Network

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, separate computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a
subset.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users,
the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the
efficiency of the software.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in
a catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
GOALS OF NETWORK

Resource Sharing :
This is the main aim of a computer network. It means to make all programs peripherals and
data available to any one computer on the network to all other computers in the network
without regard to the physical locations of them. Thus a user at a large distances can share
the resources or can see data of a computer in the same way that a local user uses them.
Another aspect of resource sharing is load sharing. That is if required, a job can be performed
using various computers in network by portioning it which reduces time consumption and load
both for a particular computer.

Cost Reduction :
Another goal of networking is reduction of cost. Resource sharing automatically reduces cost
and hence money can be saved. One more aspect is that the price of small computers is very
less as compared to main frames. Though main frames are roughly ten times faster as
compared to micro computers but even then the price to performance ration is much better for
small computers as compared to large computers. The large computer cost thousand times
more than small computers. Because of this imbalances more powerful personal computers
are developed and are able to share data and other resources kept on one or more shared file
server machines. Thus one goal of network is to do same job in minimum cost in terms of
money when is possible on large computers only which are very expansive.

Communication Medium :
The goal of a computer network is to provide a powerful communication medium among
widely separated people. It is easy for two or more people living far apart to work on same
project by portioning it using a network. They can make programs, can discuss or can even
write a report using a network while they are far off. Some times a change is required in some
data file or document. It is done on fine, others can see them immediately which is possible
only through network, otherwise they can have to wait for this several days through letter or
some other media. Thus it makes speedy co-operations and enhances human to human
communication.

Improve Performance :
The goal of a network is to improve accessibility as well as performance of a system. The
performance of a computer can be improved by adding one or more processors to it as the
work load on it grows. For example if the system is full instead of replacing it buy a larger one
at large expansive it is better to add more processors to it on less cost and less disruption to
the user. This improve both accessibility as well as performance of a system.

Applications Of Computer Network:-

1. Access to remote programs from other computers.

2. Access to remote databases from servers or other computers.
3. Value-added communication facilities with other network devices
4. Video conference
5. E-bussiness
6. E-mail
7. file sharing
DATA COMMUNICATION MODEL

The key elements of the model are :

Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted examples are telephones and
personal computers.
Transmitter. Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly
in the form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter
transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce electro-
magnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system.
For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device
such as a personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can
be handled by the telephone network.
Transmission System. This can be a single transmission line or a complex net-
work connecting source and destination.
Receiver. The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and
converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For
example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network or
transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
Destination. Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
OSI MODEL (Open Systems Interconnection)
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but
related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.

The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication

between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hard-
ware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

The Model
A widely accepted structuring technique, and the one chosen by ISO, is layering.
The communications functions are partitioned into a hierarchical set of layers.
Each layer performs a related subset of the functions required to communicate with
another system, relying on the next-lower layer to perform more primitive functions,
and to conceal the details of those functions, as it provides services to the
next higher layer. Ideally, the layers should be defined so that changes in one layer
do not require changes in the other layers. Thus, we have decomposed one problem into a
number of more manageable subproblems.
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices
and interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.

2. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits

(sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded
into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how
Os and I s are changed to signals).

3. Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by
the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which
is how long it lasts.

4. Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate
but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and
the receiver clocks must be synchronized.

The physical layer has four important characteristics:

1. Mechanical. Relates to the physical properties of the interface to a transmission
medium. Typically, the specification is of a pluggable connector that joins one or more
signal conductors, called circuits.

2. Electrical. Relates to the representation of bits (e.g., in terms of voltage levels) and
the data transmission rate of bits.

3. Functional. Specifies the functions performed by individual circuits of the physical

interface between a system and the transmission medium.

4. Procedural. Specifies the sequence of events by which bit streams are

exchanged across the physical medium.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
The principal service provided by the data link layer to higher layers is that of error
detection and control.

Responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.

Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,

the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.

Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.

Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network
layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

1. Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need
another addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The
network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other
things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
2. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or
switch the packets to their final destination.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire mes-
sage. A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer
oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize
any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though
each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer,
on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.

