osinubi Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Prof. L. Oyebande University of Lagos
Dr. D. O. A. Osula University of Benin

Thanks are also due to the following organisations that made staff available for the
Stakeholder Workshop and other meetings, in addition to making direct contributions through
comments and advice:
Public Organisations Private Organisations
Federal Ministry of Works – Highway Departments AIM Consultants
Federal Ministry of Environment Aurecon Nigeria Ltd
Federal Roads Maintenance Agency (FERMA) Axion Consult Engineering Resources
Ltd
Federal Capital Development Authority Ben Mose & Partners
Federal Road Safety Corps Dantata & Sawoe Construction (Nigeria)
Ltd
Nigeria Meteorological Agency Enerco Ltd
Nigerian Geological Survey Agency Etteh Aro & Partners
Nigeria Police Force (Traffic Division) FA Consulting Services Ltd
Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency Intecon Partnership Ltd
Nigerian Meteorological Agency Julius Berger Nigeria Plc
Nigerian Society of Engineers Keeman Ltd
Nigerian Institute of Civil Engineers Multiple Development Services Ltd
Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria Mansion Consulting Ltd
Property Mart Ltd
RCC Ltd
Sanol Engineering Consultants Ltd
Setraco Nigeria Ltd
Siraj International Ltd
Yolas Consultants Ltd

This update of the Highway Manual was compiled by the Road Sector Development Team of
the Federal Ministry of Works with the assistance of the consultants Royal HaskoningDHV.
Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... i

List of Tables........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... iv
1 General Information...................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Description of the Manual ....................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Arrangement of the Manual .................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Overview of this Volume ......................................................................................... 1-1
1.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 1-1
1.3.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................................ 1-1

1.3.3 Scope of this volume ........................................................................................................ 1-2

1.3.4 Terminologies .................................................................................................................. 1-3
2 Road Safety Auditing ................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Definition of a Road Safety Audit ............................................................................ 2-2
2.3 Objectives of a Road Safety Audit .......................................................................... 2-3
2.4 Key Requirements for Road Safety Audits ............................................................. 2-3
2.5 Conducting Road Safety Audits .............................................................................. 2-4
2.5.1 Stage 1 Road Safety Audit: Feasibility ............................................................................. 2-5

2.5.2 Stage 2 Road Safety Audit: Draft (Preliminary) Design.................................................... 2-5

2.5.3 Stage 3 Road Safety Audit: Detailed Design .................................................................... 2-7
2.5.4 Stage 4 Road Safety Audit: Construction ......................................................................... 2-9

2.5.5 Stage 5 Road Safety Audit: Pre-opening ........................................................................ 2-10

2.5.6 Road Safety Audit or Appraisal of an Existing Road ...................................................... 2-11

2.6 Road Safety Audit Reports ................................................................................... 2-12
3 Illumination .................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 General ................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Conditions warranting lighting on roadways ........................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Freeways .......................................................................................................................... 3-1

3.2.2 Streets and Highways other than Freeways .................................................................... 3-4

3.3 Level and Uniformity of Illumination........................................................................ 3-4
3.3.1 Freeways .......................................................................................................................... 3-5

3.3.2 Streets and Highways other than Freeways .................................................................... 3-5

3.4 Lighting Design ....................................................................................................... 3-7
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Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

3.5 Location of Lighting Masts, Poles and Luminaires ................................................. 3-9

3.6 Lighting for Bridges, Tunnels and Underpasses .................................................. 3-10
3.6.1 Bridges ........................................................................................................................... 3-10

3.6.2 Tunnels........................................................................................................................... 3-10

3.6.3 Underpasses................................................................................................................... 3-12

3.7 High Luminaire Mounting Heights ........................................................................ 3-12
4 Fencing .......................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 General ................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Design Criteria ........................................................................................................ 4-1
4.3 Ownership of Fencing ............................................................................................. 4-2
4.4 Time of Erection ...................................................................................................... 4-2
4.5 Types of Fence ....................................................................................................... 4-3
4.6 Location of Fences ................................................................................................. 4-4
4.7 Gates ...................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.8 Openings for Cattle ................................................................................................. 4-5
4.9 4-5
5 Guardrail and Vehicular Barriers ................................................................................ 5-1
5.1 General ................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Criteria for Installing a Guardrail ............................................................................. 5-1
5.3 Warrants for Use ..................................................................................................... 5-2
5.4 Longitudinal Barrier Placement .............................................................................. 5-3
5.5 Length of Need ....................................................................................................... 5-4
5.6 Median barriers ....................................................................................................... 5-5
5.7 Single-slope Rigid Barrier ....................................................................................... 5-5
6 Special Structures and Installations........................................................................... 6-1
6.1 Truck Scales ........................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 Cattle Passes .......................................................................................................... 6-2
6.3 Railway Grade Crossing ......................................................................................... 6-3
6.4 Pedestrian Facilities................................................................................................ 6-5
6.5 Public Utilities ......................................................................................................... 6-7
6.6 Bus Stops ............................................................................................................... 6-7
6.7 Maintenance Depots ............................................................................................... 6-8
7 Safety Rest Areas ......................................................................................................... 7-1
7.1 General ................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 Locating Rest Areas ............................................................................................... 7-1

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7.3 Access Control ........................................................................................................ 7-2

7.4 Entrances and Exits ................................................................................................ 7-3
7.5 Right of Way Requirements .................................................................................... 7-3
7.6 Fencing ................................................................................................................... 7-4
7.7 Signing .................................................................................................................... 7-4
7.8 Illumination .............................................................................................................. 7-4
7.9 Parking .................................................................................................................... 7-5
7.10 Rest Room Facilities ............................................................................................... 7-5
7.11 Drinking Water ........................................................................................................ 7-5
7.12 Sun or Rain Shelters............................................................................................... 7-5
7.13 Landscaping ........................................................................................................... 7-6
7.14 Maintenance ........................................................................................................... 7-6
8 Petrol Filling Stations ................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1 General ................................................................................................................... 8-1
9 Markers .......................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1 Kilometre Markers................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 Culvert Markers ...................................................................................................... 9-2
9.3 Special Markers ...................................................................................................... 9-2
9.4 Right of Way Markers ............................................................................................. 9-3
9.5 Highway Control Points .......................................................................................... 9-3
10 Right of Way and Roadside Development ............................................................... 10-1
10.1 General ................................................................................................................. 10-1
10.2 Right of Way ......................................................................................................... 10-1
10.2.1 Protection of Right of Way for Safety and Free Traffic Flow ..................................... 10-1
10.2.2 Right of Way Strips for Scenic Enhancement............................................................. 10-2

10.2.3 Screening of Unsightly Areas ..................................................................................... 10-2

10.2.4 Abandoned Facilities ................................................................................................. 10-2
10.3 Erosion Control ..................................................................................................... 10-2
10.4 Landscaping ......................................................................................................... 10-3
10.5 Contour Grading ................................................................................................... 10-4
10.6 Side Slopes in Urban Areas.................................................................................. 10-4
10.7 Borrow Pits ........................................................................................................... 10-4
10.8 Excess Road Material ........................................................................................... 10-4
11 Annex – Checklists for Road Safety Audits ............................................................. 11-1
11.1 Stage 1 Road Safety Audit: Feasibility - Checklist ............................................... 11-1

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11.2 Stage 2 Road Safety Audit: Draft (Preliminary) Design - Checklist ...................... 11-6
11.3 Stage 3 Road Safety Audit: Detailed Design - Checklist .................................... 11-15
11.4 Stage 4 Road Safety Audit: Construction - Checklist ......................................... 11-31
11.5 Stage 5 Road Safety Audit: Pre-opening- Checklist ........................................... 11-35
11.6 Road Safety Audit: Appraisal of Existing Roads ................................................ 11-40
12 References .................................................................................................................. 12-1

List of Tables

Table 1: Average Maintained Illumination for Streets and Highways other than Freeways ... 3-6

Table 2: Average Maintained Illumination on Tunnel Walls ................................................. 3-11

Table 3: Recommended Minimum Offset Distance ................................................................ 5-3

Table 4: Recommended Run-out Lengths for Barrier Design ................................................ 5-4

Table 5: Guidelines for Railway Crossing Protection (New Highways) .................................. 6-3

Table 6: Warrants for Urban Walkways .................................................................................. 6-6

Table 7: Oil or Petrol Stations Minimum Distances ................................................................ 8-1

List of Figures

Figure 1: Arrangement of the Highway Manual showing context of Volume II....................... 1-2

Figure 2: Road Cross Section Elements ................................................................................ 1-3

Figure 3: Cross Section Terminology ..................................................................................... 1-4

Figure 4: Light Spacing on Curves and Ramps Terminals ................................................... 3-14

Figure 5: Light Spacing Freeway Exits and Entrances......................................................... 3-15

Figure 6: Points of Minimum Illumination Staggered ............................................................ 3-16

Figure 7: Classification of longitudinal barriers ....................................................................... 5-6

Figure 8: Warrants for use of roadside barriers on fill embankments .................................... 5-6

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Figure 9: Roadside barrier elements ...................................................................................... 5-7

Figure 10: Length of need for adjacent traffic ......................................................................... 5-8

Figure 11: Length of need for opposing traffic ........................................................................ 5-9

Figure 12: The single-slope concrete barrier design ............................................................ 5-10

Figure 14: Standard Plan for Truck Scale Installation for Divided Highways ......................... 6-9

Figure 15: Roadway and Traffic Control at Railway Grade Crossing..................................... 6-9

Figure 15: Roadway and Traffic Control at Railway Grade Crossing................................... 6-10

Figure 16: Railway Grade Crossing Signals ......................................................................... 6-11

Figure 17: Public Utilities under Shoulder – Urban .............................................................. 6-12

Figure 18: Standard Bus Stop on a Straight Road ............................................................... 6-13

Figure 19: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Driveways for Corner Installations ............... 8-2

Figure 20: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Double Driveways........................................ 8-3

Figure 21: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Single Driveways to a Corner Service Station
Urban ...................................................................................................................................... 8-4

Figure 22: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Double Driveways to a Corner Service Station
(Urban) .................................................................................................................................... 8-5

Figure 23: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Double Driveways to a Mid-block Service
Station Urban .......................................................................................................................... 8-6

Figure 24: Petrol Station Entrance Locations - Double Driveways to a Corner Service Station
Rural ....................................................................................................................................... 8-7

Figure 25: Standard Kilometre Post ...................................................................................... 9-4

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Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

1 General Information

1.1 Description of the Manual

The Highway Manual aims to guide members of staff of the Ministry and
engineering practitioners, with regard to standards and procedures that the
Government deems acceptable for the planning, design, construction, maintenance,
operation and management of roads. The Manual directs practitioners to other
reference documents of established practice where the scope of the Manual is
exceeded; provides a nationally recognized standard reference document; and
provides a ready source of good practice for the development and operation of
roads in a cost effective and environmentally sustainable manner.

1.2 Arrangement of the Manual

The Highway Manual comprises a Code of Procedure and two Parts, each of which
has been divided up into separate volumes, in the manner shown in Figure 1.

1.3 Overview of this Volume

1.3.1 General

Volume II of the Highway Manual Part 1: Design deals with the Design of Secondary
Elements of highways, including aspects such as road safety, lighting of highways,
fencing, guardrails, road side development and special structures which includes
railway crossings, pedestrian facilities and petrol filling stations.

1.3.2 Purpose

The purpose of this volume is to give the engineers responsible for design of roads,
guidance and recommendations on the secondary aspects of design that need to be
provided and/or taken into account, to provide a safe and operational effective road.

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 Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

Code of Procedure

Part 1: Design Part 2: Maintenance

Volume I Volume I
Geometric Design Highway Inventory

Volume II Volume II
Secondary Design Elements Maintenance Works

Volume III Volume III

Pavement and Materials Design Maintenance Costing

Volume IV
Drainage Design

Volume V
Structural Design

Volume VI
Road Traffic Signs and Road Markings

Volume VII
Environmental and Social Management

Figure 1: Arrangement of the Highway Manual showing context of Volume II

1.3.3 Scope of this volume

The contents of the volume are partly guidelines and recommendations and partly
standards which as a general rule should be adhered to. The information, guidance
and references contained in this volume are not intended as a substitute for sound
engineering judgment. It should be recognized that situations may be encountered
during the design of highways that are beyond the scope of this volume. The section
on references lists numerous sources of comprehensive information that should be
used as references to supplement the information contained in this volume. In some
instances, special conditions may require the use of other references and/or
standards and the use of these standards can only be sanctioned by the Director of
Highway Design of the Federal Ministry of Works.

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1.3.4 Terminologies

Figure 2: Road Cross Section Elements

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 Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

Figure 3: Cross Section Terminology

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Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

2 Road Safety Auditing

2.1 Introduction

Roads are planned, designed, constructed and maintained with a large number of
criteria in mind; including facilitating efficient transportation, user convenience, fuel
economy, minimising construction and operating costs, minimising negative
environmental and social impacts and maximising positive socio-economic benefits.
Safety is one of the criteria, but is often implicitly assumed to be achieved by
adhering to prescribed standards of road alignment and layout. Although these
standards are derived with safety in mind, experience shows that compromises are
often made in the design process, resulting in features which have been the cause
of road accidents and fatalities.

Road Authorities in several countries have developed road safety audit procedures
as a proactive measure to help prevent road accidents which result from inadequate
designs. These procedures are to be applied at different stages in the various
stages of a road project‟s development and implementation. These stages are
listed in the following subsection.

The choice of safety criteria is important in the design process and it is essential for
the Design Engineer to have a good understanding of their origin. A design
prepared by a Design Engineer who has a good understanding, not only of the
criteria, but also of their background and foundation, and who has applied the
community values, will probably create the desired level of service, safety and
economy.

For many elements of a road, a range of dimensions is possible and the Design
Engineer has the responsibility of choosing the appropriate value for a particular
application. A Design Engineer with economy uppermost in mind may be tempted
to apply the minimum value, reasoning that, if the value is within the accepted
range, the design is "satisfactory". Making such a choice may reduce margins of
safety, which can create dangerous situations in certain circumstances.

The Design Engineer might find it appropriate to reduce values of design criteria,
which is not necessarily a poor decision. The consequences need to be thoroughly
understood, particularly as they impact on safety, costs and benefits. Ameliorating
measures, such as the use of traffic control devices, may need to be considered in
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the design process. If a design involves compromise, it may be more appropriate to

vary several elements by a small amount, than to alter one element excessively.

The design of a road is a trade-off between standards and the cost of providing
them. The cost to society of road accidents and deaths often exceeds the total
annual expenditure on roads. Reducing initial construction costs of road projects
can result in increased life cycle costs if the cost of accidents, injuries and deaths is
included in the economic calculations. It is the design engineer's responsibility to
inform the client of the consequences of inadequate expenditure on safety.

It is often difficult and expensive, to correct safety defects at a later stage. For this
reason, designing for safety should occur during the design process, and be
provided for in preparation of construction drawings.

Road safety audits should be carried out by an independent person who is not part
of the design team.

The details presented in this chapter and in the Annex presenting the Road Safety
Audit checklists, are compiled from the most recently updated documents available
and are a representation of an agglomeration of international practice relating to this
topic, compiled by the Road Transport Management Corporation of South Africa.i

2.2 Definition of a Road Safety Audit

A Road Safety Audit is a formal examination of a proposed or existing road in which

an independent, qualified examination team or person reports on the accident
potential and safety problems of the road, and suggests measures to mitigate these
problems.

Road Safety Audits shall be conducted at six stages within the road planning,
development, management and operation phases as follows:

 Stage 1 Road Safety Audit: Feasibility

 Stage 2 Road Safety Audit: Draft (Preliminary) Design

 Stage 3 Road Safety Audit: Detailed Design

 Stage 4 Road Safety Audit: Construction

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 Stage 5 Road Safety Audit: Pre-opening

 Road Safety Audit or Appraisal of an Existing Road Facility

Checklists of items to be checked at each Stage Audit are provided in the Annex in
Section 11.

2.3 Objectives of a Road Safety Audit

The objectives of a Road Safety Audit vary in emphasis at each stage in the
development of a road, but generally include the following:

 To identify and report on the accident potential and safety problems of a

road during the planning, design, construction or operating stages.

 To ensure that road elements with an accident potential are removed or that
measures are implemented to reduce the risk of accident.

 To minimise the severity and risk of road traffic accidents that may be
influenced by the road facility or adjacent environment.

 To minimise the need for remedial measures after the opening of a new
road.

 To reduce the full life-cycle cost of a road project by reducing its accident
cost.

 To create and maintain an awareness of safe design practice during all the
stages of a road project.

2.4 Key Requirements for Road Safety Audits

The following aspects are key requirements for successful Road Safety Audits:

 Adequate time and information to conduct the Road Safety Audit.

 Commitment from the Road Authority.

 A recognised and agreed Road Safety Audit process.

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 An independent and properly trained road safety audit team or auditor.

 A checklist appropriate for the stages at which the road project is audited as
shown in Section 11.

 Evaluation and monitoring of the Road Safety Audit Process.

Adequate time should be provided during the process to allow for:

 The scrutiny and evaluation of safety related aspects of all plans, drawings
and related project documents.

 The collection of any additional information required to carry out the Road
Safety Audit.

 The preparation of a formal Road Safety Audit Report.

2.5 Conducting Road Safety Audits

The greatest potential to improve road safety is in the planning and design stages in
the pre-construction phase of a project, when the design of a project can be
positively influenced to improve the road safety characteristics of the road. Pre-
construction phase audits can be conducted on any proposal that is likely to
influence the interactions between road users, or between road users and their
physical environment.

During the planning and design process, road safety audits are required at two
stages; at feasibility, after preliminary design and again after detailed design, prior
to construction drawings being issued for implementation.

Check lists for conducting these three road safety audits are included in the Annex
in Section 11.

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2.5.1 Stage 1 Road Safety Audit: Feasibility

The Feasibility Stage Road Safety Audit is conducted as soon as the feasibility of a
road project is considered and has the following purposes:

 To identify the potential safety problems that can influence the:

o Project scope

o Choice of route, layout and/or treatment

o Design standard selection

o Impact on the adjacent road network

o Access Control: Provision of accesses/ intersections/ interchanges

o Continuity of routes

 To consider the design and operating speeds;

 To assess the relative safety performance of various alternatives for the road
project.

2.5.2 Stage 2 Road Safety Audit: Draft (Preliminary) Design

The Preliminary Design Road Safety Audit is done after completion of a draft
design. If alternative schemes have been developed, each scheme should be
audited.

A Preliminary Design Stage Road Safety Audit has the following objectives:

 To address the design standards utilised for the draft design

 To consider, among others, the following:

o Alignment (horizontal, vertical)

o Sight distances

o Layout of intersections and configuration of interchanges

o Widths: Lanes and shoulders

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o Cross-section and super elevation of pavement

o Location of accesses

o Provision for different road user groups: Pedestrians, Cyclists, Heavy

vehicles, etc

 To evaluate whether any deviation from guidelines and design standards

would impact safety negatively

 To determine how possible staged implementation of the project could

influence road safety- if staging is proposed then the safety of each stage
should be considered, as well as the transition from one stage to the next

 To evaluate the possible departures from standards and the effect thereof
from a safety perspective;

 To evaluate that all road user groups have been considered, such as:

o Can vehicles turn safely?

o Can road users see each other?

o Can road users see traffic control devices?

o Is cross-section and alignment appropriate?

o Is property access safely catered for?

