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JTMC
9,3
Understanding and overcoming
business etiquette differences
in Japan, Turkey, and the
274 United States of America
Brooke Eckard Marchiori
Eckard Global, Richardson, Texas, USA
Charles E. Carraher
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, and
Kristi Stiles
Hallmark, Texas, USA

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to utilize both Forsythe’s Ethics position questionnaire and the Big-5
Mini-Markers ten-item personality scale to analyze their relevance in determining business etiquette
differences in three nations.
Design/methodology/approach – Samples from Japan (n ⫽ 73), Turkey (n ⫽ 95) and the USA (n ⫽
128) were surveyed using these two resources. Generally, the results of these surveys support the
research presented in this paper characterizing the USA as idealistic with a focus on individualism,
while Japan stresses respect and agreeableness.
Findings – Interestingly, members of the Turkey sample found it inappropriate to reveal views on
ethics, and failed to answer several questions. In turn, the 0.069 level of significance of the regression
formula for the Turkey analyses did not meet the less than or equal to 0.05 level to declare a relationship
as significant.
Research limitations/implications – This research discusses whether Forsythe or the Big-5
Mini-Markers surveys provide relevant information to companies that are looking to educate employees
on challenges when interacting in a global market. By looking at several aspects to the typical business
meeting – from the initial handshake to how to properly exchange business cards – each country has
developed a specific set of cultural norms. By incorporating the results of Forsythe and Big-5
Mini-Markers surveys, a comprehensive approach is being used to present the differences.
Originality/value – The resulting paper is a detailed analysis focusing on the behavioral and ethical
reasons why a particular nation might stress certain business etiquette procedures more than another.
A business that understands these core differences gains a worldly perspective and the power to
succeed in the international market.
Keywords USA, Turkey, Japan, Etiquette, Cross-cultural
Paper type Research paper

Journal of Technology Management

in China Introduction
Vol. 9 No. 3, 2014
pp. 274-288 The current state of the world economy highly depends on the internationalization of
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited business in the world to stimulate economic growth. With an increase in globalization,
1746-8779
DOI 10.1108/JTMC-08-2014-0045 an increase in the number of transactions among international companies and potential
customers who are from foreign countries is inevitable. We have taken the suggestions Cross-cultural
of the editor to heart and sought to examine an important area of international business
research empirically. Business personnel are learning and adapting to this escalation of
barriers
cross-cultural interactions. To be successful, businesses must thoroughly understand
how to conduct business with foreign countries and currencies. Dealings between two
countries with differing cultures create barriers, making it difficult to conduct business.
When dealing with individuals from even more countries, it is even more difficult. The 275
first and most important aspect of conducting business is to build a relationship with the
other company or customer. To gain the trust, respect and business of foreign countries,
understanding and respecting the cross-cultural differences is crucial. Although the
research and time to understand the proper way to conduct business with another
country are extensive, the benefits of successfully engaging in international trade are
worth the required intricate etiquette training.
Many successful opportunities for companies are never reached due to the lack of
knowledge on cultural etiquette. It is vital that the US companies communicate
appropriately to reach these opportunities and build successful, long-term relationships
on a global scale. Even if a relationship is successfully begun, miscommunication due to
the cross-cultural gap costs companies time and money, two assets that companies find
to be of the utmost importance.
Because the gap between cultures is so vast, many employers and managers require
their employees, who will do business internationally, to go through a cross-cultural
training program to socialize them to the new environment. Investing in a training
program for employees to attend before conducting business internationally could
possibly be the most valuable and worthwhile resource an employer could invest in.
With the vast differences between cultures, it takes extensive research and
understanding to learn each and every way to properly handle oneself in business
situations internationally. Japan and Turkey represent two countries with differing
business etiquette than the USA. In-depth research compares and contrasts methods of
successful – and unsuccessful – approaches to international business in and among
these three countries.

Literature review
Japan has a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government. They currently
are known to be a country with major economic power in the world. Due to this, it is no
surprise that the USA looks to Japan to conduct business with. Japan is home to many
successful companies including: Toyota, Honda, Nintendo, Canon and Toshiba. In
business, the Japanese are very concerned with relationships and respect. Research from
a sample of 73 business people in Japan using Big-5 Mini-Markers survey (Tables I–IX)

Model R R2 square Adjusted R2 Standard error of the estimate

1 0.823a 0.677 0.585 0.84240

a
Notes: Predictors: (Constant), 58; conventional, uncreative, situationalism, 52; anxious, easily upset,
55; sympathetic, warm, Relativism, 54; reserved, quiet, 56; disorganized, careless, 50; critical,
quarrelsome, 51; dependable, self-disciplined, Idealism, 57; calm, emotionally stable, Individualism, 49; Table I.
extraverted, enthusiastic, 53; open to new experiences, complex Model summary for Japan
JTMC Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Significance
9,3
1
Regression 73.047 14 5.218 7.352 0.000b
Residual 34.773 49 0.710
Total 107.819 63
276 Notes: a Dependent variable: etiquette; b predictors: (Constant), 58; conventional, uncreative,
Situationalism, 52; anxious, easily upset, 55; sympathetic, warm, Relativism, 54; reserved, quiet, 56;
Table II. disorganized, careless, 50; critical, quarrelsome, 51; dependable, self-disciplined, Idealism, 57; calm,
ANOVAa for Japan emotionally stable, Individualism, 49; extraverted, enthusiastic, 53; open to new experiences, complex

Unstandardized Standardized
coefficients coefficients
Model B SE Beta t Significance