In the TCPIIP protocol suite, there are two common transport-layer protocols: the
connection-oriented TCP (transmission control protocol) and the connectionless UDP
(user datagram protocol).

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

1. Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time.
For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer
to a specific process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must
therefore include a type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The
network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire
message to the correct process on that computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify
and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
3. Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-
oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-
oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the
connection is terminated.
4. Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a
single link.
5. Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than
across a single link.
Session Layer

The lowest four layers of the OSI model provide the means for the reliable
exchange of data and provide an expedited data service. For many applications, this
basic service is insufficient. For example, a remote terminal access application might
require a half-duplex dialogue. A transaction-processing application might require
checkpoints in the data-transfer stream to permit backup and recovery. A message
processing application might require the ability to interrupt a dialogue in order to prepare
a new portion of a message and later to resume the dialogue where it was left off.
The session layer provides the mechanism for controlling the dialogue
between applications in end systems. In many cases, there will be little or no need for
session-layer services, but for some applications, such services are used.

The key services provided by the session layer include:

Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half-
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

Synchronization The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or

synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of
2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each
100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

Translation The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must
be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use
different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes
the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The
presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver
dependent format.

Encryption To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.

Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original form.

Compression Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such
as text, audio, and video.

Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
This layer contains management functions and generally useful mechanisms that support
distributed applications.
File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in
a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for
use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
Mail services This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

Directory services This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link and two or more links form a topology.
The Topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

Mesh

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh
network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other
node. Node 1must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes,
and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links.
However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode),
we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh
topology, we need n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode links.

Advantages of Mesh Topology –

1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be
shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system.
3. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology –
1. Because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
2. Large amount of cabling is required since every device is connected to each other.

STAR TOPOLOGY

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

ADVANTAGES
 Single computer failure doesn’t bring down whole network
 Adding new devices to a Star network is very simple compared to any of the other
topologies
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Centralized control
 Centralized network/hub monitoring
 Easy to troubleshoot

DISADVANTAGES
 If central device fails, the whole network fails
 Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the central
device
Bus Topology

A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines
and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the
main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
Features -
 The backbone functions as a shared communication medium
 Device wanting to communicate with another device on the network
sends a message onto the backbone
 The message is heard by all stations, but only the intended recipient
actually accepts and processes the message.
 Terminator absorbs frames at end of medium.

Advantages
 Simple, easy to use and construct
 Requires least amount of cable (less expensive)

Disadvantages
 A faulty cable will take the entire LAN down
 Difficult to troubleshoot
 Heavy network traffic can slow bus considerably
RING TOPOLOGY

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection

with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the
ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along.

Advantages
 Equal access for all users
 Perform well under heavy traffic
 Fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is
circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal
within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts
the network operator to the problem and its location.

Disadvantages
 If one device/cable fails then the whole network goes down.
 Adding/Removing computers disrupts the whole network
Hybrid Topology A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a
main star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus
topology.
Hybrid means that there is more than one topology exist.
NETWORK CATEGORIES

The category into which a network falls is determined by its size.

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices
in a single office, building, or campus (see Figure 1.10). Depending on the
needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as
simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals. Currently,
LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware
(e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or data.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range.
Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

 Limited geographic operation

 High speed data transfer rates 1 to 10 Mbits/sec compared to the 1 to 100Kbits/sec
typical in WANs
 Full time connectivity to local services
 Generally lower in cost than a WAN
 Cabling is primary transmission medium
 Single ownership of all elements of the network
Metropolitan Area Networks
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a
LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is
designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good
example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer. Another example is the cable
TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be
used for high-speed data connection to the Internet.
 The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN
typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs
cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases MANs may be as
small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.

 A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation.

The MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned
by either a consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells
the service to the users. This level of service provided to each user must
therefore be negotiated with the MAN operator, and some performance
guarantees are normally specified.