 To evaluate intersection layouts for possible conflict points

 To alert Design Engineers to areas where attention on road safety aspects

will be needed during the detail design stage

 To evaluate safety at the connections with existing roads, e.g.:

o Consistency

o Vulnerability of fixed objects, etc

In a Preliminary Design stage audit, the road safety audit team shall visit the site
of the proposed project, taking special cognisance of the following:

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 Locations that involve permanent changes to the existing road layout or

features

 Transition areas between existing roads and the proposed projects.

At this stage of the design process, fundamental decisions regarding route choice,
the overall design and layout of the project have already been decided. The audit
team may still suggest physical changes to horizontal or vertical alignment,
provision of a median, lane and shoulder width, provision of cycle lanes or
sidewalks or channelization. Accesses provided should be reviewed for upstream
and downstream effects, possible conflicting movements, sight distance and the
possible consolidation of access points. Any such recommendations should be
based on the consideration of safety issues only and should be supported by
justifiable background reasoning, which need not necessarily be included in the
road safety audit report.

The ability of the design to safely accommodate future widening, expansion or

extension should also be taken into account. Specific attention needs to be given to
assess the safety of different usage scenarios.

2.5.3 Stage 3 Road Safety Audit: Detailed Design

The Detailed Design Road Safety Audit normally takes place after completion of the
detailed design, but before the contract documents are prepared. This stage is the
last opportunity to influence the design before construction commences and is a
review of those drawings that are put forward and on which the project will be
constructed. This audit is very much focused on aspects of detail of the road layout,
traffic arrangements and information transfer to the proposed road user groups. It is
also important that any issues that have not been satisfactorily resolved from earlier
audits be reiterated at this point. It may well happen that the proposed remedial
measures for such an outstanding issue may be different in this stage than an
earlier stage, as the flexibility to influence the design is less.

A Detailed Design Road Safety Audit has the following objectives:

 To consider, among others, the following:

o Any changes since the Preliminary Design Audit

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o Road traffic signs and markings

o Road lighting

o Intersection detail

o Roadside hazard management issues (clear zones, traffic barriers, fixed

objects etc.)

o Needs and requirements for Special Road Users (pedestrians, cyclists,

individuals with disabilities, heavy vehicles, buses etc.)

o Traffic management and control drawings for the proposed

accommodation of traffic during construction

o Drainage

o Landscaping

o Cross-section and side-slopes, etc.

 To review the findings of the Preliminary Design Audit and the

implementation of mitigating measures

 To identify anything missed in the previous audit, and confirm the mitigating
measures that may have been implemented as a result of earlier findings

 To utilise the last opportunity of influencing safety, prior to the construction of

the project

 To evaluate the possible departures from standards and the effect thereof
from a safety perspective

 To review the safety of typical details to be used on the project

 To evaluate the signage, markings and landscape plans

 To evaluate that all road user groups have been considered such as:

o Can vehicles turn safely?

o Can road users see each other?

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o Can road users see traffic control devices?

o Is cross-section and alignment appropriate?

o Are fixed hazards located within the relevant clear zone?

 To review the interaction of the detailed elements

 To evaluate safety at the connections with existing roads, especially

consistency

In the detail design stage audit, the road safety audit team shall visit the site of the
proposed project, taking special cognisance of the following:

 Locations that involve permanent changes to the existing road layout or

features

 Transition areas between existing roads and the proposed projects

At this stage the drawings should be completed to such a point that they could be
used in the preparation of contract documentation. If the audit team are concerned
about a possible lack of sufficient details, the audit team may request such
additional details from the client or project manager, to allow the audit to be
completed without possible conditional findings. If the project will be implemented in
separate stages, each stage should be considered, as well as the transition
between stages. This is specifically also applicable for the proposed traffic
management for the accommodation of traffic during construction.

2.5.4 Stage 4 Road Safety Audit: Construction

The Construction Stage Road Safety Audit is undertaken to review the traffic
management proposed by the Contractor. It is distinguished from the Stage five
Road Safety Audit in that is concerned with the temporary measures that are used
to protect safety while the construction operations are in progress. The fact that the
Contractor is required to have his own Safety Management Plan, and that this is
monitored by the Engineer, must be taken into account. The purposes of this Audit
are to assess:

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 Appropriateness of the proposed traffic management scheme, especially

conditions in transition areas
 Adequacy of advance warning
 Proposed and actual speed limits
 Conflicts between permanent and temporary features
 Any aspects of the layout that could be misread by road users or
aspects that violate driver expectancy
 Likelihood of mud or dust obscuring devices
 Appropriateness of vehicle restraint systems/ barriers and the correct
installation and the safety of the terminals
 Adequate provision for pedestrians and public transport vehicles like minibus
taxis
 Conflict points between site traffic and the general public
 The effect of congestion during peak periods
 The effect of an incident within the detour/ deviation areas

The Stage four Road Safety Audit Report must be provided to the Engineer, with a
copy to the Resident Engineer.

2.5.5 Stage 5 Road Safety Audit: Pre-opening

The Pre-opening Road Safety Audit should be conducted before the opening of a
road scheme to traffic, but not before substantial completion of the project; enabling
the audit team to review conditions as it they would be experienced by different road
user groups. The purposes of this Stage Audit are to assess that:

 Sufficient provision has been made for the different road users of the road
project, in accordance with the design
 There is adequate protection from roadside hazards
 Variations between actual construction and detail design have not had a
negative influence on road safety
 Road signs and markings, lighting and other night-time related issues are
adequately installed and operational
 All issues listed in the Stages one, two and three Road Safety Audits have
been properly addressed, or, if the Stage five Road Safety Audit is the first

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audit of the road project, to assess all the matters that would have been
assessed in those Stage Audits.

The potential for making significant changes to the road safety situation onsite
during a Preopening stage audit is rather limited, and the audit team may have to
accept that the mitigating measures that may be recommended at this stage would
similarly be limited in scope. The Stage five Road Safety Audit Report should be
provided to the Engineer and to the Road Authority.

2.5.6 Road Safety Audit or Appraisal of an Existing Road

The Road Safety Audit of existing facilities provides a mechanism whereby roads
constructed previously and not subjected to the Road Safety Auditing processes in
the planning and design stages of their development, may be assessed. Obviously
priority for this stage of auditing should be placed on roads where safety records
indicate problems, but this process can also be applied pro-actively without the
need to have accident data available.

The Road Safety Audit or Appraisal of existing facilities is a systematic examination

of an existing road location, in which an independent and qualified team reviews on-
site conditions and historical evidence to identify existing or potential road safety
problems, and suggest measures to mitigate those problems.

The objectives of the Road Safety Audits on existing roads are as follows:

 To ensure compatibility between the safety features of a road and the

functional classification of the road
 To identify any feature that can, with time, create a safety problem – for
example vegetation blocking a sign
 To identify all features in the road environment that pose a safety hazard to
any road users

The report on the Road Safety Audit of any existing road shall be submitted to Road
Authority responsible for that road.

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2.6 Road Safety Audit Reports

Road Safety Audit reports shall be prepared at each stage and shall include the
following:

 A brief description of the audited project

 Identification of the audit stage and the team members, as well as the
names and affiliation of other contributors to the audit

 Details of who was present at the site visit/s, when it was undertaken and
what the conditions were on the day of the visit (weather, traffic, etc.)

 The specific road safety problems identified, supported with the background
reasoning, stating:

o The location of the problem

o The nature of the problem

o The type of accident that is likely to occur as a result of the problem

 Recommendations for action to mitigate or remove the problems, taking

cognisance that:

o The recommended remedial measure shall be appropriate and viable for

that particular stage of the audit

o Recommendations should be proportionate to the scale of the identified

problem

o Recommendations worded as “to consider...”, “to study....”, “to

monitor...”, “to investigate possible treatments and implement the most
appropriate...”, etc. should be avoided

o Recommendations shall not be motivated for implementation in a way

that could be construed as the audit team trying to convince the client to
take a specific action.

 An A3 or A4 location map, marked up and referenced to the problems and,

where available, photographs of the problems identified

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 A statement, signed by the audit team leader in the recommended format

 A list of the documents and drawings considered for the audit

The Audit Team shall send a draft report directly to the client representative. The
Audit Team Leader shall discuss the draft report with the client representative, prior
to formal submission. The purpose of this discussion is solely to ensure that the
findings and recommendations are within the scope of the audit, as defined in the
audit brief. The client representative shall refrain from requesting amendments to
the findings or the recommendations. Once the Road Safety Audit Report is issued,
it is a FINAL report – the report cannot be amended, and the Client may not request
amendments or ask team members to omit certain details or findings.

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3 Illumination

3.1 General

The primary reason for installing highway lighting is to improve the safety of night
time driving for the motorist. Statistics indicate that the night-time accident rate is
higher than the daytime rate largely due to the restriction of the driver‟s vision to that
illuminated by his vehicles headlights. The general warrants for providing highway
lighting are based on considering the cost of installing and maintaining an
illumination system balanced against the benefits derived from providing highway
lighting.

3.2 Conditions warranting lighting on roadways

3.2.1 Freeways

Lighting on freeways can be either continuous or partial i.e. only provided at

interchanges areas. Continuous lighting should be provided when:

 The freeway, for a length of two or more kilometres passes through a

substantially developed suburban or urban area, in which one or more of the
following conditions exist:

o Local traffic operates on a complete street grid having some form of

street lighting, portions of which are visible from the freeway.

o The freeway passes through a series of developments such as

residential, commercial, industrial and civic areas, colleges, parks,
terminals, etc, which include roads, streets and parking areas, yards, etc,
that are lighted.

o Separate cross streets both with and without connecting ramps; occur
with an average spacing of 0.8 km or less, some of which are lighted as
part of the local street system.

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o The freeway cross section elements such as median and verges are
substantially reduced below desirable sections, used in relatively open
country, because the high costs of right of way are due to proximity of
existing land developments.

 The freeway has three or more successive interchanges located with an

average spacing of 2.5 km or less and adjacent areas outside the right of
way are substantially urban in character.

 The freeway has a design year ADT of 30 000 or more in or near a city.

 The freeway has a high ratio of night to day accidents.

 Governmental agencies find sufficient benefit in the form of convenience,

safety, policing, community promotion, public relations, etc to pay an
appreciable percentage of the cost of or wholly finance the installation,
maintenance and operation of the lighting facilities.

When roadway lighting is only provided at interchanges on the freeway the following
warrants are used:

 Complete interchange lighting on unlighted freeways is considered to be

warranted at locations where existing substantial commercial or industrial
development which is lighted during hours of darkness is located in the
immediate vicinity of the interchange, or where the cross road approach legs
are lighted for 800 metres or more on each side of the interchange.

 Complete interchange lighting is considered to be warranted where the total

design year ADT ramp traffic entering and leaving the freeway within the
interchange area exceeds 10 000 for urban conditions, 8 000 for suburban
conditions or 5 000 for rural conditions.

 Complete interchange lighting is considered to be warranted where the

design year ADT on the cross road exceeds 10 000 for urban conditions, 8
000 for suburban conditions or 5 000 for rural conditions.

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 Partial interchange lighting is considered to be warranted where the total

design year ADT ramp traffic entering and leaving the freeway within the
interchange areas exceeds 5 000 for urban conditions, 3 000 for suburban
conditions or 1 000 for rural conditions.

 Partial interchange lighting is considered to be warranted where the design

year ADT on the freeway through traffic lanes exceeds 25 000 for urban
conditions, 20 000 for suburban conditions or 10 000 for rural conditions.

 Complete or partial interchange lighting is considered to be warranted where

the ratio of night to day accident experience is high ( higher than the average
for all unlighted interchanges similar in nature), and a study of conditions
indicates that lighting may be expected to result in a significant reduction in
the night accident rate.

 Complete or partial interchange lighting is considered to be warranted where

governmental agencies find sufficient benefit in the form of convenience,
safety, policing, community promotion, public relations, etc, to pay an
appreciable percentage of the cost of or wholly finance the installation,
maintenance, and operation of the lighting facilities.

 Special Considerations Where there is continuous freeway lighting; there

should be complete interchange lighting. Lighting of cross road ramp
terminals should be considered, regardless of traffic volumes, where the
design requires the use of raised channelization or divisional islands.
Complete interchange lighting shall mean the lighting of the freeway through
traffic lanes within the interchange, the traffic lanes of all ramps, the
acceleration and deceleration lanes, all ramp terminals and the cross road
between the outermost ramp terminals. Partial interchange lighting shall
mean lighting which consists of a luminaires located in the vicinity of some or
all the ramp terminals. The usual practice is to light those general areas
where the exit and entrance ramps connect with the through traffic lanes of
the freeway, and generally those areas where the ramps intersect the
crossroad and shows typical luminaire placement to provide partial lighting.

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3.2.2 Streets and Highways other than Freeways

There is substantial evidence to support the lighting of streets and highways in

urbanized areas. Grade intersections, turning movements, signalization, parking
and the presence of pedestrian traffic are some of the elements which make the
operating characteristics of these streets and highways, substantially different from
those of freeways. Roadway lighting is generally accepted as an important
contributor to safe and efficient traffic operation under these conditions. In addition,
good street lighting is a deterrent for crime and vandalism.

It is not practical at this time to establish specific warrants for the installation of
roadway lighting to satisfy all prevailing or anticipated conditions. In general, lighting
is considered to be warranted for those locations where the respective
governmental agencies concur that lighting will contribute substantially to the
efficiency, safety, and comfort of vehicle and pedestrian traffic. Lighting should be
provided for all major arterials to urbanized areas and for locations or sections of
streets and highways where the ratio of night to day accident rates is high, and a
study indicates that lighting may be expected to significantly reduce the night
accident rate.

3.3 Level and Uniformity of Illumination

The level and uniformity of illumination along a highway depends on several

controlling items, including the type and output in terms of lux of the light source,
luminaire equipment, mounting height, mast arm length, spacing and arrangement
of lighting masts. The same average level can be obtained by different installation
arrangements, such as a few high-output light sources or a greater number of low
output sources. A factor of concern is comparison of such alternate systems is the
uniformity of light over the whole of the travelled way to be lighted.

Luminaires are available in a wide range of types and sizes. Lighting systems using
high-efficiency and large-lumen lamps can be designed to provide a satisfactory
level and uniformity of illumination, but care should be used in selecting equipment
to ensure the desired lighting results with lowest compatible costs for installation,
operation and maintenance. Higher luminaire mounting heights offer a number of
advantages and should have full consideration when selecting design criteria. There

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is increasing use of mounting heights ranging from 12 to 30 metres, as evident in

recent lighting projects. A discussion of the effects of higher luminaire mounting
heights is given in paragraph 2.7.

Level of illumination and uniformity of illumination shall be as follows:

3.3.1 Freeways

Continuous freeway lighting should be designed to provide average maintained

horizontal illumination over the travelled way of not less than 6.5 Lux - this value
representing the condition when the light source is at its lowest output and the
luminaire is in the dirtiest condition. For conditions where a maintenance factor of
0.6 would be applicable, this would call for an average initial illumination of 10.0
Lux.

When there is continuous freeway lighting or where an individual interchange is

completely lighted, the illumination on the travelled way should be reasonably
uniform, particularly on the freeway through traffic lanes. The uniformity of
illumination is expressed as a ratio of the average level of illumination on the
roadway, to the minimum level of illumination on the roadway. This ratio is called the
uniformity ratio and should have a value in the range of 3:1 to 4:1. In some cases,
better uniformity can be economically attained by using higher luminaire mounting
heights.

3.3.2 Streets and Highways other than Freeways

Suggested average horizontal Lux of roadway illumination are contained in Table 3.

For the roadway classifications in Table 3, an average to minimum uniformity ratio

of 3:1 to 4:1 is reasonable whenever an average illumination of 6.5 Lux or more is
indicated. Where an average illumination of 6.5 Lux or more is indicated, a 6:1 ratio
applies.

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Table 1: Average Maintained Illumination for Streets and Highways other than
Freeways

Average Maintained Horizontal Lux*

Roadway
Area Classification
Classification

City Centres Intermediate Outlying and Rural

Major** 21.6 15.1 10.8

Collector 13.0 9.7 6.5

Local or Minor 9.7 6.5 2.2***

* Average illumination on the travelled way or on the pavement area between

kerb lines of kerbed roadways, with the illuminating source at its lowest
output when the luminaire is in its dirtiest conditions.

** Includes expressways with partial control of access. Expressways with full

control of access are treated for lighting purposes as freeways.

*** Includes residential streets.

In using the Lux values in Table 1: there may be conditions under which somewhat
different illumination levels are desirable or necessary. For example, intersections
with raised channelizing of divisional islands may require greater illumination than
set out in the table. The lighting designer should use all available pertinent
information in reaching a decision regarding the lighting level to be used for any
specific street or highway.

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3.4 Lighting Design

The „design‟ of a highway lighting installation is a process of utilizing known

photometric characteristics of a selected lamp and luminaire in a trial and adjust
process of assumed luminaire locations on the roadway, for which is made a
calculation of the average amount, or level, of illumination and distribution of light
over the roadway area. For each lamp/luminaire combination there are
manufacturer‟s photometric data which includes index charts showing the „contours‟
of various horizontal Lux values over the area illuminated by that unit. Combinations
of these with certain horizontal overlap can be used theoretically to determine
luminaire positions to produce the desired average amount of light, over a given
pavement area and distribution thereof.

The design method uses a formula to select spacing for the luminaires after which
the uniformity ratio is checked. Adjustments of the spacing are then made to bring
the uniformity ratio into the acceptable limits.

The following formula is used to determine the spacing:

Lamp Lumens x CU x ME

Spacing =
Width of Roadway x Design Maintenance Light
Level

Where:

Spacing = The distance parallel to the centreline of the roadway between

successive luminaires.

Lamp Lumens = The amount of light from the lamp (not luminaire) which
manufacturer data indicates is produced by the lamp at the end of its rated life. This
figure shall be the amount of light produced for the position in which the lamp is
maintained.

Coefficient of Utilization (CU) = The ratio of the amount of light produced by the
luminaire (not lamp), that actually falls on the roadway, to the total amount of light
produced by the luminaire. It is determined by applying utilization curves distributed
by luminaire manufacturers for the light types to be used.
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Maintenance Factor (MF) = Consideration of the amount of dirt on the luminaire, the
reduced reflectance of the reflector, unusual operating temperatures when
florescent lighting is being used and unusual deposit of hydrocarbons. Unless
evidence is furnished substantiating a materially different maintenance factor, the
factor shall be considered as 0.85.

Width of Illuminated Roadway = The travelled surface exclusive of shoulders. For

roadways of varying width (tapers), the width shall be the mean roadway width of
the representative roadway length.

Designed Maintained Light Level = As specified by the FMW policy on illumination

consistent with the nature of the illumination projects.

The lamp lumens and coefficient utilization are from charts prepared by the
manufacturer for each individual type of lamp luminaire combination.

The spacing derived from the formula should be adjusted for horizontal curvature
and spacing reduction values for short radius curves.

The uniformity of illumination (uniformity ratio) is the ratio of the average amount of
light on the roadway surface, to the amount of light striking the roadway surface at
its darkest point.

A uniformity ratio of 3:1 means that the average Lux value on the roadway is three
times the Lux value at the point of least illumination.

The point of least illumination is found by examining the light contour pattern from
adjacent luminaires andError! Reference source not found. shows locations
here minimum illumination may occur for staggered spacing.

All light sources must be taken into consideration when finding the value of
illumination at any point.

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3.5 Location of Lighting Masts, Poles and Luminaires

Lighting poles normally should be located on the right in the direction of travel.
Median location may be considered where the width is appropriate and rigid median
barriers are used.

The inner face of the base of the lighting poles shall be located outside and clear of
the usable right shoulder width.

Where there is a guardrail on the highway section, the poles shall be at the back of
the rail. The pole inner face should be at least 600 to 900 mm outside the rail, and
offset sufficiently to allow for guardrail deflection.

Where walls parallel to the roadway are located at the outer edge of shoulder, poles
shall be located on top of or behind the walls. In some cases, poles may be
eliminated by attaching mast arms to the walls.

When lighting poles are required to be located to the left of the direction of travel,
the lighting poles should have the same minimum clearances and be subject to the
same safety considerations as when placed on the right.

Lighting of short radius curves such as the inner loops of a cloverleaf interchange
are most effective when the luminaires are located on the outside of the curve. For
safety reasons, however, exposed lighting poles on these ramps should be placed
on the inside (shorter radius) edge of curves. Under these conditions, closer
spacing of luminaires will usually be necessary for satisfactory lighting uniformity.
Where there is a guardrail on the outside of the curve, poles may be located behind
the guardrail.

In the design of lighting systems it is important that the location of lighting

equipment, signs and sign supporting structures be so co-ordinated that there will
be as little interference as possible with either the sign legibility, or the roadway
illumination. Lighting standards and luminaires should be so located that they do not
interfere with the driver‟s view of the sign legend and luminaire brightness does not
seriously detract from sign legibility at night. A driver should not have to look directly
into a bright source of light when reading a sign. Also overhead signs and

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supporting structures should be located that they do not cast distracting shadows on
the roadway surface at night.

In all cases where poles are located within the clear roadside recover area,
regardless of the distance from the travelled way, they should be designed to have
a suitable impact attention feature. This safety feature may take any one of several
forms which have been used by highway agencies, apparently with satisfactory
results. These include poles equipped with (1) a cast aluminium transformer base,
(2) a frangible base insert or adaptor normally cast aluminium, (3) a breakaway or
progressive shear base or (4) a skip base. Poles made of light weight metals may
have some value in reducing vehicle damage from secondary impact, particularly
when the collision speed is relatively low and the falling pole makes secondary
contact with the vehicle.

The luminaire should be positioned over the edge of the travelled way by using a
mast arm of sufficient length from the position of the light standard.

3.6 Lighting for Bridges, Tunnels and Underpasses

3.6.1 Bridges

On a continuously lighted freeway, the lighting on bridges and overpasses should

be to the same standard as the remainder of the freeway.

Lighting on long bridges with unlighted approaches is not justified except to provide
illumination in case of accidents and for vehicles disabled or broken down,
especially on bridges without full shoulders.

3.6.2 Tunnels

Continuous lighting is considered to be warranted in both long and short tunnels,

during day and night periods.

Along a lighted highway, additional underpass lighting usually should be provided

where the length is more than approximately23 metres. Where the length is less

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than approximately 23 metres, supplementary underpass lighting is needed only

where there are pedestrians or other special conditions.

Underpass lighting is normally not needed along unlighted highways.

Table 2 is a summary of the design values for the development of tunnel and
underpass lighting. Since the conditions which influence lighting requirements vary
considerably, the need for judgment in applying these guide values is apparent.
They are considered suitable for most situations, but should not be adopted
universally without an evaluation of all factors which may dictate a need for
modifications.

The lengths specified for underpasses, short tunnels, and long tunnels are intended
for general classification purposes, and the lighting requirements as outlined should
not be considered inflexible. For example, some short tunnels up to approximately
100 metres in length may not require daytime illumination if the facility is straight,
level and has a high width to length ratio. This could apply to a tunnel with three or
more lanes, as compared to a two lane tunnel. In such a case light penetration from
each end, plus the silhouette effect of the opposite end brightness generally assures
satisfactory daytime visibility.

Table 2: Average Maintained Illumination on Tunnel Walls

Average Maintained

Lux on Walls*
Lighting System
Underpass Short Tunnel Long Tunnel

(Less than 30m) (30 m to 150 m) (150 m and longer)

Day Entrance None 323 - 646 323 – 646

Day Interior None 323 – 646 53.8 – 107.6

Night ** 7.5 – 21.5 7.5 – 21.5

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Lighting design values for tunnels herein are expressed as average maintained Lux
on the tunnel walls. It is to be noted that this differs from that used elsewhere on
highways, which is the average on the roadway. In tunnels where there is adequate
wall brightness, there normally will be adequate roadway brightness.

Space in this manual does not permit a full analysis of the several factors which
influence tunnel lighting. For more details refer to the references in Chapter 1.2.7

3.6.3 Underpasses

Underpasses less than about 23 metres in length usually can be adequately lighted
at night from roadway luminaires outside the underpass. Lighting poles should be
located near each portal, so that the maximum amount of light can be projected to
light the roadway of the underpass. For underpasses longer than 23 metres,
supplemental lighting may be required in which case the roadway illumination in the
underpass should be no greater than two times the Lux on the approach and exit
roadway. In urban areas, additional illumination may be required for pedestrians and
for policing of underpasses. In these cases, the underpass lighting should be no
greater than three times the lighting level on the roadway outside the underpass.

3.7 High Luminaire Mounting Heights

When considering mounting heights of 12 m or above, the use of 700 to 1 000 watt
luminaires should be evaluated. Depending on highway geometrics and other
related conditions, they may prove to be more efficient and economical than lower
wattage luminaires. The greater lumen output of these lamps is advantageous for
wide roadways in conjunction with relatively long spacing‟s and high mountings.

The taller poles to provide luminaire mounting heights of 12 to 15 metres cost more
than poles for the conventional 9 metre mounting height. The unit increases in cost
is usually offset by the reduced number of poles required, and may not increase the
cost of the complete lighting system.

For most highway lighting applications using 400 watt luminaires, it is practical to
employ mounting heights up to about 12 metres. For the 700 and 1000 watt

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luminaires, mounting heights of 12 to 15 metres are advantageous and should

receive full consideration in lighting designs.

Higher mounting heights up to 30 metres offer certain advantages and within

reasonable limits, should be considered in design.

Among the advantages of higher mountings are improvement in the uniformity of

illumination and reduction in relative glare effect from the luminaires, assuming
there is no change in luminous intensity (Lux power) and vertical light distribution.
Since luminous intensity and vertical light distribution characteristics vary with
individual luminaires and the wattage of the light source used, reduction in glare can
only be stated on a relative basis. There is also reason to believe that higher
mounted luminaires will receive less accumulation of dirt from highway traffic. Some
reduction in the frequency of luminaire cleaning and a saving in maintenance costs
per lighting unit may be expected. Operating experience with recent installations
having mounting heights up to 15 metres should provide information for judging the
improvement in luminaire maintenance conditions. In many cases, higher luminaire
mountings permit longer pole spacing‟s, fewer poles and less luminaires. However,
there are spacing limits which must not be exceeded if both the desired average Lux
and uniformity of illumination are to be obtained. In some cases, it may be
necessary to use higher wattage light sources and larger luminaires to ensure
adequate illumination.

Against the above advantages of higher mountings there are certain disadvantages;
For the same luminaire lamp and spacing, the average value of horizontal
illumination is reduced as the mounting height is increased. Poles must be larger
and generally are higher in price, but this is usually offset by the reduction in
quantity made possible by longer spacing.

In design, both the average level of illumination and uniformity ratio are considered
jointly since changes in mounting height affects both.

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S=Luminaires Spacing
Highway Manual Part 1: Design

Use Average Pavement Width

in this Area for computing S

RAMP CONNECTION WITH CHANNELISATION

.7S .7S .7S .7S

S .7S .7S S
S

Use 0.7S when radius is

6.7 to 7.3 m less than 135m
2/3S

OUTSIDE OF CURVE

S .6S .6S .6S .6S .6S .6S S

S
RAMP CONNECTION WITHOUT CHANNELISATION Use 0.6S when radius is
less than 135m

INSIDE OF CURVE
Figure 4: Light Spacing on Curves and Ramps
Terminals
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Figure 5: Light Spacing Freeway Exits and Entrances

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Figure 6: Points of Minimum Illumination Staggered

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4 Fencing

4.1 General

There are two purposes for fencing on highways;1)On controlled access highways,
fencing is provided as part of the highway construction to protect the travelled lanes
from encroachment through adjacent properties.2)On non-controlled access
highways, fencing is provided where needed to protect the highway facility from
unsafe encroachment by pedestrians, livestock, etc, or as a replacement for existing
fencing.

The following policy is in accordance with AASHTO‟s “An Informal Guide on

Fencing Controlled Access Highways.”

4.2 Design Criteria

a. Controlled Access Highways

On controlled access highways, continuous fencing is mandatory, unless it has

been established that such fencing is not necessary for the effective
preservation of access control. Fencing is required between frontage roads and
highway lanes or ramps, unless there is a physical barrier serving the same
purpose.

In rural areas on new alignment, fencing is not warranted for the outside line of a
frontage road, unless the neighbouring property was enclosed previous to
highway construction.

Installation of fencing at the following locations may be deferred until the need
arises, unless there is a possibility of violation of access control:

 Areas where rugged topography or dense vegetation provides a natural

barrier.

 Along rivers or other natural bodies of water.

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 In brush country which is very sparsely settled.

 On long sections of undeveloped private or public lands not previously

fenced.

b. Non-Controlled Access Highways

On non-controlled access highways, fencing will normally be provided only as a

replacement of existing fencing. In most instances, the fence should be included
in the right of way settlement. The fence should be constructed and permanently
maintained by the neighbouring owner. Where fencing is essential to safe
operation of the highway, it should be constructed and maintained by the FMW.

4.3 Ownership of Fencing

All fencing for access control should be owned by FMW, so that the FMW has
complete control of the type of fence and is responsible for proper maintenance. If
new property fencing is a replacement and specified in a right of way agreement but
not needed for access control, as for example adjacent to a frontage road, such
fencing should be the property of the adjacent landowner.

4.4 Time of Erection

In many cases the need for immediate fencing is obvious, as to enclose a pasture or
hog yard, or to confine pedestrians leaving a sporting area. The proper type of fence
should be provided before the highway is opened, and in such cases, the fence
should be erected as soon as the right of way is cleared. The remainder of the fence
may be erected at a later time.

In cases where there is an existing adequate fence, the erection of a fence by the
FMW can be deferred to such time as required.

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4.5 Types of Fence

The lowest cost type of fence suited to the specific purpose should be provided.
Consideration should be given to the likely extent and type of maintenance work
that will be required, as well as initial costs. Depending upon the specific purpose to
be served, the following types of fencing generally apply, either separately or in
combination:

 Multi-strand wire, barbed or smooth: for controlling livestock.

 Woven wire: for controlling small livestock and in residential areas for
controlling small children and pets.

 Chain link, usually 1.20 to 1.80 metres high - for controlling pedestrians in
developed areas, particularly those containing multiple dwelling units,
industrial establishments, business districts, parks, sporting areas, schools
or other institutional buildings.

 Fences 2.10m to 3.00 metres high - for limited special areas where there
are exceptional hazards.

 Miscellaneous types of fences such as stones, rail, board screen, hedge,

etc, as applicable in special cases only.

The purpose of fencing may change within a relatively short length of highway and
as a consequence, frequent changes in the type of fence may be suggested. Where
the fence is continuous, changes in type of fence at short intervals are undesirable.
For an isolated section of fence, the minimum length is not of concern.

To decide on the type of material best suited to a particular purpose, consideration

should be given to some of the characteristics of the fencing material other than its
deterrent qualities. Chain link fencing for example may restrict sight distance,
particularly on curves and along lines approximately parallel to the direction of the
fence and close to it. Woven wire fence may also offer a restriction to view, but to a
lesser degree than the chain link variety. A chain link fence is more of a trash and
waste paper collector than other more open type fences and in some areas can
result in soil drifting problems.

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4.6 Location of Fences

Normally fences of the strand and woven wire type, used in rural and some urban
areas, should be placed on or just inside the highway right of way. For continuity
however, these fences may be erected substantially on a continuous line, even
though there may be some irregular right of way corners that are outside the fence
line. Under some suburban or urban conditions, a chain link fence would be similarly
located.

Along urban freeways with frontage roads within the right of way, fences for both
animal and pedestrian control may be located just inside the frontage road. The
same condition for a limited length of freeway may occur in rural areas. In these
cases, the frontage road is a land service road and there may be no reason in so far
as overall highway purposes are concerned, to erect a duplicate fence of any type
along the right of way line. This may be done however, as the property owner sees
fit, but normally the necessary safeguards can be affected by a single fence. Where
an otherwise continuous fence inside a frontage road (between the through-traffic
lanes and the frontage road) is interrupted by ramps at an interchange, it may be
necessary to place sections of fence in the median to discourage pedestrians from
crossing. It may also be necessary in some cases to provide cattle grids at
interchange ramp terminals, just off of the cross road.

Continuous fencing located inside the frontage road is not always warranted as a
means of preventing indiscriminate vehicle crossings of the outer separation. Under
some conditions such controls are affected by cross section design, planting,
construction of guardrails and policing rather than by fencing.

4.7 Gates

Gates in fences along controlled access highways, through which access is

provided to the right of way or through traffic roadways should be kept to a minimum
number, and provided only where locks or other effective regulations will ensure use
in a manner not detrimental to the traffic flow. Each gate should be of the
appropriate type and installation and in keeping with the particular fence and
conditions. Except along the outside of frontage roads, such gates generally are
needed only for use by essential highway maintenance and operating personnel

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and equipment to reach the roadway border areas, avoiding the necessity for
access via the through traffic roadways. Gates may be needed in special cases as a
means of outside access to utility lines crossing the roadway, such as a utility
support or manhole located within the right of way.

Fences along the outside of frontage roads should have gates only to the minimum
extent necessary to serve the neighbouring property. While there may be
advantages, such gates need not necessarily be under lock control where the
control of access line lies inside the frontage road.

4.8 Openings for Cattle

In general, the highway shall be fenced off so that the road reservation shall be free
from grazing cattle or cattle herded to market. Crossing points shall be provided at
reasonable intervals where the highway passes through traditional grazing grounds.
The guard fences and opening shall be designed to ensure crossing the highway at
a right angle. Crossing at grade at frequent intervals shall be discouraged. In
general culverts widened to serve as underpasses are recommended, especially
where the size of herds and the frequency of crossing at grade are likely to cause
delay or travel hazards. See Section 6.2 for additional information.

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5 Guardrail and Vehicular Barriers

5.1 General

Traffic safety barriers are systems utilized to shield road users from potential
hazards alongside the travelled way and should be able to redirect or contain:

 An errant vehicle without imposing intolerable vehicle occupant forces

 Vehicles in a range of sizes, weights and designs

 An errant vehicle over a range of impact speeds and impact angles

Traffic barriers are obstacles on the roadside, and vehicles striking barriers can
cause occupant injury and/or vehicle damage. A traffic barrier should be installed
only if it is likely to reduce the severity of potential collisions. It is therefore of the
utmost importance that in selection of the traffic barrier, due cognisance be taken of
the characteristics of the particular barrier system. Barrier systems differ not only in
purpose, but also in terms of deflection and redirecting properties.

5.2 Criteria for Installing a Guardrail

Figure 7 shows the classification of longitudinal barriers based on their deflection

characteristics. Misconceptions exist regarding the advantages of the different
longitudinal barrier types. Some design engineers firmly believe that one system is
better than another, based on its deflection characteristics, but it must be noted that
the deflection characteristics of a particular system are not a measure of its
effectiveness. The mechanisms by which a vehicle is restrained after impacting a
traffic barrier differ completely, depending on the type of barrier selected. The
reaction of a vehicle on impact with different types of barriers is thus also different.

In accomplishing their task of guiding and redirecting impacting vehicles, a

longitudinal barrier should balance the need to prevent penetration of the barrier,
with the need to protect the occupants of the vehicle. Various barrier technologies
achieve this in various ways and can be grouped into three distinct types:

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 Flexible systems, resulting in large lateral barrier deflections, but the lowest
vehicle deceleration rates. Such systems have application in places where a
substantial area behind the barrier is free of obstructions and/or other
hazards within the zone of anticipated lateral deflection. These barriers
usually consist of a weak post-and-beam system, and their design
deflections are typically in the range of 3.2 metres to 3.7 metres, but can be
as low as 1.7 metres.

 Semi-rigid systems, providing reduced lateral barrier deflections, but higher

vehicle deceleration rates. These barrier systems have application in areas
where lateral restrictions exist and where anticipated deflections have to be
limited. They usually consist of a strong post-and-beam system and have
design deflections ranging from 0.5 to 1.7 metres.

 Rigid systems, usually taking the form of a continuous concrete barrier.

These technologies result in no lateral deflection, but impose the highest
vehicle deceleration rates. They are usually applied in areas where there is
very little room for deflection, or where the consequences of penetrating the
barrier are very serious. Numerous shapes and heights are available.

Designers should familiarize themselves with, and design to, the specific
performance characteristics of their selected or candidate technologies, in order to
achieve the desired results for shielding errant vehicle occupants from potential
hazards.

5.3 Warrants for Use

Roadside hazards that warrant shielding by barriers include embankments and

roadside obstacles, including oncoming vehicles. Warrants for the use of barriers
on embankments generally use embankment height and side slope as the
parameters in the analysis, and essentially compare the collision severity of hitting a
barrier with the severity of going down the embankment. Figure 8, adapted from
Australian guidelines, provides guidance for the installation of such barriers on
embankments.

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This figure provides a range of values of fill slope for which, at certain heights of fill,
a barrier may be more or less hazardous than the embankment it protects. For
example, at a fill height of six metres, a fill slope steeper than 1:3 would warrant the
use of a barrier, while a fill slope flatter than 1:4 would not require protection. On
the intervening slopes, the designer should use his or her discretion in determining
the need for a barrier.

5.4 Longitudinal Barrier Placement

A typical longitudinal roadside barrier installation, with its associated elements for a
two-lane, two-way road, is illustrated in Figure 9. The length of need as indicated in
this figure is illustrated in more detail in Figure 10 and Figure 11.

Table 3: Recommended Minimum Offset Distance

Design Speed Offset Distance (m) measured from the

edge of the travelled way
(km/h)

50 1.1

60 1.4

80 2.0

100 2.4

120 3.2

130 3.7

Recommended offset distances measured from the edge of the travelled way are
shown in Table 3. Barriers are typically placed at a distance of 0.3 metres beyond
the edge of the usable shoulder, so that the greater of the distance in Table 3 or the
width of the shoulder plus 0.3 metres should be used.

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5.5 Length of Need

The variables to be considered in the design process of barriers are shown in Figure
10 for the approach side towards a hazard, and in Figure 11 for the trailing side
beyond the hazard, providing for the shielding of the hazard for opposing traffic.

Run-out length is the theoretical distance required for a vehicle leaving the roadway
to come to a stop prior to impacting a hazard. The design of a traffic barrier
requires provision to be made for sufficient length to restrict such a vehicle from
reaching the hazard. The recommended run-out lengths are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Recommended Run-out Lengths for Barrier Design

Design Speed Run-out Length (m)

(km/h) ADT <800 800<ADT<2000 2000<ADT<6000 ADT>6000
50 40 45 50 50
60 50 55 60 70
80 75 80 90 100
100 100 105 120 130
110 110 120 135 145
120 or higher 125 135 150 160

The run-out length is measured along the edge of the road. A control line is
established between the end of the run-out length and the far side of the hazard to
be shielded. The length of need for a standard barrier would then be the length
between the near side of the hazard, and the position where the barrier intersects
the control line. If the barrier is designed for a continuous hazard such as a river or
a critical fill embankment, then the control line would be between the end of the run-
out length and the end of the desirable clear zone. The same principle is adopted to
determine the length of need for opposing traffic.