 A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional

resources (similar to a large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a
shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.
Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,
image, audio,and video information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world. A WAN can be as
complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up
line that connects a home computer to the Internet. We normally refer
to the first as a switched WAN and to the second as a point-to-point WAN
The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a
router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another LAN or
WAN. The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone
or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an
Internet service provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used to provide
Internet access.

 Connect multiple LANs using Ethernet technology. Build a network as a

single overall LAN segment.
 Compatible with a Variety of Access Lines
Offers a number of network services compatible with bandwidths from
128kbps to 1Gbps, as well as Ether/ ATM/ DSL/ MDN, etc.
Physical Layer Transmission Medium

Transmission medium: the physical path between transmitter and receiver.

• Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to extend the length of the
medium.
• Communication of electromagnetic waves is guided or unguided.
 Guided media: waves are guided along a physical path (e.g,
twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber).
 Unguided media: means for transmitting but not guiding
electromagnetic waves (e.g., the atmosphere and outer space).
Twisted Pair
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the
other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the
difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and
create unwanted signals.
• Typically twisted pair is installed in building telephone
wiring.
• Local loop connection to central telephone exchange is
twisted pair.
• Limited in distance, bandwidth and data rate due to problems
with attenuation, interference and noise

Types of Twisted Pair Cable

UTP-Unshielded Twisted pair STP – Shielded Twisted Pair
Co-Axial Cable

Center
conductor

Dielectric
Material Braided Outer
outer cover
conductor

Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but is constructed
differently to permit it to operate over a wider range of frequencies. It consists of a
hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor
The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced insulating rings or a
solid dielectric material. The outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield. A
single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 0.4 to about 1 in.
Because of its shielded, concentric construction, coaxial cable is much less
susceptible to interference and crosstalk than is twisted pair. Coaxial cable can be
used over longer distances and supports more stations on a shared line than twisted
pair.

Application
 Television distribution
 Long-distance telephone transmission
 Short-run computer system links
 Local area networks
Coaxial cable is spreading rapidly as a means of distributing TV signals
to individual homes-cable TV. From its modest beginnings as
Community Antenna Television (CATV), designed to provide service to
remote areas, cable TV will eventually reach almost as many homes and
offices as the telephone.
OPTICAL FIBER

• Optical fiber: a thin flexible medium capable of conducting optical

rays. Optical fiber consists of a very fine cylinder of glass (core)
surrounded by concentric layers of glass (cladding).
• A signal-encoded beam of light (a fluctuating beam) is transmitted by
total internal reflection.
• Total internal reflection occurs in the core because it has a higher
optical density (index of refraction) than the cladding.
• Attenuation in the fiber can be kept low by controlling the impurities
in the glass.

(a) Geometry of optical fiber

ligh
t claddin jacket
g
cor
e
(b) Reflection in optical fiber


c

• Optical fiber acts as a wavelength guide for frequencies in the range

10 **14 to 10 **15 HZ which covers the visible and part of the
infrared spectrum.
• Three standard wavelengths : 850 nanometers (nm.), 1300 nm, 1500
nm.
• First-generation optical fiber :: 850 nm, 10’s Mbps using LED (light-
emitting diode) sources.
• Second and third generation optical fiber :: 1300 and 1500 nm using
ILD (injection laser diode) sources, gigabits/sec.
In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant
from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the
cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density;
this alters the angle of the beam's motion. Theterm step index refers to the
suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the signal
as it passes through the fiber.
A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases
this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to
the index of refraction.
As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to density. A graded-
index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the
center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.

Single-Mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that
limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus
are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them. The
section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and
microwavesis divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by
government authorities. These bands are rated from very low frequency
(VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).

Radio Waves
Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and
microwaves, electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz
and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves.
Omni directional Antenna
Radio waves use omni directional antennas that send out signals in all
directions.
Applications
The omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM
radio.