The standard guardrail ends at the end of the length of need. An acceptable end-
treatment should be added to this length to determine the total length of installation.

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5.6 Median barriers

Most of the principles with respect to longitudinal barriers also apply to median
barriers. Regarding warrants for their use, median barriers should only be installed
if the consequences that would result if they did not exist, are more severe than the
consequences of striking them. However, excessive incidence of illegal cross-
median movements might justify the use of median barriers.

For median widths of 15 metres or greater, median barriers are generally not
required, whilst, for median widths of 10 metres and less with ADT's in excess of
30 000 vpd, and for widths less than 8 metres irrespective of ADT, median barriers
are generally justified. These figures presuppose that the particular section of
roadway under consideration does not suffer from an adverse cross-median
collision history and that unauthorized cross-median U-turns do not take place.

5.7 Single-slope Rigid Barrier

The single-slope concrete barrier shown in Figure 12 smoothly redirects a 2 000 kg

vehicle impacting at 100 km/h and 25 degrees without snagging. It has a low
rollover probability when impacted by smaller vehicles, and a low vehicle occupant
impact velocity. The barrier performance is maintained irrespective of subsequent
overlays to the road surface because of the constant sloped face.

The single-slope barrier is recommended for high speed roads provided with narrow
medians (less than 10 m), and with an ADT of more than 30 000 vpd.

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Classification of Longitudinal Barriers

Based on Deflection Characteristics

Longitudinal
Barriers

Flexible systems Semi-rigid systems Rigid systems

Cable systems Guardrail Concrete barriers

systems

Figure 7: Classification of longitudinal barriers

Figure 8: Warrants for use of roadside barriers on fill embankments

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Figure 9: Roadside barrier elements

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Figure 10: Length of need for adjacent traffic

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Figure 11: Length of need for opposing traffic

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Figure 12: The single-slope concrete barrier design

Alternative median barrier types can be typically “New Jersey” or wire rope median
barriers. These can be specified in particular circumstances.

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6 Special Structures and Installations

6.1 Truck Scales

a. General

Truck weighing station installations are constructed as needed, to provide

protection to highways from overweight vehicles and/or to provide a source of
data for planning and research.

b. Site Location

The location of a truck weighing station sites is not generally dictated by exact
kilometre post locations, but rather is controlled by right of way, geometric and
topographical features. It is desirable to select these sites in locations where
there is adequate right of way available and the geometric, topographical
features and environment lend themselves to the most economical
development, without undue site preparation and expense.

The Director of Highway Design will be responsible for selecting the truck scale
sites.

c. Design Features

All connections to weighing stations shall be constructed to the established

highway standards. On multi-lane, limited access highways standard
acceleration and deceleration lanes shall be utilized. Figure 13 is a guide for
constructing weighing stations on multi - lane controlled access highways.

Weighing stations to be constructed along two lane highways shall be so

designed as to best fit the existing conditions, with particular consideration being
given to proper access to and from the site. It is generally not desirable to
develop a weighing station on just one side of a high volume two lane facility
that requires control of vehicles from both directions of travel. The use of

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standard acceleration and deceleration lanes should be considered very

carefully when designing the weighing station site on this type of facility.

d. Parking and Storage

 Parking and storage space at each individual site shall be carefully studied
to meet the required space.

e. Signing

 An electronically controlled open and closed message sign that can be

operated from the scale house should be considered for those installations
where hazardous and circuitous travel exist for the manual changing of the
„scales open‟ or „scales closed‟ sign.

6.2 Cattle Passes

The approved cattle passes shall consist of either a standard box culvert with an
opening 1.8m wide and 2.1m high, or a metal pipe 2250 mm in diameter. After
installation, the invert may be paved with concrete or bituminous paving material.

If usual conditions clearly indicate the need for a larger cattle pass, full details
concerning the proposed size of structure, local conditions, right of way
considerations, comparative costs and all other pertinent data shall be submitted to
the Director of Highway Design.

Design effort shall not be expended or agreements made for any size of cattle pass
greater than the standard without prior approval by the Director of Highway Design.

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6.3 Railway Grade Crossing

a. General

Railway grade crossing shall have protection as shown in Table 5. The minimum
geometric design standards for railway grade crossings are shown in Figure 14.

All conditions not covered in this table and marginal situations are to be referred
to the Director of Highways Planning and Design.

Table 5: Guidelines for Railway Crossing Protection (New Highways)

Type of Railway Facility

Class of Exposure
Double Track or
Highway Factor* Single Main Line
Non Main Line High Speed
(Under 100 km/h)
Single Main Line

Under 1 500 Reflectorized signs Flashing Lights Flashing Lights

1 500 to 5 000 Flashing lights Flashing Lights Flashing Lights

Two Lane
5 000 to 50 000 Auto Gates** Auto Gates** Auto Gates**

Over 50 000 Separation Separation Separation

Under 50 000 Auto Gates Auto Gates Auto Gates

Multi-
Lane
Over 50 000 Separation Separation Separation

All Fully
Controlled Mandatory Separation Separation Separation
Access

* Exposure factor = Trains per day x vehicle ADT

** Automatic gates to be used in urban areas and flashing lights in rural areas,
unless conditions warrant otherwise.

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b. Stopping Lanes

Stopping lanes must be designed so that the signals are clearly visible from all
lanes of traffic, at all times.

c. Signals

Signals adjacent to truck and bus stopping lanes on two or four lane highways
will be installed so that the signal head will be cantered on the edge of the
through lane, with a minimum vertical clearance of 5,2 metres between the
lowest portion of the signal arm, and the crown of the highway pavement.

Signal installations in the median adjacent to the through roadway lanes will use
the type of signal head shown by Figure 16.

All signals installed must be adequately protected by a barrier device of suitable

design.

Signal installations are separate projects. Their costs are not to be included in
the cost of widening the highway for stopping and acceleration lanes.

d. Profile

If the railway track is super elevated, the highway profile must conform closely to
the grade across the top of the rails.

e. Illumination

Where a majority of the train movements are at night or when other conditions
so indicate, crossing illumination should be considered.

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6.4 Pedestrian Facilities

a. General

Areas with the highest incidence of pedestrian accidents are often the poorer
areas with low vehicle ownership. The severity of pedestrian accidents is also
normally higher in rural areas than in urban areas. Most pedestrian accidents
occur in more densely populated rural areas and in urbanised areas. These
facts need to be considered together with pedestrian volumes before deciding
on the provision of pedestrian facilities. Walkways should not normally be
provided along rural roads unless the road traverses urbanised areas or an
informal footpath exists and is well utilised.

b. Guidelines

Identify adjacent pedestrian attractions such as schools, shops, bus stops and
places of employment or sports facilities. Determine popular pedestrian paths to
and from such attractions.

Where popular pedestrian paths cross a road, ensure that adequate visibility is
available for pedestrians and stopping sight distance is adequate for drivers of
vehicles.

Erect large pedestrian warning signs in advance of the crossing.

Consider providing a pedestrian refuge island to facilitate crossing multi-lane

undivided roads. Where pedestrian paths are parallel to a road and a
pedestrian facility is warranted, consider introducing a reduced speed limit,
together with frequent pedestrian warning signs if the road reserve width is
narrow and pedestrians walk near the road edge.

In rural or semi- rural areas where a pedestrian facility is warranted and the road
reserve width is adequate provide a walkway in the roadside verge area, and not
adjacent to the travelled way or road shoulder. In urban areas, where practical,
provide a sidewalk next to the road reserve boundary, even if mountable or
barrier kerbing is provided along the roadway edge.

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c. Warrants for Walkways in Urban Areas

Warrants for the provision of walkways are specified in Table 6. It must be

recognised that in some instances walkways may be justified on the basis of
mutual hazard or of avoiding a considerable amount of pedestrian cross traffic.
Crowds attracted by sporting events move efficiently at 33 people per 600 mm
lane per minute. Eighteen to 27 people per 600 mm lane shall be considered
the designable maximum. Average walking speeds on level walkways have
been found to vary from 1.05 metres to 1.35 metres per second.

The minimum width of walkways shall be 1.50 metres to accommodate bi-

directional pedestrian traffic.

Table 6: Warrants for Urban Walkways

Design Speed of One Walkway Two Walkways

Highway Vehicles per Pedestrians per Vehicles per Pedestrians per
(km/h) hour hour hour hour

50 – 80 30 – 100 150 50 – 100 500

Over 100 100 Over 100 300

100 – 110 30 – 100 100 50 – 100 300

Over 100 50 Over 100 200

d. Pedestrian Facilities on Bridges

A minimum width of 0.6 m behind a barrier kerb should always be provided for
pedestrians on both sides of a bridge even if there is no sidewalk on the road
approaches.

If there is an existing walkway on the road approaches and it is well utilised the
same width should be used across the bridge behind a barrier kerb.

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6.5 Public Utilities

Public water mains, oil or gas mains, electric or telephone cables shall not be
located within the median. These utilities may, with permission, be located within the
right of way, but in no case shall any installation be within three metres of the
shoulder of the existing highway or highway in stage construction.

Where installation is within the right of way, permanent markers indicating the offset
distance and depth of cables and pipes shall be installed at owners cost.

Highway crossings of utilities overhead, underground or along bridge structures

shall be approved by the Director- Highway Design and the safety of road users and
maintenance crews guaranteed.

General electric cables will be buried nearest the surface and located below
telephone cables, gas or oil mains, with water mains at the lowest depth. In urban
areas, public utilities are usually located under the footway. The relative positions
shall be as indicated in Figure 17, which shows minimum dimensions.

6.6 Bus Stops

Location of bus stops should be coordinated with the local transit agency. Bus stops
shall not be located closer than 100 metres apart, nor nearer than 60 metres to the
closest intersection.

The design shall conform to: the recommended pavement is Portland cement
concrete, 200 mm thick reinforced with 150 x 150 x 16 mm welded wire fabric.

When the parking frequency exceeds 10 busses a day for periods longer than 5
minutes, motor parks shall be provided. The parking lots provided for commercial
vehicles and taxis in approved motor parks, shall be laid out as shown for petrol
stations.

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6.7 Maintenance Depots

Maintenance depots may be located on the right of way in the case of ordinary
highways, but no structure, plant or material shall be located closer than 15 metres
from the outside edge of the outer lane of the highway. Only one means of entry or
exit shall be provided. The location of the maintenance depot shall anticipate the
ultimate development of the highway.

For limited access, multi- lane divided highways, direct entrances and exits shall not
be provided. The depot shall be located near and connected to a cross road having
an interchange which provides for all turning movements.

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 ?
TRAFFIC LANE
20 TO 1 OR
FLATTER
TYPE B KERB

R=300 m
R=300 m
SHOULDER
R=100 m
ACCELERATION
260 m DECELERATION LANE LANE
Highway Manual Part 1: Design

TYPE B KERB SEE DETAIL

BY PASS LANE
R = 500mm

P.C.C PAVEMENT 3m X 3m
SCALE
LEVEL GRADE

LEGEND :
SCALE STORAGE & INSPECTION
HIGHWAY PATROL HOUSE AREA
PARKING

A.C PAVEMENT
PCC PAVEMENT
Figure 13: Standard Plan for Truck Scale Installation for Divided Highways
Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

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Figure 15: Roadway and Traffic Control at Railway Grade Crossing

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Figure 16: Railway Grade Crossing Signals

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Figure 17: Public Utilities under Shoulder – Urban

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Figure 18: Standard Bus Stop on a Straight Road

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7 Safety Rest Areas

7.1 General

Rest areas are intended to provide the travelling public with areas in which to rest
and refresh themselves for short periods of time. They are to be located at attractive
spots where ingress and egress from the highway can be easily and safely
accomplished. Safety rest areas are to be provided in rural areas and sections
where adequate and desirable motorist services and conveniences are not
available. Rest areas are intended for short time occupancy and are not provided for
overnight use or active recreation. They shall be maintained in a clean and inviting
condition at all times.

All of the sites when fully developed, will provide the facilities necessary to satisfy
the basic needs of the motorist, and will be designed in such a manner as to permit
future development to their full extent, if this cannot be achieve in the initial stage.

Rest areas when fully developed, should provide permanent restroom buildings,
shelters, garbage containers, drinking water, waste water disposal, parking for
automobiles, trailers and trucks, landscaping consisting of tree and shrub plantings
where appropriate, facilities and space to accommodate short term relaxation, safe
entrances and exits constructed in accordance with access control policies and
appropriate signing and illumination.

7.2 Locating Rest Areas

Safe rest areas should be located at sites which are attractive and aesthetically
pleasing, and spaced reasonably with respect to other safe rest areas or facilities of
a similar type which are available to the travelling public. It is important that the site
be chosen for its appropriateness and natural values within the bounds of desirable
spacing. If a local water supply is not available, first consideration shall be given to
securing a potable water supply by drilling boreholes or by other means before final
selection of the site or proceeding with any further development. Drainage, waste
water disposal, power sources, trees, adequate site distance on the main highway
to meet safety requirements, future lane use and relationship to other facilities, are
all essential features which are to be considered in selecting rest area sites.

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A spacing of approximately 80 kilometres between rest areas is reasonably

attainable and should provide a proper interval of driving time between sites. On
rural freeways, safety rest areas should be at least 1.5 km from the nearest ramp of
an interchange, except for those locations within interchange areas or those which
have their access from a cross road.

7.3 Access Control

The spacing of ramps or approaches to safety rest areas in relation to adjacent

ramps or points of access shall meet the requirements of established policies on
ramp spacing on freeways, and spacing of intersections at grade on highways with
partial access control.

In order to preserve the public investment in highway rest areas, and to maintain the
safety of the highway user, it is desirable to either establish partial control of access
in the vicinity of rest areas which are located upon otherwise non-controlled access
facilities, or acquire scenic easements to preserve the land characteristics.

Access control should be considered for 1 km in either direction on both sides of the
highway, from the rest area at grade intersection, which will serve both directions of
traffic, for either a two lane or multi-lane highway. Access control should be
considered for 1 km beyond the ends of the ramp tapers at rest areas which serve
in one direction only.

Scenic easements may be acquired in lieu of access control, provided that such
easements incorporate control of land use and restrictions against the
establishment of future at grade intersections, in order to ensure adequate
intersection spacing to protect the rest area facility.

Rest areas should not be located between public grade intersections that are
spaced less than 1.5 km apart.

Approaches to property neighbouring a rest area will not be allowed from within the
rest area proper.

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7.4 Entrances and Exits

Entrances and exits to rest areas on fully controlled access highways will be by
means of a ramp, with standard acceleration and deceleration lanes. On undivided
highways with partial or no access control, where the use of the rest area is rather
infrequent, the traffic can be accommodated by means of a single approach.
However, those sites having a greater frequency of use, will require double
entrances and provision for operation of traffic in both directions, upon the interior
roadway and should be signed to allow entrance from both approaches. Exits from
the site should be from the approach located in the desired direction of travel, which
would avoid acute left turns from the site. Where left turns into the site from the two
lane roadway cannot be accommodated satisfactorily or safely, traffic control
devices shall be used to prohibit left turns, and consideration shall be given to
providing separate sites for each direction of travel.

7.5 Right of Way Requirements

Highway right of way is considered to pertain to that area normally required for the
development and construction of an adequate highway, including appropriate safety
rest areas and view sites.

Scenic strips may be acquired in conjunction with the rest area for enhancement
purposes, or for protection of existing natural features against encroachments, as
mentioned under the previous paragraph on Access Control. Scenic easements
acquired for these purposes should include the following restrictions:

 No commercial use permitted

 Selecting cutting of trees permitted

 No unsightly or unsanitary use of land permitted

 No advertising or signs permitted

 No installation of new overhead utilities permitted

 No public approaches allowed

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7.6 Fencing

Safety rest areas shall be fenced to avoid misuse from unauthorized access to
neighbouring properties, and to regulate and protect against children or pets
entering on the through roadway. Fencing may not be required where there are
natural barriers or obstacles preventing local misuse. Fencing along edges of
bodies of water may be required.

7.7 Signing

Signing for safety rest areas shall be accomplished in accordance with the
requirements of Volume VI: Road Traffic Signs and Road Markings of the Highway
Manual Part 1: Design.

Safety rest areas on multi - lane divided highways shall have a guide sign indicating
the distance to the rest area and located preferably three kilometres in advance of
the site. An exit direction sign with an arrow shall be placed in advance of the exit.
An advisory message indicating the distance to the next safety rest area site shall
be used in conjunction with the exit direction sign.

Rest areas and view points that are not on rural highways shall have a rest area
sign located approximately three kilometres in advance of the site, indicating the
distance to the rest area. This applies to traffic in both directions, if left turns into the
site are being permitted. The standard rest area sign with an arrow will be placed in
advance of the exit.

7.8 Illumination

Illumination of ramps to safe rest areas and view sites shall be provided. Interior
lighting shall be provided within the rest room buildings. External lighting around the
buildings and parking area should be of a minimum level that would suffice for the
protection of visitors and discourage vandalism.

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7.9 Parking

Minimum parking requirements for safe rest areas should reasonably accommodate
traffic volumes predicted to use the rest area facility, in the design year, based upon
the full development of the site.

Rest areas intended for use by passenger cars with trailers and by commercial
trucks should be provided with drive through parking. Parking areas should be
surfaced and clearly designated.

7.10 Rest Room Facilities

The design of minor rest area sites shall include provisions for a permanent rest
room building; however, in remote areas or at sites with low tourist usage, initial
installation of chemical toilets may be desirable, until the need for permanent
facilities in relation to those of other sites becomes evident.

7.11 Drinking Water

Drinking water should be provided at all major rest areas and at minor rest areas
when readily available. Drinking water obtained from drilled boreholes, springs or
other local sources must be safe for human consumption, and periodic tests will be
required to ensure a continued safe supply.

7.12 Sun or Rain Shelters

All rest areas should contain some shelters from the sun or rain, for the protection of
the users of the rest area. The design of these protective shelters should be based
on the form of local custom and/or architecture of the area, so as to be in keeping
with the environment.

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7.13 Landscaping

Natural growth should be retained around the outer perimetre of the safe rest area
to provide a buffer strip to prevent encroachment from adjacent properties.
Undesirable underbrush and trees to eliminate possible hazards to visitors should
be cleared and desirable view sites that may be available, should be opened up to
encourage travellers who are using the facilities to enjoy the views.

Planting of trees and shrubs will generally not be required in minor rest areas,
however, tree and shrub plantings as deemed appropriate should be considered in
the major rest areas. Plantings should be native in character and selected for
minimum maintenance requirements.

7.14 Maintenance

Safe rest areas are to be maintained and kept in a clean, well repaired and inviting
condition at all times, and sufficient equipment and manpower are to be provided for
this purpose.

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8 Petrol Filling Stations

8.1 General

Vehicles leaving or entering a petrol filling station not only reduce the effective
capacity of the roadway, they are also more likely to cause accidents. The minimum
distance between two petrol filling stations along a road shall be 100 metres. It is
desirable to space petrol stations at least 500 metres apart. Table 7 gives the
minimum requirements concerning the design of access roadways and the location
of installations.

Table 7: Oil or Petrol Stations Minimum Distances

Distance from an intersection (C) 50 to 70m

Distance apart 100m

Frontage width 30m

Driveway width entry and exit (W) 10m

Driveway width entry or exit only (W) 3m

Radius of kerb line (R) 12m

Set-back of pump from pavement edge 15m

Set-back of service station from pavement edge 10m

Angle of driveway (Y) 75o to 105o

The location plan shall conform to the standard plans shown in Figure 19 to Figure
24 for the area of the station within the right of way.

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Figure 19: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Driveways for Corner Installations

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Figure 20: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Double Driveways

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Figure 21: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Single Driveways to a Corner Service
Station Urban

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Figure 22: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Double Driveways to a Corner Service
Station (Urban)

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RIGHT OF WAY

1.5m TO 3m
Min
PROPERTY LINE

TO 15m
12m

Max
SIDE WALK
4.5m
Min

TO 3m
SERVICE
Min
3m
STATION
TO 15m
12m

Max

PROPERTY LINE
15m TO 30m Min
6m TO 9m Max

Figure 23: Petrol Station Entrance Locations – Double Driveways to a Mid-block

Service Station Urban

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W 6 TO 12m
Min
R R
F
LI .B.
NE

12m Min

LONGER
RIGHT OF WAY

PREF
GUARD POSTS

9 TO
R

45°Min

W
3-6m
6 TO 9m
Min
RIGHT OF WAY

45°
Min
W

PROPERTY LINE
F.B. LINE
3m TO 6m

SHOULDER LINE
Min

R= 6m MIN;15m MAX

W= 7.5m TO 10.7m;MAX ONE-WAY

AND
12m TO 15m;MAX TWO-WAY

Figure 24: Petrol Station Entrance Locations - Double Driveways to a Corner Service
Station Rural

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9 Markers

9.1 Kilometre Markers

The standard kilometre post shown in Figure 25 shall be used to indicate kilometre
distances along all Federal Trunk Roads, „Routes‟. Except where pre-casting the
foundation block is cheaper, the foundation block to standard kilometre posts shall
be mass concrete.

All kilometre posts shall be painted white (non-reflective), with the letters and figures
stencilled on them, preferably in green reflective paint. Where white reflective paint,
and not green is available, kilometre posts shall be painted with white reflective
paint with letters and figures stencilled on in black paint. Where neither green nor
white reflective paint is available, kilometre posts shall be painted with non-reflective
white paint with the letters and figures stencilled on in black. For ease in altering of
information on kilometre posts, letters and figures shall not be engraved in the
kilometre post.

Kilometre posts shall have inscriptions on both faces (A) and (B). The face of the
kilometre post (A) or (B) seen by a road user looking forward while in motion shall
give the road user the name of the town (in code letters if possible), at the end of
the route in his direction of motion, and the number of kilometres his is from that
town. For example, the town for kilometre posts for Trunk Route R20 shall be
Shagamu and Umu Uvo.

Kilometre posts shall be fixed on the right-hand side of the road and located just
outside the outer edge of the shoulder. The distance of the nearest face of kilometre
post from the outer edge of the ultimate outside lane of the road shall be no less
than 3 metres.

Distance for kilometre post placement may be measured by survey odometer

methods between the kilometre controls furnished. When the actual point of zero
kilometres is difficult to determine (e.g. at interchanges), place the zero kilometre
post as accurately as possible.

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Where two or more routes are parallel along a section of highway, the kilometre
post markers should reflect the kilometre of the major route. Coincident kilometres
should be included for the minor route following a junction. Figure 25 shows the
standard kilometre marker details.

9.2 Culvert Markers

Culvert markets serve two purposes: (a) they indicate the location of drainage
structures and (b) alert maintenance crews of obstructions created by drainage
structures which could interfere with maintenance equipment.

Culverts generally require two markers, one at each end of the culvert. They shall
be set at the ends of the culvert, provided they are readily visible from the travelled
way; otherwise they shall be placed adjacent to the shoulder and at least 1.8 metres
from the outer edge of the travelled way.

When feasible, a culvert marker falling within a series of guide posts should be
made a part of the installation. In such cases, it must be in line with the guide posts
and their spacing adjusted to include the culvert marker. If the guide posts are
reflectorized, the culvert markers shall be reflectorized.

In general, an under drain requires a marker. It is placed along the centre line of the
drain, and opposite the outlet in the same manner as for culverts. Additional
markers may be used, where the location of rodding eyes or manholes is not clearly
apparent. In addition to the station mark, the abbreviation „Und‟ should be shown on
the culvert marker.

9.3 Special Markers

Special markers shall be used to mark special or experimental installations subject

to periodic inspection which otherwise cannot be readily located. These markers
shall be painted with a yellow top similar to the black top of a culvert marker, and
shall show the stations mark on one side. A typical installation would be a marker
both at the beginning and at the end of an experimental pavement section. In this
case the word „begin‟ or „end‟ as the case may be, is shown together with the station
or status kilometre. Other pertinent information may be added if feasible.
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9.4 Right of Way Markers

The setting of right of way monument markers shall be the absolute minimum
necessary to delineate the right of way, when such delineation is necessary and no
other economical means exists. Where the right of way is adequately delineated by
fences or other means, the right of way line shall not be delineated by markers.
Where required, markers are ordinarily placed at breaks in the right of way line, at
beginnings and ends of curves, and only at such intermediate points that are
necessary.

When used, right of way markers shall preferably be of corrosive resistant metal.
Concrete markers maybe used where metal markers are not feasible.

9.5 Highway Control Points

All projects, regardless of ultimate pavement type should have permanent

monuments locating points of tangency and curvature for geometric control. These
monuments serve as ready reference points for future surveys and for future
improvements of the highway.

These monuments should be located out of the travelled way and their locations
recorded in the alignment or construction notes.

Monuments locate alignment control points such as the PC and PT; they may also
be placed at intermediate points on tangent (POT), to supplement other
monuments. The monuments should be located in an offset line from the travel way
which will give a clear line of sight. Normally, 4,5 metres from the outer edge of the
travelled way will give less sight interference from signs, guardrails, speed change
lanes, etc. Other offsets may be used to better fulfil requirements.

Every effort should be made to locate and preserve existing monuments. If

destruction is unavoidable, notify the agency that established the monument and co-
operate in every way to establish an approved alternate before attempting relocation
or removal.

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300 400 400

225
50

100 50 100 75
IB
AS
900

900
I96

675
I25
GROUND LEVEL
600

600
FACE A
NOTE

40 mm Green reflective paint preferred for letters

40 mm and figures on kilometre posts.
White reflective paint for body of kilometre post.

250
500

75 50
FACE B

FRONT ELEVATION

750
NOTE
Foundation block can also be constructed insitu 500
by supporting post on 100mm concrete spacer and
pouring concrete to 375mm depth

50 B
B
370

COVER
600

380
TO ASABA

25
400

50

A
A
400 GROUT
6mm DIA. MAIN ROD
6mm DIA. LINKS @ 225mm CTRS
PLAN

CROSS SECTION

Figure 25: Standard Kilometre Post

STANDARD KILOMETRE POST

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10 Right of Way and Roadside Development

10.1 General

The primary purpose of protection of the Right of Way and roadside development is
to create a harmonious integration of the highway corridor, and the environment
through which it passes. The development of the highway corridor must be based
not only on the functional aspect of highway geometrics, but also on aesthetic
qualities as it relates to the highway user and the immediate environs.

The Environmental Process is exhaustively discussed in the Highway Manual Part I:

Volume VII: Environmental Management, 2007. In this chapter, discussion is limited
to protection of the Right of Way and those aspects that the designer should provide
in the cross-section, to ensure that the appropriate environmental measures can be
incorporated in the project.

The following paragraphs describe some of the elements to be considered in

roadside development.

10.2 Right of Way

10.2.1 Protection of Right of Way for Safety and Free Traffic Flow

Recent developments have seen sections of highways becoming confused as

market places and shopping streets. This has become a serious safety hazard, as
well as creating a loss of efficiency as traffic on the highway is constrained and even
halted while traders conduct business with drivers and passengers in vehicles. In
considering designs for highways, provision must therefore be made for areas to be
provided where such business can be safely conducted, and to introduce measures
to prevent such business being conducted where safety is compromised, and where
through traffic will be adversely affected.

Service roads through “market type areas” adjacent to the road must therefore be
considered, which must be coupled with consideration of access across the highway

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(pedestrian or minor bridges or underpasses), coupled with additional fencing

measures to channel pedestrian traffic in safe areas.

Assistance with controlling this aspect must be obtained from the police.

10.2.2 Right of Way Strips for Scenic Enhancement

Right of way for the purpose of scenic enhancement consists of areas outside the
highway right of way. Rights to such areas may be secured by free easement. If an
easement is to be used, it must clearly indicate the purpose thereof, and reserve to
Government, the rights necessary for development required. The objective is to
preserve existing natural amenities and to restore where practical, those lost
through thoughtless development.

10.2.3 Screening of Unsightly Areas

Areas that are conspicuous by their ugliness, or detract from desirable amenities of
the surroundings, should be given first priority as screening projects. All roadside
areas should be studied to determine if it will be reasonable and practical to install,
construct, or plant effective screenings. Consideration should be given to
permanence of screening and maintenance requirements.

10.2.4 Abandoned Facilities

Often the roadsides of newly constructed and/or updated facilities will contain
remnants of previous highway developments, such as short sections of roadways,
drainage facilities, etc. These obsolete and abandoned elements shall be removed
or obliterated so that they blend into the forms and textures of the normal roadside.

10.3 Erosion Control

Erosion control consists of all roadside work involved in the final shaping and
rounding of earth slopes, salvaging and spreading of top soil, seeding, sodding,

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sprigging, mulching, liming, fertilizing and other treatments to restore construction

areas to a natural and non-erosive condition.

Erosion control should be considered as the minimum roadside development

required on all construction projects.

10.4 Landscaping

Although roadside planting has aesthetic value, this is incidental to highway safety
and ease of maintenance. The following brief outlines describe the objectives of
roadside planting.

 As erosion control measure, planting serves to protect side slopes, as well

as to aid in the maintenance thereof.

 Planting in the median is a safety measure; it serves as a screen against

glare from opposing headlights and discourages indiscriminate crossings.
Certain types of planting also cushion and help stop an uncontrolled vehicle
which leaves the travelled way.

 Certain types of planting assists in weed control and reduces a fire hazard.

 Planting in a developed area acts in a limited way, as an acoustical barrier

which screens neighbouring property from traffic noise.

 When used to emphasize structures, planting is an additional safety

measure.

 Planting improves appearance and screens off unsightly views.

Landscaping should also include preservation, selective clearing and thinning of

desirable natural growth along the alignment.

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10.5 Contour Grading

The most pleasing ultimate aesthetic roadside effects can best be developed with
easy flowing contours. Contour grading is the most important factor in roadside
preparation, erosion control and in the maintenance of planting. Contour grading
plans may be required for certain areas to facilitate anticipated roadside treatment.

These plans should illustrate, among other things, the flattening of slope that
irregular widths of right of way permit.

10.6 Side Slopes in Urban Areas

The right of way line should be the control for the side slopes, particularly on urban
highways. This applies to irregular, as well as uniform right of way widths. The toe
of the slope shall be at least 1.5 meters from the right of way line. Side slopes shall
not be steeper than 2:1. The cost of stabilizing, planting and perpetual maintenance
of steeper slopes may sometimes exceed the cost of the additional grading and
right of way required to provide a flatter slope.

10.7 Borrow Pits

Borrow pits shall be sited such that sheet erosion shall be kept to a minimum and
shall be self-silting. Generally, the sides shall be dressed to conform to the
surrounding physical features. Where ponding is not objectionable, they may be
hollowed out for rainwater storage provided the depth is not dangerous to people or
animals. Otherwise they shall be drained. In no case shall borrow pits be located
within the limits of the ultimate road section.

10.8 Excess Road Material

No excess road material shall be deposited permanently on the right of way, except
at approved spoil sites. Excess fill or cut material shall be removed or spread out
neatly to conform to the general profile.

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11 Annex – Checklists for Road Safety Audits

These checklists are considered to be a recent compilation of accepted practice

formulated by the Road Traffic Management Corporation of South Africa.

11.1 Stage 1 Road Safety Audit: Feasibility - Checklist

Items for Stage 1 Possible Issue

General Topics
Project scope, function and mix of What is the function of the scheme?
traffic
Is the design consistent with the function of the road?
Does the project make adequate provision for:
 Pedestrians
 Passenger vehicles
 Heavy vehicles
 Buses
 Other road users that will make use of the
facility?
Does the project make adequate provision for the
expected traffic mix?
Is the proposed project consistent with adjacent roads,
land forms and traffic management?
Type and degree of access to property Is the degree of access control consistent with the
and developments function of the road and with other sections of the road?
Will sight distances be satisfactory at intersections and
property accesses?
Is the design speed (or the anticipated vehicle speeds)
compatible with the number and type of intersections or
property accesses?
Does the width of the road satisfy access needs?
Major traffic generators Are all major traffic generators far enough away from the
project or from intersections to avoid unsafe influences
on the form of the design?
Have existing or alternative accesses been arranged to
ensure that existing sub-areas are not cut off by the
project?
Have existing or alternative accesses been arranged to
ensure that existing sub-areas are not cut off by the
project?
Will the proposed scheme be consistent with adjacent
roads, land forms and traffic management?

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Items for Stage 1 Possible Issue

Staging requirements Will this design be implemented in one stage only?
If the design is to be implemented in more than one
stage, has safety been given a high priority:
 in transitions between stages?
 in transitions to existing roads?
Will the work avoid problems with safety standards
elsewhere during construction?
Future works Will the route be free of compromises in safety if there is
to be;
 future widening?
 the addition of a complete second carriageway?
 after realignments?
 major geometric changes at intersections?
 linear extensions of the scheme?
Wider network effects Have all harmful safety effects of this scheme upon the
surrounding road network been identified? Have they
been adequately dealt with?

Design
Are all aspects regarding the location of the route and the
Route choice
alignment thereof safe?
Does the project safely tie in with the existing road
network?
If the route is new, is the alignment safe? Could it be
safer?
Does the project safely fit in with the physical constraints
of the landscape?
Does the project design safely take account of the
existing road network?
Consistency/ continuity with the existing Does the project pose any safety problems where it ties
road section/ network in with the adjacent road network/ sections?
Were the appropriate design standards used with specific
General design standards
reference to:
 The project scope?
 Road users that will utilise/ be influenced by the
project?
 The traffic mix utilising the project?
Does the geometric plan and profile meet design
guidelines?
Does the design meet the needs of the appropriate
design vehicles?
Does the proposed cross-section allow for providing a
forgiving road side at the design speed?
Design speed Is the design speed appropriate for:
 Vertical and horizontal alignment
 Sight distances and visibility

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Items for Stage 1 Possible Issue

 Merging
 Weaving
 Deceleration/ acceleration of traffic at controlled
intersections/ accesses
Are there any changes in the design speed/ posted
speed limit?
Are the design speed and speed limit appropriate?
Is the sight distance safe enough at:
 Intersections?
 Interchange on and off ramps?
 Accesses to properties?
 Accesses for emergency vehicles?
Is the design speed and posted speed limit reconcilable
with each other?
Design traffic characteristics Is the design appropriate for the:
 Design volume
 Design traffic characteristics (e.g. vulnerable
road users and heavy vehicles)
Does the design provide for the safe accommodation of:.
 An increase in traffic volume if expected?
 Changes in traffic characteristics?

Intersections
Type and number Are all aspects of the intersections (e.g. spacing, type,
layout, etc.)appropriate with respect to:
 The function of the road and intersecting roads
 The broad concept of the project
 The traffic mix on the roads and intersecting
roads
 Road users to use the project
 Land-use adjacent to the project
 Consistent with adjacent sections.
Is the frequency of intersections appropriate:
 For safe access?
 To avoid impacts on the surrounding network?
 For emergency vehicle access?
Have all physical, visibility or traffic management
constraints which would influence the choice and spacing
of intersections been considered?
Has the vertical and horizontal alignment of the
intersecting road sections been taken into account in the
design, layout and spacing of intersections?
Are all the intersections essential or necessary?
Can the number of intersections be reduced to improve
safety?

Can access safety be improved by changes on the

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Items for Stage 1 Possible Issue

surrounding road network?
Is the angle of the intersecting road sections and sight
lines safe for all road users?
Is there adequate provision for the movement of
vulnerable road users? Is there adequate provision for
the movement of heavy vehicles?

Environmental Issues
Physical characteristics of the terrain Is the surrounding terrain free from physical or vegetation
characteristics which could affect the safety of the
project? (for example deep cuttings, steep or rocky bluffs,
heavy planting or forestry that constrain the design)

Do the gradients, curves and general design approaches

fit in with the likely weather or environmental aspects of
the terrain? (for example fog-prone areas)

Are there any vegetation-related aspects that will reduce

the safety of the project?

Does the project deal safely with possible animal

conflicts? (e.g. stray cattle & game)

Has safety been considered in the location of

environmental features like noise fences?

Are visual distractions like scenic vistas safely dealt with?

Has the issue of unstable countryside been considered?

(e.g. mining subsidence)

Day-night time aspects Has the effect of the angles of the sun at sunrise and
sunset been considered?

Will the safety of the project be satisfactory at night-time,

when it is wet or there is fog?

Other
Pedestrians Are there any pedestrian pathways crossing the project?
Has provision been made for pedestrian movement along
these lines?
Will the project cause the division of existing communities
or cause separation of communities from basic
commodities like water, firewood or retail facilities?
Driver perception
Can the proposed project be properly signed to allow the
driver sufficient reaction and manoeuvre time to respond

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Items for Stage 1 Possible Issue

without information overload?
Have possible constraints on information transfer to the
driver been considered that may limit his safe and
timeous response for the driving tasks?
Will the driver ever be exposed to sudden darkness?
Miscellaneous Has the possibility of flooding been dealt with?
Have all railway level crossings been identified and
treated adequately?
Have other possible distractions like advertising or low-
flying aircraft been identified and adequately dealt with?
Has the need for facilities such as laybys, parking or rest
areas or safe facilities for informal trading been
considered and provided where required?
Have all unusual or hazardous conditions associated with
special events been considered?
Has the risk implications of the transport of hazardous
materials been considered?
Has any safety or accident problems on the existing
network been considered to ensure that they will not be
transferred to the new facility?
Has the need for providing lighting on the design been
considered?
Has the absence of electricity that will limit the use of
lighting, warning signs or flashing signals been
considered?
Has the need for drivers to stop been considered (e.g.
rest areas, truck parking, overload control, enforcement,
etc.)?

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11.2 Stage 2 Road Safety Audit: Draft (Preliminary) Design - Checklist

Items for Stage 2 Possible Issue

General
Changes since previous audit Do the conditions for which the original planning had
been done, still apply (e.g. no changes to the surrounding
network, area activities or traffic mix)?
Has the general form of the project design remained
unchanged since the previous audit, (if any)?
Drainage Will the project drain adequately?
Has the probability of surface flooding or overflowing of
drainage from adjacent drainage features from adjacent
roads, intersecting drains or water courses been
considered?
Are there any environmental/ vegetation/ other effects
that will hamper the functioning of drainage inlets (e.g.
sugar cane blocking inlets)?
Climate Has consideration been given to weather records or local
experience that may indicate problems related to adverse
weather conditions such as snow, fog, etc. typical in the
area?
Landscaping If landscaping proposals are available, how will they
affect the safety of the project (e.g. inter-visibility of
drivers and pedestrians, sight lines, shade/ sun interplay
on the road and hazards in the clear zones)?
Services Does the design adequately deal with buried and
overhead services, especially overhead clearances on
roads in super- elevation, etc.?
Has the location of fixed objects or furniture associated
with services been checked, including the location of
specific poles
Do any of the services intrude in the right of way of other
road users (e.g. poles located on the sidewalks, etc.)?