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic
can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
sub bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one
direction.
Switching Methods
In order for systems to communicate on a network, there has
to be a communication path or multiple paths between which
the data can travel. To communicate with another entity,
these paths move the information from one location to
another and back. This is the function of switching.
Switching provides communication pathways between two
endpoints and manages how data is to flow between these
endpoints. Two of the more common switching methods used
today include:
 Packet switching
 Circuit switching
 Message switched Network

Packet Switching

In packet switching, messages are broken down into smaller

pieces called packets. Each packet is assigned source,
destination, and intermediate node addresses. Packets are
required to have this information because they do not always
use the same path or route to get to their intended
destination. Referred to as independent routing, this is one
of the advantages of packet switching. Independent routing
allows for a better use of available bandwidth by letting
packets travel different routes to avoid high-traffic areas.
Independent routing also allows packets to take an alternate
route if a particular route is unavailable for some reason.
Two types of packet-switching methods are used on networks
1. Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching When virtual-circuit
switching is used, a logical connection is established
between the source and the destination device. This logical
connection is established when the sending device initiates
a conversation with the receiving device. The logical
communication path between the two devices can remain active
for as long as the two devices are available or can be used
to send packets once. After the sending process has
completed, the line can be closed.
2. Datagram Packet Switching Unlike virtual-circuit packet
switching, datagram packet switching does not establish a
logical connection between the sending and transmitting
devices. The packets in datagram packet switching are
independently sent, meaning that they can take different
paths through the network to reach their intended
destination. To do this, each packet must be individually
addressed to determine where its source and destination are.

Circuit Switching
In contrast to the packet-switching method, circuit
switching requires a dedicated physical connection between
the sending and receiving devices. The most commonly used
analogy to represent circuit switching is a telephone
conversation in which the parties involved have a dedicated
link between them for the duration of the conversation. When
either party disconnects, the circuit is broken and the data
path is lost. This is an accurate representation of how
circuit switching works with network and data transmissions.
The sending system establishes a physical connection, the
data is transmitted between the two, and when the
transmission is complete, the channel is closed.
Some clear advantages to the circuit-switching technology
make it well suited for certain applications. The primary
advantage is that after a connection is established, there
is a consistent and reliable connection between the sending
and receiving device. This allows for transmissions at a
guaranteed rate of transfer.
Like all technologies, circuit switching has downsides. As
you might imagine, a dedicated communication line can be
very inefficient. After the physical connection is
established, it is unavailable to any other sessions until
the transmission is complete. Again, using the phone call
analogy, this would be like a caller trying to reach another
caller and getting a busy signal. Circuit switching can
therefore be fraught with long connection delays.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN has long been an alternative to the slower modem WAN
connections but at a higher cost. ISDN allows the
transmission of voice and data over the same physical
connection.
ISDN connections are considerably faster than regular modem
connections. To access ISDN, a special phone line is
required, and this line is usually paid for through a
monthly subscription. You can expect these monthly costs to
be significantly higher than those for traditional dial-up
modem connections.
To establish an ISDN connection, you dial the number
associated with the receiving computer, much as you do with
a conventional phone call or modem dial-up connection. A
conversation between the sending and receiving devices is
then established. The connection is dropped when one end
disconnects or hangs up. The line pickup of ISDN is very
fast, allowing a connection to be established, or brought
up, much more quickly than a conventional phone line.
ISDN has two defined interface standards Basic Rate
Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI).

DEATH CAB FOR CUTIE – MARCHING BAND OF MANHATTAN

If I could open my arms

And span the length of the isle of Manhattan,
I'd bring it to where you are
Making a lake of the East River and Hudson
If I could open my mouth
Wide enough for a marching band to march out
They would make your name sing
And bend through alleys and bounce off all the buildings.

I wish we could open our eyes

To see in all directions at the same time
Oh what a beautiful view
If you were never aware of what was around you
And it is true what you said
That I live like a hermit in my own head
But when the sun shines again
I'll pull the curtains and blinds to let the light in.

Sorrow drips into your heart through a pinhole

Just like a faucet that leaks and there is comfort in the sound
But while you debate half empty or half full
It slowly rises, your love is gonna drown [4x]

Your love is gonna drown [4x]

Your love is gonna...