Access to property and developments Can all accesses be used safely?

Is the design free from any downstream or upstream
effects from points of access, particularly near
intersections?
Have truck parking and rest area accesses been checked
for adequate sight distance, etc.?

Adjacent land-use Will the project accommodate the traffic generated by

adjacent developments and the adjacent road network
safely?
Is the design reconcilable with driver expectancy from the
lighting and traffic signals provided on the adjacent road
section/intersection/network?
Does the design make provision for special road users
that are generated by adjacent land-uses and the existing
road network?
Are there any land-use issues that will have an effect on

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Items for Stage 2 Possible Issue

the safety of the project?
Emergency vehicles and access Has provision been made for safe access and movement
by emergency vehicles (e.g. fire brigade trucks)?
Does the design and position of medians and vehicle
barriers allow emergency vehicles to stop and turn
without unnecessarily disrupting traffic or being exposed
to danger?

Future Planning If widening is planned:

 Are drivers adequately guided by the design?
 Are drivers adequately informed by signage?
Is the possible transition between a single and dual
carriageway (both directions) being handled safely?
Project Phasing If the project is to be constructed/implemented in different
phases:
 Are the phasing details adequate to ensure
safety?
 Is the phasing programming safe?
 Are there measures to accommodate temporary
traffic management between the different
phases?
If the construction is to be split into different contracts,
are they arranged safely?
Maintenance Can routine maintenance vehicles be safely located?

Design
Design Standards (General) Is the design speed and proposed posted speed limits
appropriate for the terrain and function of the road? Are
they appropriate for the design vehicles and the road
users?
Is the design speed reconcilable with the expected
operational speed?
Has the appropriate design vehicle/s been used
(specifically also for possible constraining turning
movements)?
Typical cross-sections Are the cross-section features such as widths of lanes
and shoulders, medians, etc. adequate for the function of
the project?
Do the cross-section features conform to the
requirements set for design for safety?
Are lane and shoulder widths appropriate for:
 The alignment?
 Road users?
 The vehicles that will utilise the project?
 The operating speeds?
 The combinations of speed and volume?
Are overtaking/ climbing/ crawler lanes provided if

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Items for Stage 2 Possible Issue

needed?
 Have adequate clear zones been provided?
Variations in cross-sections Are there any variations in cross-section that will
influence safety negatively?
Are the cross-falls safe (particularly where sections of
existing roadways are used or accesses
accommodated)?
Are there any unsafe compromises such as sudden
narrowing at existing bridges
Layout of roadway Do the traffic management features:
 Create unsafe conditions?
 Provide adequate warning or guidance?
Do the road signs and markings provide adequate
warning and guidance at locations where the alignment is
substandard or changing (also under night-time or low
visibility conditions)?
Shoulders and edge treatment Are .the following safety aspects of shoulder provision
satisfactory
 Provision of surfaced or un-surfaced shoulders?
 Width and treatment on embankments?
 Cross-fall of shoulders?
Are the shoulders likely to be safe when used by slow
moving vehicles or cyclists?
Are any rest areas or truck parking areas designed
safely?
Cut-and-fill Are there any geological characteristics of the cut-and fill
of the project that will endanger road users?

Deviations from and changes to Do any of the deviations from accepted design guidelines
standard design guidelines and or standards reduce the safety performance of the
standards project?

Alignment
Vertical and horizontal alignment Does the horizontal and vertical alignment fit together
appropriately?
Does the vertical and horizontal alignment guide a driver
accurately - is it free of visual clues that would cause the
driver to misread the road characteristics?
Is the vertical and horizontal alignment conducive to
consistent operating speed?
Visibility and sight distance Does the vertical and horizontal alignment provide the
required sight distance and visibility?
Are there any of the following objects or structures
present that will obstruct sight lines or reduce sight
distance that will have an adverse effect on safety:
 Fencing?
 Traffic barriers?
 Street furniture (including trash bins)?

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 Services?
 Parking facilities?
 Signs?
 Landscaping/ vegetation?
 Bridge abutments?
Are all hazards such as bridge abutments noticeable?
Is there any local feature that will obstruct sight lines?
Are railway crossings, bridges, intersections and other
hazards clearly visible under daytime and night time
driving?
Transition between project and existing Does the transition from existing to new (and opposite)
adjacent road section/ intersection occur well away from any hazardous condition like the
network following:
 Speed differences?
 Differences in access provision?
 Geometry (e.g. is it on a curve or a crest where
the visibility is poor/ where the driver is likely to
be distracted)?
 Differences in design standards?
 Differences in the physical features of the
environment (e.g. for example from lit to unlit,
rural to urban)?
 Differences in the posted speed limit?
Is adequate advance warning provided where required?
Other:
Parking Is on-site parking planned to minimise on-street parking?
Can on-street parking be provided safely?
If not, are measures provided to prevent it?

Intersections
Visibility of intersection Do the horizontal and vertical alignments at the
intersection or on the approach to the intersection, allow
safe forward visibility to the intersection and inter-visibility
between the main road and the intersecting road/s?
Will drivers be aware of the presence of the intersection
and the control thereof? (Especially approaching on the
minor road) and will they be able to react safely to it?
Are there any of the following temporary features present
that will obstruct sight lines:
 Parked vehicles?
 Public transport facilities/lay-bys?
 Queuing vehicles?
 Heavy vehicle loading zones?
Layout and traffic control Are the following appropriate for the function of the two
intersecting roads:

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Layout (e.g. crossroad, T-junction, roundabout,
interchange)?
Traffic control type (e.g. signalisation, Stop or Yield
control)?
Will the layout or traffic control have a negative safety
impact on special road users such as:
 Pedestrians?
 Vulnerable road users?
 Cyclists?
 Heavy vehicles?
Does the layout make provision for all design vehicles
that will utilise the intersection (e.g. turning radii, swept
paths of vehicles, lane widths, etc)?
Where a roundabout is proposed:
 Have cyclist movements been considered?
 Have pedestrian movements been considered?
 Are the details pertaining to the circulating
roadway sufficient?
Will the layout 01' traffic control affect the safety of public
transport facilities (if planned)?
 Is the design free from any upstream or
downstream geometric features that could affect
safety (e.g., lane merges)?
Are the approach speeds on the intersecting road
sections safe?
Readability by drivers Will the general type, function and broad features be
perceived correctly by the drivers?
Are the approach speeds and likely positions of vehicles
as they track through the intersection safe?

Do successive intersections violate driver expectancy

because of inconsistencies?
Does the driver get sufficient time to perceive the
upcoming situation, decide upon a course of action,
prepare for and execute the necessary actions safely?
Does the design provide for erroneous decisions?
Is the design free from possible sunrise and sunset
problems that may create a hazard?
Will the driver experience glare from oncoming vehicles
or from road lighting?
Is the driver ever exposed to sudden darkness?

Special Road Users

Pedestrians Is the design safe for pedestrians?
Is there a need for the provision of pedestrian crossings?
Are pedestrian crossings provided along desire lines?

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Is there a need for paved footpaths? If not planned,
where will the pedestrians walk and will it be safe
enough?
Is the carriageway widened to provide for pedestrian
movement and can pedestrians utilise this safely?
Is there a need for pedestrian refuge islands and are they
wide enough to ensure safety?
Is the expected operational speed appropriate for the
pedestrian facilities that are provided?
Is there a need for the special provision of facilities for
vulnerable road users such as children and the elderly?
Cyclists and motorcyclists Is consideration being given to the needs of cyclists and
motorcyclists?
Are bicycle lanes needed or can shared pedestrian-cycle
facilities be implemented?
Is the roadside forgiving in areas more prone to run off
the road accidents by motorcyclists?
Animals Heavy vehicles Is there a need to make provision for stock or
equestrians?
Heavy vehicles Does the design make provision for the limitations of
heavy vehicles (e.g. longer stopping distance, etc.)?
Does the design consider safe gradients for heavy
vehicles?
If in mountainous terrain, are any arrestor bed facilities
required for the design?
Are they provided or can a modification of the design
eliminate the need?
Should rest areas be provided? If planned, can they be
used safely? Are safe heavy vehicle loading facilities
provided where required?
Is provision made for the safe manoeuvring of heavy
vehicles where necessary?
Public Transport Is safe provision made for public transport facilities where
needed?
Is provision made for the safe movement of pedestrians
to, at and from the public transport facilities (e.g. Are
sufficient space available for passengers alighting from
buses)?
Maintenance vehicles and crews Can maintenance vehicles and crews be safely
accommodated after implementation of the project?

Road Traffic Signs and Lighting

Road signs Can the project be provided with direction signs in an
unambiguous manner?

Are the road signs adequate to provide for driver needs

(guidance, control and warning)
Will the road signs be visible and readable (review
special needs for appropriate night-time reflectivity)?

Is the amount of reflectivity adequate/ excessive, i.e.

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blinding the driver?
Will any of the road signing limit the visibility or sight lines
at accesses or intersections?
Will any of the road signing pose a safety hazard to
errant vehicles?
Was provision made to reduce the severity of such
crashes?
Were road signs placed with due cognisance of road
safety?
Road markings Are the planned road markings adequate in terms of
safety?
Are there any road elements that will require the
provision of road studs for visibility at night-time (e.g.
raised median islands etc)?
Is the transition of road markings between the project and
the existing adjacent road section/ intersection/ network
safe?
Road lighting Should road lighting be provided for this project? If lit, will
safety still be maintained in the case of a break in power
supply?
Are there any special needs created by ambient lighting
and will safety be maintained if such special features are
not provided?
Was due cognisance taken of features such as trees,
over-bridges, etc. that will affect the installation of road
lighting?
Does the road lighting pose a roadside hazard?
Is the road user adequately protected from colliding with
lighting poles?
If traffic barriers are used for this purpose, are they
properly located or installed to ensure improved safety
and will they function as intended?

Traffic Operations and Construction

Traffic flow Will the traffic flow of the project have a negative
influence on the safety of adjacent road network/
developments?
Was adequate consideration given to parking control
features?
Can exclusive turning lanes and deceleration lanes be
used safely?
Will the project cause or contribute to the movement of
traffic at high speeds through residential areas (rat-
running)?
Access management Was adequate consideration given to the possible
provision of accesses of future developments in or
adjacent to the project?
Are the existing and proposed accesses in the road
project safe to use? Will any up-or downstream effects
reduce the safety of an access, particularly those located
close to intersections?

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Merging and Overtaking Are adequate shoulder widths provided during and after
lane merges?
Is adequate overtaking sight distance and stopping
distance provided?
Is advance warning provided for lane merging?
Is proper sight distance provided for lane merging?
Rest areas and stopping facilities Are sufficient stopping and rest areas provided?
Are safe access provided to rest areas and stopping
facilities?
Is the sight distance and access design for accesses to
rest areas safe?
Construction If the project is to be constructed "under traffic,” can this
be done safely as far as the construction is concerned,
as well as the extent to which the general travelling public
will be affected?
Are there any elements of the project that will hamper the
safe construction of the project (e.g. construction vehicle
routes and interaction with general public traffic)?
Can safe access be provided for construction vehicles?
Are there any features of the project that will require
special traffic management during construction, phasing
or any period before implementation?

OTHER ISSUES
Roadside hazard management Are there any roadside hazards that can be:
 Redesigned
 Relocated
 Protected by traffic barriers?
 Made breakaway?
Are traffic barriers adequate for the design vehicles of the
project?
Are safe end-treatments provided?
Incident management Can traffic barriers be safely maintained?
Will they function as was intended?
Is adequate deflection distance provided for guardrail and
cable systems?
Can traffic be safely accommodated during an incident?
Is safe access possible for emergency vehicles?
In the case of fixed medians, does the project provide for
the safe stopping and turning of emergency vehicles?
Tourism/ recreation Are there any safety requirements for the
accommodation of tourism or recreation facilities?

Have all unusual or potentially hazardous conditions

associated with special events been considered? If
required, can the road be closed in a safe manner?

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11.3 Stage 3 Road Safety Audit: Detailed Design - Checklist

Items for Stage 3 Possible Issue

GENERAL
Changes since previous audit Do the conditions for which the draft design had been
done, still apply (e.g. no changes to the surrounding
network, area activities or traffic mix)?
Has the general form of the project design remained
unchanged since the previous audit, (if any)?
Drainage Will the project drain adequately?
Has the probability of surface flooding or overflowing of
drainage from adjacent drainage features from adjacent
roads, intersecting drains or water courses considered?
Are there any environmental/ vegetation/ other effects
that will hamper the functioning of drainage inlets (e.g.
sugar cane blocking inlets)?
Climate Has consideration been given to weather records or local
experience that may indicate problems related to adverse
weather conditions such as snow, fog, etc. typical in the
area?
Landscaping If landscaping proposals are available, how will they
affect the safety of the project (e.g. inter-visibility of
drivers and pedestrians, sight lines, shade/ sun interplay
on the road and hazards in the clear zones)?
Will landscaping proposals introduce road side hazards
when the vegetation matures?
Services Does the design adequately deal with buried and
overhead services, especially overhead clearances on
roads in super-elevation, etc.?
Has the location of fixed objects or furniture associated
with services been checked, including the location of
specific poles?
Do any of the services intrude in the right of way of other
road users (e.g. poles located on the sidewalks, etc.)?

Access to property and developments Can all accesses be used safely?

Is the design free from any downstream or upstream
effects from points of access, particularly near
intersections?
Have truck parking and rest area accesses been checked
for adequate sight distance, etc.?

Adjacent land-use Will the project accommodate the traffic generated by

adjacent developments and the adjacent road network
safely?
Is the design reconcilable with driver expectancy from the
lighting and traffic signals provided on the adjacent road
section/intersection/network?
Does the design make provision for special road users
that are generated by adjacent land-uses and the existing
road network?

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Are there any land-use issues that will have an effect on
the safety of the project?
Emergency vehicles and access Has provision been made for safe access and movement
by emergency vehicles (e.g. fire brigade trucks)?
Does the design and position of medians and vehicle
barriers allow emergency vehicles to stop and turn
without unnecessarily disrupting traffic or being exposed
to danger?
Will broken down vehicles or stopped emergency vehicle
be safe from passing traffic?
Have median breaks been safely provided on dual
carriageway roads (e.g. frequency, visibility, usage
constraints, signage)?
Future Planning If widening is planned:
 Are drivers adequately guided by the design?
 Are drivers adequately informed by signage?
Is the possible transition between a single and dual
carriageway (both directions) being handled safely?
Project Phasing If the project is to be constructed/implemented in different
phases:
 Are the phasing details adequate to ensure
safety?
 Is the phasing programming safe?
 Are there measures to accommodate temporary
traffic management between the different
phases?
If the construction is to be split into different contracts,
are they arranged safely?
Do construction plans and programme for staged
construction include specific safety measures for
temporary arrangements?
Maintenance Can routine maintenance vehicles be safely located?
Skid Resistance Has the need for anti-skid surfacing been considered,
and provided for, in areas where improved braking and
road adhesion is essential?

Design
Design Standards (General) Is the design speed and proposed posted speed limits
appropriate for the terrain and function of the road? Are
they appropriate for the design vehicles and the road
users?
Is the design speed reconcilable with the expected
operational speed?
Has the appropriate design vehicle/s been used?
(specifically also for possible constraining turning
movements)
Drainage Does the cross section provide safe drainage parallel and
perpendicular to the road (e.g. are the side slopes of the
concrete drain such that errant vehicles can recover after
entering)?

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If concrete side drains pose a risk of trapping vehicles,
has provision been made for guard rails?
Are concrete head walls perpendicular to the main road
sloped to reduce the impact on an errant vehicle?
Is the design of grid inlets such that it does not pose a
danger to cyclists?
Are kerb inlets set back from the face of guard rails?
Typical cross-sections Are the cross-section features such as widths of lanes
and shoulders, medians, etc. adequate for the function of
the project?
Do the cross-section features conform to the
requirements set for design for safety?
Are lane and shoulder widths appropriate for:
 The alignment?
 Road users?
 The vehicles that will utilise the project?
 The operating speeds?
 The combinations of speed and volume?
Are overtaking/ climbing/ crawler lanes provided if
needed?
Have adequate clear zones been provided?
Are batter slopes safe for errant vehicles?
Does the median allow street furniture to be located
safely?
Does the verge design allow the safe installation of
ground mounted or overhead structures?
Has provision been made for side- walks and for the safe
handling of pedestrians and cyclists (including full width
dropped kerbs at pedestrian crossings)?
Super-elevation Is the super-elevation consistent with the design speed
and type of road?
Will changes in super-elevation at operating speeds
result in the possible shifting of freight on heavy
vehicles?
Are there any curves with adverse cross-fall?
Variations in cross-sections Are there any variations in cross-section that will
influence safety negatively?
Are the cross-falls safe (particularly where sections of
existing roadways are used or accesses
accommodated)?
Are there any unsafe compromises such as sudden
narrowing at existing bridges?
Layout of roadway Do the traffic management features:
 Create unsafe conditions?
 Provide adequate warning or guidance?
Do the road signs and markings provide adequate
warning and guidance at locations where the alignment is

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substandard or changing (also under night-time or low
visibility conditions)?
Are overtaking/ climbing/ crawler lanes provided where
needed? Are they properly signed and marked at the
start and end of these lanes
Shoulders and edge treatment Are .the following safety aspects of shoulder provision
satisfactory
 Provision of surfaced or un-surfaced shoulders?
 Width and treatment on embankments?
 Cross-fall of shoulders( to allow use of shoulder
as recovery area)?
Are the shoulders likely to be safe when used by slow
moving vehicles or cyclists?
Are shoulder widths sufficient for stationary vehicles?
Are any rest areas or truck parking areas designed
safely?
Cut-and-fill Are there any geological characteristics of the cut-and fill
of the project that will endanger road users?

Is the stability of slopes safe to ensure that debris or

loose material does not collect on the road or that an
embankment remains stable?
Deviations from and changes to Do typical details used on the project reflect road safety
standard design guidelines and best practices and have they been reviewed for
standards applicability to this particular project?
Do any of the deviations from accepted design guidelines
or standards reduce the safety performance of the
project?

Alignment
Vertical and horizontal alignment Does the horizontal and vertical alignment fit together
appropriately?
Does the vertical and horizontal alignment guide a driver
accurately - is it free of visual clues that would cause the
driver to misread the road characteristics?
Is the vertical and horizontal alignment conducive to
consistent operating speed?
Is the design free from misleading visual clues?
Visibility and sight distance Does the vertical and horizontal alignment provide the
required sight distance and visibility?
Are there any of the following objects or structures
present that will obstruct sight lines or reduce sight
distance that will have an adverse effect on safety:
 Fencing?
 Traffic barriers?
 Street furniture (including trash bins)?
 Services?
 Parking facilities?

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 Signs?
 Landscaping/ vegetation?
 Bridge abutments?
Are all hazards such as bridge abutments noticeable?
Is there any local feature that will obstruct sight lines?
Are railway crossings, bridges, intersections and other
hazards clearly visible under daytime and night time
driving?
Is the design free from overhead obstructions that may
restrict sight distance in sag curves or forward sight
distance towards overhead mounted road traffic signs?
Has minimum sight distance been provided at:
 Entry and exit ramps?
 Gore areas?
 Intersections?
 Roundabouts?
 Other possible conflict points?
Transition between project and existing Does the transition from existing to new (and opposite)
adjacent road section/ Intersection/ occur well away from any hazardous condition like the
network following:
 Speed differences?
 Differences in access provision?
 Geometry (e.g. is it on a curve or a crest where
the visibility is poor/ where the driver is likely to
be distracted)?
 Differences in design standards?
 Differences in the physical features of the
environment (e.g. for example from lit to unlit,
rural to urban)?
 Differences in the posted speed limit?
Is adequate advance warning provided where required?
Other:
Parking Is on-site parking planned to minimise on-street parking?
Can on-street parking be provided safely?
If not, are measures provided to prevent it?
Public Transport Has the need for public transport facilities been
considered and implemented in a manner that would
allow safe ingress and egress to possible bus stops?
Intersections
Readability by drivers Will the general type, function and broad features be
perceived correctly by the drivers?
Are the approach speeds and likely positions of vehicles
as they track through the intersection safe?

Do successive intersections violate driver expectancy

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because of inconsistencies?
Does the driver get sufficient time to perceive the
upcoming situation, decide upon a course of action,
prepare for and execute the necessary actions safely?
Does the design provide for erroneous decisions?
Is the design free from possible sunrise and sunset
problems that may create a hazard?
Will the driver experience glare from oncoming vehicles
or from road lighting?
Is the driver ever exposed to sudden darkness?
Visibility of intersection Do the horizontal and vertical alignments at the
intersection or on the approach to the intersection allow
safe forward visibility to the intersection and inter-visibility
between the main road and the intersecting road/s?
Will drivers be aware of the presence of the intersection
and the control thereof (especially approaching on the
minor road) and will they be able to react safely to it?
Are there any of the following temporary features present
that will obstruct sight lines:
 Parked vehicles?
 Public transport facilities/lay-bys?
 Queuing vehicles?
 Heavy vehicle loading zones?
Layout and traffic control Are the following appropriate for the function of the two
intersecting roads:
Layout (e.g. crossroad, T-junction, roundabout,
interchange)?
Traffic control type (e.g. signalisation, Stop or Yield
control)?
Will the layout or traffic control have a negative safety
impact on special road users such as:
 Pedestrians?
 Vulnerable road users?
 Cyclists?
Heavy vehicles?
Does the layout make provision for all design vehicles
that will utilise the intersection (e.g. turning radii, swept
paths of vehicles, lane widths, etc)?
Is the design free from any upstream or down- stream
geometric features that could affect safety (e.g. lane
merges)?
Is there a need for traffic barriers? Will their use result in
the reduction of the severity of injuries?
Have islands been provided to clarify special movements
and to provide refuge for pedestrians?
Are the approach speeds on the intersecting roads safe?
Are sufficient queue lengths/storage for turning
movements available?

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Will the layout or traffic control affect the safety of the
public transport facilities (if planned)?
Roundabouts Where a roundabout is proposed:
 Have cyclist movements been considered?
 Have pedestrian movements been considered?
 Are the details pertaining to the circulating
roadway sufficient?
Is adequate deflection provided to reduce approach
speeds?
If splitter islands are required, are they adequate for sight
distance, length, pedestrian storage, etc?
Is the central island prominent and does it limit see-
through?
Can pedestrians be seen early enough by drivers?
Can pedestrians determine if vehicles would be turning in
conflicting movements?
Are direction markings provided in approach lanes where
needed?
Is lighting at the roundabouts adequate and are the
lighting columns in safe locations?

Are the approach speeds on the intersecting road

sections safe?
Geometric design details Can the layout safely handle unusual traffic mixes or
circumstances?
Does any median or island safely provide for:
 Vehicle alignments and paths?
 Future traffic signals?
 Pedestrian storage and surface?
 Turning path clearance?
 Stopping sight distance to the nose?
 Mountability by errant vehicles?

Special Road Users

Pedestrians Is the design safe for pedestrians?
Is there a need for the provision of pedestrian crossings?
Are pedestrian crossings provided along desire lines?
 Visibility (in each direction)?
 Use by the disabled?
 Use by the elderly?
 Use by children/ schools?
Is there a need for paved footpaths? If not planned,
where will the pedestrians walk and will it be safe

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enough?
Is the carriageway widened to provide for pedestrian
movement and can pedestrians utilise this safely?
Is there a need for pedestrian refuge islands and are they
wide enough to ensure safety?
Is the expected operational speed appropriate for the
pedestrian facilities that are provided?
Has pedestrian fencing been provided on medians or
complex intersection layouts to reduce jay-walking?
Is the surfacing of pedestrian walkways appropriate?
Has tactile edging been provided at pedestrian crossings
to assist the disabled?
Cyclists and motorcyclists Has consideration being given to the needs of cyclists
and motorcyclists?
Are bicycle lanes needed or can shared pedestrian-cycle
facilities be implemented?
Has the location of devices or objects that could
destabilise a motorcyclist on the road surface been
avoided?
Is the road side clear of obstructions where a motorcyclist
may lean into curves?
Is the roadside forgiving in areas more prone to run off
the road crashes by motorcyclists?
Are drainage grids, culverts and bridge expansion joints
traversable by a motorcycle?
Heavy vehicles Does the design make provision for the limitations of
heavy vehicles (e.g. longer stopping distance, etc.)?
Does the design consider safe gradients for heavy
vehicles?
If in mountainous terrain, are any arrestor bed facilities
required for the design? Are they provided or can a
modification of the design eliminate the need?
If there are height restrictions, have alternative routes
been provided and properly signed for use by such
oversize vehicles?
Should rest areas be provided? If planned, can they be
used safely? Are safe heavy vehicle loading facilities
provided where required?
Is provision made for the safe manoeuvring of heavy
vehicles where necessary?
Public Transport Is safe provision made for public transport facilities where
needed?
Is provision made for the safe movement of pedestrians
to, and from the public transport facilities (e.g. Are
sufficient space available for passengers alighting from
buses)?
Maintenance vehicles and crews Can maintenance vehicles and crews be safely
accommodated after implementation of the project?
Animals Heavy vehicles Is there a need to make provision for stock or equestrians
(e.g. animal underpasses)?

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Items for Stage 3 Possible Issue

Road Traffic Signs and Lighting

Road signs Can the project be provided with direction signs in an
unambiguous manner?

Do signs comply with the standards prescribed in

legislation and as set out in the Highway Code and
erected in compliance with the Highway Manual?
Are the road signs adequate to provide for driver needs
(guidance, control and warning)? Have the necessary
advance warning signs been provided, including advisory
speeds for hazardous conditions as well as hazard
marker plates?
Does the design overly rely on signs to be effective (in
lieu of appropriate geometric design)?
Are all physical obstructions properly signed to identify
them as hazards?
Will the road signs be visible and readable with sufficient
time for the driver to read, consider options, prepare to
manoeuvre and act on the information in a timely and
safe manner (review special needs for appropriate night-
time reflectivity)?
Is the amount of reflectivity adequate/ excessive, i.e.
blinding the driver?
Will any of the road signing limit the visibility or sight lines
at accesses or intersections?
Will any of the road signing pose a safety hazard to
errant vehicles?
Was provision made to reduce the severity of such
crashes?
Were road signs placed with due cognisance of road
safety?
Road markings Are the planned road markings adequate in terms of
safety?
Do road markings comply with the legislation, the
Highway Code and the Highway Manual?
Have no overtaking line markings been provided where
required?
Have guideline markings and painted islands been
provided to clarify movements in complex layouts?
Has attention been given to the improvement of wet
weather visibility of markings in critical locations?
Has the need for profiled markings been considered and
implemented in the design?
Are there any road elements that will require the
provision of road studs for visibility at night-time (e.g.
raised median islands etc)?
Is the transition of road markings between the project and
the existing adjacent road section/ intersection/ network
safe?
Traffic Signals Has the most appropriate signal phasing system been
selected for the project? Is the system consistent with
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that on the adjoining sections of road?
Are the traffic signal heads visible, i.e. are there any
features such as trees, lighting, signage etc. that may
prevent drivers approaching the intersection from seeing
the signals?
Are there any signal aspects visible near or within the
intersection that may confuse drivers?
Will the intersection be affected by sunrise/ sunset
problems? Is provision made for this in the form of
backboards, louvers or high intensity signals?
Does the vertical alignment on the approaches allow for
sufficient stopping distances?
Is the signal phasing clear to the driver?
Does the phasing conform to the safety requirements set
for the amber and all-red periods?
Are pedestrians considered in the planned signal
phasing?
If islands are located in the path of the pedestrian, is the
size of these sufficient to act as a refuge island?
Road lighting Should road lighting be provided for this project? If lit, will
safety still be maintained in the case of a break in power
supply?
Are there any special needs created by ambient lighting
and will safety be maintained if such special features are
not provided?
Was due cognisance taken of features such as trees,
over-bridges, etc. that will affect the installation of road
lighting?
Does the road lighting pose a roadside hazard?
Is the road user adequately protected from colliding with
lighting poles?
If traffic barriers are used for this purpose, are they
properly located or installed to ensure improved safety
and will they function as intended?
Has lighting been provided at locations with known crash
history?

Roadside Hazard Management

Roadside hazards Are there any roadside hazards that can be
 Redesigned
 Relocated
 Protected by traffic barriers?
 Made breakaway?
Traffic Barriers/ crash barriers Are traffic barriers provided where necessary and
properly detailed for use at structures, embankments,
trees, poles/ posts, drainage channels, bridge piers and
gore areas at off ramps?
Traffic barriers/ crash barriers Are proper deflection distances provided between the
(including wire rope systems) traffic barrier and the roadside hazard if flexible traffic

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barrier systems are used?
Are all end treatments safe if hit by a vehicle? Will the
traffic barrier pose a danger to any of the road users
(also pedestrians and motorcyclists)?
Was the movement of pedestrians considered in the
location and placement detail of the traffic barrier
systems?
If guardrail barrier systems are provided, are the design
and details safe in terms of:
 End-treatment?
 Anchorage?
 Post spacing?
 Block outs?
 Post depth?
 Soil stability?
 Rail overlap?
Are all traffic barriers necessary (e.g. is what it is
shielding a greater hazard than the barrier)?
Bridges and drainage structures Are bridges and culvert end walls visible and easily
recognised?
Is horizontal clearance to moving traffic adequate?
Are sight lines through bridge railing sufficient for safety
purposes?
Are end treatments safe?
Are road traffic signs and markings installed to warn of
possible hazards?
Are the transitions between different traffic barrier system
types safe (approach traffic barrier to bridge parapet)?
Are there differences in the shoulder widths of the
approaches and on the bridge?
Is provision made for the movement of non-vehicular
traffic such as pedestrians, horses/ stock over the
bridge?
Does the bridge railing conform to the requirements set
for safe traffic barriers in terms of rail height, containment
and the fixing detail to the bridge?
Do traffic barriers adequately protect dangerous culvert
structures?
Are there any headwalls present within the clear zone?
Are they adequately protected or can the culverts be
extended to place the end walls outside the clear zone?
Is adequate warning sign age and sight distance
provided at flood ways/ causeways?
Median barriers Was the need for median barriers considered and
adequately provided for?
Is the design and median barrier type adequate for the
particular application (e.g. design vehicle, median width,

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maintenance requirements etc.)?
Are the details for the location and installation of traffic
barriers correct?
Are the end-treatments safe?

Traffic Operations
Traffic flow Will the traffic flow of the project have a negative
influence on the safety of adjacent road network/
developments?
Was adequate consideration given to parking control
features?
Can exclusive turning lanes and deceleration lanes be
used safely?
Will the project cause or contribute to the movement of
traffic at high speeds through residential areas (rat-
running)?
Access management Was adequate consideration given to the possible
provision of accesses of future developments in or
adjacent to the project?
Are the existing and proposed accesses in the road
project safe to use?
Will any up-or downstream effects reduce the safety of
an access, particularly those located close to
intersections?
Merging and Overtaking Are adequate shoulder widths provided during and after
lane merges?
Is adequate overtaking sight distance and stopping
distance provided?
Is advance warning provided for lane merging?
Is proper sight distance provided for lane merging?
Rest areas and stopping facilities Are sufficient stopping and rest areas provided?
Are safe access provided to rest areas and stopping
facilities?
Is the sight distance and access design for accesses to
rest areas safe?
Construction If the project is to be constructed "under traffic," can this
be done safely as far as the construction is concerned,
as well as the extent to which the general travelling public
will be affected?
Are there any elements of the project that will hamper the
safe construction of the project (e.g. construction vehicle
routes and interaction with general public traffic)?
Can safe access be provided for construction vehicles?
Are there any features of the project that will require
special traffic management during construction, phasing
or any period before implementation?

Accommodation of Traffic

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Construction If the project is to be constructed "under traffic," can this
be done safely as far as the construction is concerned,
as well as the extent to which the general travelling public
will be affected?
Have innovative or accelerated construction techniques
been considered to reduce the exposure of the public to
restrictive construction conditions?
Have different phasing options been considered? Are
there any features of the project that will require special
traffic management during construction phases or any
period before implementation?
Are there any elements of the project that will hamper the
safe construction of the project (e.g. construction vehicle
routes and interaction with general public traffic)?
Construction program Have all applicable work zone types been adequately
considered to establish the safest construction program?
 Work outside of roadway
 Full roadway closure
 Permanent lane/shoulder/ramp closures
 Crossovers/contra-flow
 Detour
 Intermittent road closures (i.e. 15-minutes,
weekend)
 Reduced lane widths
 Reduced shoulder widths
 Lane shifts
 Daily lane/shoulder closures
Construction program Use of shoulder or median
One-lane, two-way operation or reversible lanes
Use of temporary structures
Use of temporary pavement
Widening
Night work
Weekend work
Temporary traffic management
Are bypasses or temporary widening needed?
planning
Does pedestrian/bicycle traffic access need to be
maintained?
Are minimum allowable lane widths achievable?
Is the reduced work zone speed limit realistic and
appropriate?
Should certain types of vehicles be prohibited from
entering the work zone (over-height, weight restrictions)?
Will oversized load permits be affected?
Will the work zone be adequate in terms of:

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 Traffic control devices?
 Rail crossings and controls?
 Geometries (turning radii, ramp merge/diverge
areas, etc.)?
 Bridge restrictions and other structures?
Project timing Can the contractor restrict the roadway during:
 Peak hours?
 One direction?
 Both directions?
 Overnight?
 Holidays or weekends?
 Sporting or other special events?
 Other projects in the immediate area?
Protective devices Are temporary barriers and impact attenuators required?
Has extra protection be provided for:
 Pedestrians/bicyclists?
 School areas and crossings?
 Playgrounds and parks?
Have areas been designated for the contractor to safely
store (where necessary):
 Equipment?
 Construction materials?
 Waste materials?
Detours or deviations Does the detour planning show that the detours are
adequate in terms of:
 Weight restrictions?
 Height-width constraints and accommodation of
abnormal vehicles?
 Capacity?
 Adequate traffic control devices?
 Railway crossing and controls (if needed)?
 Geometries (turning radii, etc.)?
 Bridge restrictions and other structures?
Is there other construction along the detour that might
influence traffic?
Will all fronting businesses have acceptable ingress and
egress?
Are alternate routes available to local motorists?
Is a public information meeting required?
Work Zone Analysis Has the work zone traffic analysis been conducted to
identify work zone and ramp capacities?
Have required number of maintained lanes and allowable
lane closure hours been identified?

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Does the project comply with the guidelines set in the
Highway Manual regarding signage and traffic control?
Mobility impacts Has the work zone traffic analysis identified impacts on
any of the following and are measures included to
minimise such impact?
 Ability to maintain all accesses (business,
community, etc.)
 Pedestrian, and bicycle facilities public safety
(workers and travelling public)
 Emergency vehicle access
 Construction equipment access and movement
through the work zone
 Specific user groups (businesses, communities)
 Over-height, over-weight vehicles
 Public Transport services and bus stops
 Traffic operations in and around the work zone
(freeway queues, network operations, effect on
local roads and detour routes)
 Ramp capacity
 Intersection traffic control (signal timing,
adequate sign age, etc.)
 Existing special traffic operations (HOV lanes,
etc.)
 User Costs (delay)
Temporary traffic control Are the temporary traffic control signs and markings
shown on the drawings or referenced to typical details?
Will sign message modifications be required on
permanent signs?
Have the modifications been shown?
Are temporary signals required or will existing signals
need to be kept operational?
Will the removal of markings be required and has the
work zone been set up to minimize removal?
Will Portable Changeable Message Signs be required?
Work zone safety management Have the following work zone safety management
strategies strategies been considered?
 Speed limit reduction/variable speed limits with
portable changeable?
 Message signs displaying speed?
 Temporary traffic barrier and movable traffic
barrier systems?
 Temporary transverse rumble strips?
 Warning lights?
 Temporary roadway lighting?

Incident management Is there provision made for a standby towing service,

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emergency laybys and planned detour routes in case of
an incident?
Have work zone ITS strategies like CCTV monitoring
been considered for traffic monitoring/ management?

Other Issues
Tourism/ recreation Are there any safety requirements for the
accommodation of tourism or recreation facilities?

Have all unusual or potentially hazardous conditions

associated with special events been considered? If
required, can the road be closed in a safe manner?

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11.4 Stage 4 Road Safety Audit: Construction - Checklist

Items for Stage 4 Possible Issue

Traffic Management During
Construction
Construction If the project is to be constructed "under traffic", can this
be done safely as far as the construction is concerned as
well as the extent to which the general travelling public
will be affected?
Have innovative or accelerated construction techniques
been considered to reduce the exposure of the public to
restrictive construction conditions?
Have different phasing options been considered? Are
there any features of the project that will require special
traffic management during construction phases or any
period before implementation?
Are there any elements of the project that will hamper the
safe construction of the project (e.g. construction vehicle
routes and interaction with general public traffic)?
Construction program Have all applicable work zone types been adequately
considered to establish the safest construction program?
 Work outside of roadway
 Full roadway closure
 Permanent lane/shoulder/ramp closures
 Crossovers/contra-flow
 Detour
 Intermittent road closures (i.e. 15-minutes,
weekend)
 Reduced lane widths
 Reduced shoulder widths
 Lane shifts
 Daily lane/shoulder closures
Construction program Use of shoulder or median
One-lane, two-way operation or reversible lanes
Use of temporary structures
Use of temporary pavement
Widening
Night work
Weekend work
Temporary traffic management Are bypasses or temporary widening needed?
planning
Does pedestrian/bicycle traffic access need to be
maintained?
Are minimum allowable lane widths available?
Is the reduced work zone speed limit realistic and
appropriate?
Should certain types of vehicles be prohibited from

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entering the work zone (over-height, weight restrictions)?
Will oversized load permits be affected?
Will the work zone be adequate in terms of:
 Traffic control devices?
 Rail crossings and controls?

 Geometries (turning radii, ramp merge/diverge
areas, etc.)?
 Bridge restrictions and other structures?
Project timing Can the contractor restrict the roadway during:
 Peak hours?
 One direction?
 Both directions?
 Overnight?
 Holidays or weekends?
 Sporting or other special events?
 Other projects in the immediate area?
Will such restrictions reduce the road safety performance
of the construction site?
Protective devices Are temporary barriers and impact attenuators required?
Has extra protection be provided for:
 Pedestrians/bicyclists?
 School areas and crossings?
 Playgrounds and parks?
Have areas been designated for the contractor to safely
store (where necessary):
 Equipment?
 Construction materials?
 Waste materials?
Work Zone Analysis Does the proposed traffic management plan meet the
capacity analyses done during detailed design?
Are the required number of lanes provided within the set
time constraints?
Do all fronting businesses have acceptable ingress and
egress?
Does the project comply with the guidelines set in the
Highway Manual regarding signage and traffic control?
Mobility impacts Has the work zone traffic analysis identified impacts on
any of the following and are measures included to
minimise such impact?
 Ability to maintain all accesses (business,
community, etc.)
 Pedestrian, and bicycle facilities Public safety
(workers and travelling public)

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 Emergency vehicle access
 Construction equipment access and movement
through the work zone
 Specific user groups (businesses, communities)
 Over-height, over-weight vehicles
 Public Transport services and bus stops
 Traffic operations in and around the work zone
(freeway queues, network operations, effect on
local roads and detour routes)
 Ramp capacity
 Intersection traffic control (signal timing,
adequate sign age, etc.)
 Existing special traffic operations (HOV lanes,
etc.)
 User costs (delay)
Temporary traffic control Are the temporary traffic control signs and markings
shown on the drawings or referenced to typical details?
Will sign message modifications be required on
permanent signs?
Have the modifications been shown?
Are temporary signals required or will existing signals
need to be kept operational?
Will the removal of markings be required and has the
work zone been set up to minimize removal?
Will Portable Changeable Message Signs be required?
Work zone safety management Have the following work zone safety management
strategies strategies been considered?
 Speed limit reduction/variable speed limits with
portable changeable?
 message signs displaying speed?
 Temporary traffic barrier and movable traffic
barrier systems?
 Temporary transverse rumble strips?
 Warning lights?
 Temporary roadway lighting?

Incident management and Is there provision made for a standby towing service,
community liaison emergency lay-bys and planned detour routes in case of
an incident?
Have work zone ITS strategies like CCTV monitoring
been considered for traffic monitoring/ management?
Has agreement of the Police been received for the
proposed traffic management and possible law
enforcement in the work zone?
Have relevant radio stations been advised of the
construction in order for road users to be advised of the

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need to consider alternative routes?
Is a public information meeting required?

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11.5 Stage 5 Road Safety Audit: Pre-opening- Checklist

Items for Stage 5 Possible Issue

General Topics
Changes since Stage 3: Detailed Were there any changes since the Stage 3Audit?
Design Road Safety Audit
Was the translation of the design into the project
satisfactory in terms of safety?
Adjacent land use Was the effect/ influence of adjacent land uses catered
for?
Are all accesses safe and adequate as far as design,
location and visibility are concerned?
Drainage Is the drainage of the road and the surrounds adequate?
Climatic condition Is adequate provision made for adverse weather
conditions?
Environmental features Are there any environmental features such as a rock,
bank or trees that will pose a danger to traffic in terms of
its visibility and presence?
Landscaping Is the actual landscaping on site appropriate from a
safety point of view?
Is the roadside hazard of the landscaping limited?
Is the visibility through or along the vegetation
satisfactory, especially for pedestrians? Will this remain
when the vegetation matures?
Services Do traffic barriers protect all services that are not located
in safe locations and is the protection adequate?
Shoulders and road edges Can the constructed shoulders and road edges act as a
safe recovery area?
Surfaces and skid resistance Are there any of the following features that will cause low
skid resistance:
 Joints in surfacing that are bleeding
excessively?
 Loose material (e.g. gravel etc) on any of the
trafficked areas?
Treatment of batters Will the treatment of batters prevent debris from falling on
the roadway?

Alignment
Visibility and sight distance Are the sight lines provided sufficient and free of
obstructions?
Is the visibility of the elements of the project adequate?
Readability by drivers Is the form and function of the road and its traffic
management easily recognised under likely operating
conditions (e.g. heavy traffic, minimal traffic, poor visibility
or adverse weather conditions)?
Transition between project and Is there a need for additional signage or markings to
existing adjacent road section/ ensure safe transition?
intersection/ network

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Bridges and culverts Are all the sign age and markings adequate and visible?

Intersections
Visibility to and at the intersections Are the drivers aware of the existence of the intersections
and the control type? Is visibility satisfactory at the
intersection?
Readability by drivers Is the function of the intersections clear to drivers?
Is the stop line for all the approaches (if necessary) clear
to an approaching driver (This should prevent a vehicle
from protruding into the conflicting traffic)?
Traffic signals Is the alignment of the traffic signal heads and the
general installation thereof correct?
Are all the respective aspects visible from an appropriate
distance on each approach?
Is the signal phasing (for both vehicles and pedestrians)
as programmed safe and functioning as intended?
Are all the road signs, markings, lighting and signals
combining effectively to guide/ warn road users?
Roundabouts and approach Are the roundabout and islands fully visible and
islands recognisable from all approaches?
Are all signs, markings and lighting correctly in place?

Driver Perception
Has the design been implemented in such a manner that
it takes due cognisance of the following limitations of a
driver as a human being:
 Adequate input for the driving tasks: navigation,
guidance and vehicle control
 Overloading of the driver by the design features
and elements
 Provision for erroneous decisions
 Driver expectancy of dangerous elements or
changes in design standards
 Adequate reaction time
 The visual field of the driver -for example, if a
driver should see something outside of the
visual field of the driver, is there a cue for him to
seek the object (for example: a driver travelling
at 100 km/h has a 40 degree visual field)?
 Is the driver ever exposed to sudden darkness?
 Will the driver experience glare from oncoming
vehicles or from road lighting?
Is the approach speed to the project safe?
Does the driver easily perceive the function of the project
and the traffic management (also check for poor visibility
or heavy traffic conditions)?
Is the transition between the new project and the existing
road constructed in such a way that it ensures that there

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can be no uncertainty or ambiguity for the driver?

Special Road Users

Adjacent land use Are the measures to prevent pedestrians and animals
from crossing a highway or rural road (e.g. fencing)
effective?
Pedestrians Are the following key features satisfactory at all
pedestrian crossings and facilities?
 Visibility -Can pedestrians see and be seen?
 Road signs?
 Surfacing Lighting and other hardware?
 Disabled pedestrians?
Cyclists Are the following key features satisfactory for the cycling
facilities?
Visibility -Can cyclists see and be seen?
Road signs?
Surfacing?
Lighting and other hardware?
Animals Are the following key features satisfactory for stock and
equestrians?
Visibility?
Road signs?
Other special features?

Road Signs, Markings and

Lighting
General Is the transition between the road signs and markings of
the project and the adjacent road network safe?
Does the existing signage on the adjoining road network
tie in with those on the project?
Are guide posts or any other delineation devices correctly
installed?
Are retro reflective crash barrier delineators properly
installed, as far as colour/ spacing and alignment are
concerned?
Road signs Are all the road traffic signs and markings provided as
designed?
Do the road traffic signs and markings clearly convey the
intended message to drivers?
Are the road traffic signs and markings visible as
intended -for night-time and adverse weather conditions?
Was all old and construction signage removed that may
cause confusion?
Are the following safe -both at day and night time
conditions:

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 Visibility?
 Message?
 Legibility?
 Location?
 Reflectivity/ illumination?
 Frequency (Is there a need for fewer or
additional signage?)
Are there any road signs that can easily be overgrown by
close-by vegetation? Can it be moved without loss of
effectiveness?
Is any variable message sign age operating
satisfactorily?
Road markings Are all road markings:
 Located correctly?
 Marked correctly (size, colour etc)?
 Visible to the road users as intended (also
during night-time and adverse weather
conditions)?
Is the transition between the road markings of the
existing adjoining road and the new project safe,
continuous and appropriate?
Are the road markings clear from any debris? Have road
studs been installed in accordance with the correct colour
convention and at all locations where hazardous
conditions may exist?
Road lighting Is the lighting safe in terms of operation and efficiency?
Where located in a clear zone, is the lighting adequately
protected by means of traffic barriers?

Roadside Hazard Management

Fixed objects/ roadside hazards Are all poles and breakaway poles installed correctly?
Are all poles and supports appropriately located?
Are there any roadside hazards within the clear zone that
are not:
 Properly marked
 Properly signed
 Protected by a traffic barrier system
Traffic barriers Do all the traffic barrier systems conform to the standards
and guidelines to ensure safe operation?
Especially in terms of:
 Location (do they create a hazard in
themselves)?
 Lengths?
 End-treatments?
 Installation detail?

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 Anchorage?
 Post spacing?
 Proper deflection distance?
 Soil stability?
 Height of installation?
 Intended function -design vehicle?
Median barriers Are all the median barriers installed to the exact specified
details and is the installation safe and properly delineated
where required?
Are all median barriers located in such a way that they:
 Do not limit visibility or
 Constitute a hazard?

Traffic Management AND

Operation
Operation Are all operating features installed correctly and easily
accessible?
Traffic management Are all traffic management devices functioning
satisfactorily (e.g. clarity of messages, readability from
moving vehicles etc.)?
Access management Are the design, location and visibility at the accesses
safe for the intended purpose?
Speed management Is the speed limit appropriate?
Emergency vehicles Can emergency vehicles access the project safely and
stop safely?
Temporary traffic management Are all temporary construction sign age, markings etc.
removed from the project?

OTHER
Are there any other safety issues that were identified
during the site visits? Did the site visits cover day-time
conditions, sunrise and sunset and night time?

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11.6 Road Safety Audit: Appraisal of Existing Roads

Items for Appraisal of Possible Issue

Existing Roads
General Topics
Landscaping and natural Does the existing landscaping have any negative safety
vegetation effects (e.g. clearances, sight distance)?
Will the clearances and sight distances be reduced by further
plant growth?
Headlight glare Is there a problem with headlight glare?
Parking Are the parking provisions safe in terms of operation and
sight lines?
Temporary works Is there any construction or maintenance equipment, material
or signage although no construction or maintenance is being
done?

Cross-section and Alignment

th
Visibility and sight distances Is the sight distance adequate for the 85 percentile
operating speed?
Is the sight distance for pedestrian crossings adequate?
Design speed and 85th Is the horizontal and vertical alignment appropriate for the
percentile operating speed 85th percentile operating speed? If not:
 Are adequate warning signs provided?
 Are advisory speed signs provided?
Is the posted speed limit or advisory speed limits (if provided)
appropriate for the curves?

Overtaking Are adequate and safe overtaking facilities provided?

Readability by drivers Can any of the road sections cause confusion in terms of:
 Roadway alignment not clearly defined?
 Disused pavement that was not removed or
treated?
 Old pavement markings that were not removed
properly?
 The alignment of lighting and/ or trees not
conforming to the road alignment?
Are there any curves (vertical or horizontal) or combinations
of curves that:
 Can be misleading in guiding the driver to the
approaching alignment of the road?
 Provide no guidance to the driver on the
approaching alignment of the road?
Widths Are the widths of the following adequate?
 Traffic lanes
 Shoulders
 Carriageways Bridges

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Items for Appraisal of Possible Issue

Existing Roads
Shoulders Are shoulder widths appropriate (e.g. for emergency
vehicles, broken-down vehicles or as a recovery area for
errant vehicles)?
Are all shoulders traversable by vehicles?
Does the cross-fall of the shoulders ensure proper drainage?
Is the transition between the traffic lane and the shoulders
safe?
Batter slopes Are the batter slopes and table drains a safe recovery area
for run-off-the-road vehicles?
Drainage Are all drainage structures within the clear zone safe for
vehicles to traverse?

Auxiliary Lanes and

Exclusive Turning Lanes
Visibility and sight distance Is adequate stopping sight distance provided up to the end of
the queue of turning vehicles?
Is adequate stopping sight distance provided for entering and
leaving vehicles?
Tapers Is the start and finish tapers located and aligned correctly?
Is the sight distance to the end of the auxiliary lane
sufficient?
Shoulders Are the shoulder widths appropriate at merges?
Signs Are the signage and road markings adequate to guide,
control and warn drivers of the auxiliary and exclusive turning
lanes?
Exclusive turning lanes Is advance warning provided for the approaching exclusive
right turning lane?

Intersections
Visibility and sight distance Are the sight distances provided adequate for all road users?
Location Are all intersections located safely in terms of the horizontal
and vertical alignment?
Layout Is the alignment of the medians, kerbing and traffic islands
safe?
Is the function and layout of the intersection clear to all road
users?
Are the tapers and turning radii appropriate?
Does the layout address all potential conflict points between
turning vehicles in a safe way?
Are there any capacity problems that may influence safety
negatively?
Traffic control Warning Is the traffic control provided by the road signs and markings
satisfactory? Are there adequate warning on the approaches
of intersections that have high approach speeds (e.g. at
approaches to towns)?

Special Road Users

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Items for Appraisal of Possible Issue

Existing Roads
Pedestrians Is the speed limit appropriate for the pedestrian activities in
the area? Note particularly pedestrian-sensitive areas.
Is adequate signage and delineation provided in pedestrian
sensitive areas?
Are crossing facilities provided at safe locations and at the
pedestrian desire lines?
Are paved footways provided? Note particularly where a
discontinuation takes place or where the sidewalk is not
"walkable."
Is provision made for the movement of pedestrians on
bridges (i.e. in terms of adequate width and protection)?
Is sufficient lighting provided along pedestrian walkways and
at pedestrian crossings?
Is adequate pedestrian facilities provided at and on the
approach to public transport facilities?
Is adequate provision made for the elderly, disabled and
baby carriages (e.g. ramps, kerbs and median crossings)?
Is the distance between the stopping line and the pedestrian
crossing of signalised intersections enough to ensure the
visibility of pedestrians (for example for a driver of a heavy
vehicle)?
Is the signal length sufficient in terms of:
 Cycle length
 Pedestrian clearance times
Are all pedestrian buttons working on traffic lights?
Are there any particular areas where traffic barriers are
necessary to separate vehicular traffic and pedestrians?
Cyclists Has appropriate consideration been given to the needs of
cyclists? Also note whether bicycle paths are continuous?
Public transport Is adequate provision made for safe public transport facilities
(e.g. sight distance, stopping areas, pedestrian facilities,
etc.)?
Are the public transport facilities adequately signed and
marked?

Road Signs, Markings,

Delineation and Lighting
Road signs Are all signage: directional, warning and regulatory, visible
and adequately located?
Are all the sign sizes and letter sizes adequate?
Is there any signage that is obscuring one another?
Is there any need for the adding or the removal of signage?
Is there any signage that can be confusing to drivers?
Is all signage properly installed in terms of lateral clearance
and height?
Is the sign age provided adequate for the intended
message?

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Items for Appraisal of Possible Issue

Existing Roads
Are there any signs that restrict sight distance (e.g. for
turning vehicles, blocking the view to pedestrians)?
Is all signage clearly visible during all likely conditions (e.g.
adverse weather conditions, sunrise, sunset, night-time, poor
lighting)?
Does any of the signage supports present a danger to a run-
off-the-mad vehicle?
Road markings and delineation Are all road markings clearly visible and reflective during all
likely conditions?
Is there a need for road studs? If provided, is their condition
satisfactory?
Are all line markings (edge, centre and traversable) clearly
visible and effective during all likely conditions (e.g. adverse
weather conditions, sunrise, sunset, night-time, poor lighting,
oncoming headlights)?
Is adequate delineation provided along curves?
Are the chevron posts visible, adequately spaced and
continuous?
Are all reflective areas appropriate for the driver eye height
(also check for heavy vehicle drivers)?
Are guidelines provided for vehicular paths through
intersections where necessary?
Is there a need for additional road markings e.g. advisory
lane directional arrows at the exiting approach of an
intersection, to improve guidance to drivers?
Warning signs and advisory speed limits:
 Are curve warning signs and advisory speed limits
provided and located appropriately?
 Are the advisory speed limits along the route
consistent?
Does the placing of the warning signs and advisory speed
limits provide for adequate reaction time?
Road lighting Is appropriate lighting installed at intersections, pedestrian
crossings and refuges?
Is all lighting operating satisfactorily?
Are all lighting posts that are located within the clear zone
protected by traffic barriers?
Is any of the lighting causing visual conflict with traffic signals
and signage?
Is appropriate lighting provided for overhead sign age where
necessary?

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Traffic Signals
Visibility Are all traffic signals clearly visible to approaching drivers?
Is adequate stopping sight distance provided to the end of
queuing vehicles?
Will the intersection be affected by sunrise/ sunset
problems?
Is provision made for this in the form of backboards or high
intensity signals?
Are the signal displays shielded so as to ensure that they are
only visible to the motorists for whom they are intended?
Is adequate warning provided where signals are not visible
from an adequate distance?
Are there any features in the environment, such as trees,
signs, lighting etc, that obscure signal heads?
Operation Are all traffic signals operating satisfactorily and correctly?
Are the location and number of signal displays adequate?
Where necessary, is provision made for the elderly and
disabled pedestrians (e.g. extended green phase)?
Is the controller located at a safe position?
Are there any signal aspects visible near or within the
intersection that may confuse drivers?
Is the signal phasing clear to the driver?
Does the phasing conform to the safety requirements set for
the amber and all red periods?
Pedestrians:
 Are pedestrians considered in the signal phasing?
 If islands are located in the path of the pedestrian, is
the size thereof sufficient to act as a refuge island?
 Can drivers see the pedestrian crossing(s) and the
pedestrians that are crossing?
Is the signal phasing appropriate for:
 The traffic movements
 The accommodation of all vehicles utilising the
intersection
 The geometry of the intersection
 The geometry of the approaches

Roadside Hazard
Management
Clear zone and roadside
Is a clear zone provided?
hazards
Are all roadside hazards within the clear zone appropriately
protected?
Traffic barriers Are traffic barriers installed at hazardous locations?
Are the traffic barrier systems suitable for the purpose?
Does the traffic barrier system meet its intended function for
the design vehicle on the road?

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Driver Perception
Does the road environment take due cognisance of the
following limitations of a driver as a human being:
 Adequate input for the driving tasks of navigation,
guidance and vehicle control?
 Overloading of the driver by the design features and
elements?
 Provision for erroneous decisions?
 Driver expectancy of dangerous elements or
changes in design standards?
 Adequate reaction time?
 The visual field of the driver?
 The rate at which the eye can gather information
from the environment?
Is there any exposure of the driver to sudden darkness?
Will the driver experience glare from oncoming vehicles or
from road lighting?
Can the driver easily perceive the function of the road and
the traffic management (also check for poor visibility or heavy
traffic conditions)?

Pavement
Loose gravel Are there any loose screenings that can cause vehicles to
lose control/ not brake properly?
Pavement defects Are there any pavement defects that can cause safety
problems like loss of control (e.g. Excessive roughness,
Rutting, Potholes, etc.)?
Skid resistance Is adequate skid resistance provided on curves, steep
grades and intersection approaches?
Ponding Are there any areas where ponding or sheet flow of water
occur that can result in safety problems?

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12 References

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Association of State Highway Official.

"An Informational Guide for Roadway Lighting", American Association of State

Highway Officials.

"Layout of Roads in Rural Areas", Ministry of Transport, Scottish Development

Department.

i
“Road Safety Audit Manual, 2nd Edition”, May 2012, Road Traffic Management Corporation,
South Africa.

This document references the following additional references

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Belcher, M., S. Proctor and P. Cook, 2008, Practical Road Safety Auditing, 2nd edition

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Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1990, Integrated traffic safety
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 Highway Manual Part 1: Design Volume II: Secondary Design Elements

PIARC, 2003, Road Safety Manual, Grande Arche de la Defence, France: PIARC Technical
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Sabey B.E., 1993, Safety audit procedures and practice, Traffex '93, Planning and
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SANRAL, 2003, Geometric Design Guidelines, Pretoria, South Africa: South African National
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Treat, J.R., N.S. Tumbas, S.T. McDonald, et ai., 1979, Tri-level study of the cause of
accidents, Indiana, US: Indiana University, in: PIARC (2003).

Transit New Zealand, 1993, Safety Audit Policy and Procedures.

World Health Organisation, 2004, World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention, Geneva.

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