1
(Constant) 3.211 0.807 3.979 0.000
Idealism 0.199 0.139 0.151 1.430 0.159
Situationalism 0.329 0.140 0.234 2.344 0.023
Individualism ⫺0.306 0.157 ⫺0.213 ⫺1.953 0.057
Relativism ⫺0.051 0.155 ⫺0.037 ⫺0.327 0.745
49. Extraverted, enthusiastic 0.161 0.071 0.257 2.273 0.027
50. Critical, quarrelsome ⫺0.060 0.065 ⫺0.098 ⫺0.930 0.357
51. Dependable, self-disciplined 0.049 0.094 0.060 0.519 0.606
52. Anxious, easily upset ⫺0.002 0.059 ⫺0.003 ⫺0.028 0.977
53. Open to new experiences, complex 0.093 0.110 0.112 0.847 0.401
54. Reserved, quiet 0.027 0.054 0.048 0.507 0.614
55. Sympathetic, warm 0.185 0.088 0.238 2.113 0.040
56. Disorganized, careless ⫺0.157 0.069 ⫺0.238 ⫺2.290 0.026
57. Calm, emotionally stable 0.251 0.098 0.301 2.552 0.014
58. Conventional, uncreative ⫺0.072 0.069 ⫺0.118 ⫺1.053 0.298
Table III.
Coefficientsa for Japan Note: a Dependent variable: etiquette

Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Standard error of the estimate

1 0.798a 0.637 0.339 0.88344

a
Notes: Predictors: (Constant), 58; conventional, uncreative, Relativism, 51; dependable,
Table IV. self-disciplined, Idealism, 49; extraverted, enthusiastic, 52; anxious, easily upset, 53; open to new
Model summary for experiences, complex, 50; critical, quarrelsome, 55; sympathetic, warm, Situationalism, 57; calm,
Turkey emotionally stable, 54; reserved, quiet, Individualism, 56; disorganized, careless
Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Significance
Cross-cultural
barriers
1
Regression 23.331 14 1.666 2.135 0.069b
Residual 13.268 17 0.780
Total 36.599 31

Notes: a Dependent variable: etiquette; b predictors: (Constant), 58; conventional, uncreative, 277
Relativism, 51; dependable, self-disciplined, Idealism, 49; extraverted, enthusiastic, 52; anxious, easily
upset, 53; open to new experiences, complex, 50; critical, quarrelsome, 55; sympathetic, warm,
Situationalism, 57; calm, emotionally stable, 54; reserved, quiet, Individualism, 56; disorganized, Table V.
careless ANOVAa for Turkey

Unstandardized Standardized
coefficients coefficients
Model B SE Beta t Significance

1
(Constant) 4.133 2.468 1.675 0.112
Idealism 0.121 0.340 0.103 0.356 0.726
Situationalism ⫺0.108 0.324 ⫺0.081 ⫺0.333 0.743
Individualism 0.047 0.337 0.037 0.139 0.891
Relativism ⫺0.158 0.225 ⫺0.151 ⫺0.702 0.492
49. Extraverted, enthusiastic 0.073 0.117 0.139 0.621 0.543
50. Critical, quarrelsome 0.039 0.107 0.073 0.364 0.720
51. Dependable, self-disciplined 0.415 0.168 0.693 2.479 0.024
52. Anxious, easily upset ⫺0.100 0.116 ⫺0.186 ⫺0.860 0.402
53. Open to new experiences, complex 0.012 0.142 0.017 0.087 0.931
54. Reserved, quiet ⫺0.042 0.124 ⫺0.085 ⫺0.340 0.738
55. Sympathetic, warm 0.186 0.148 0.249 1.258 0.225
56. Disorganized, careless ⫺0.012 0.142 ⫺0.023 ⫺0.085 0.933
57. Calm, emotionally stable ⫺0.200 0.191 ⫺0.242 ⫺1.045 0.311
58. Conventional, uncreative 0.024 0.137 0.037 0.176 0.863
Table VI.
Note: a Dependent variable: etiquette Coefficientsa for Turkey

Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Standard error of the estimate

1 0.667a 0.446 0.355 0.80403

a
Notes: Predictors: (Constant), 58; conventional, uncreative, 56; disorganized, careless, Situationalism,
Relativism, 57; calm, emotionally stable, 54; reserved, quiet, 50; critical, quarrelsome, Idealism,
Individualism, 51; dependable, self-disciplined, 55; sympathetic, warm, 53; open to new experiences, Table VII.
complex, 49; extraverted, enthusiastic, 52; anxious, easily upset Model summary USA
JTMC shows that when compared to the USA and Turkey, Japan scores the highest on
“sympathetic, warm”, with a t-value of 2.113 (0.040 levels of significance). These data
9,3 contribute to how “Agreeable” a nation is, emphasizing the efforts Japan makes to
provide a courteous business environment in their nation. Although Japan has similar
business etiquette as the USA regarding politeness, respect and good manners, in
comparison, Japan’s professionals conduct themselves and interact with others with
278 significantly more formality. By and large “negotiating with the Japanese has not been
easy for Americans, partly because we do not understand the language, culture and
society of the Japanese (Lansing and Wechselblatt, 1983)”. When these barriers are
overcome, dealings between the two countries will become more frequent and less of a
challenge.
Turkey is an established democracy that is considering joining the European
Union. In recent years, the nation has had rapid population growth, urbanization,

Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Significance

1
Regression 44.677 14 3.191 4.936 0.000b
Residual 55.596 86 0.646
Total 100.273 100

Notes: a Dependent variable: etiquette; b predictors: (Constant), 58; conventional, uncreative, 56;
disorganized, careless, Situationalism, Relativism, 57; calm, emotionally stable, 54; reserved, quiet, 50;
Table VIII. critical, quarrelsome, Idealism, Individualism, 51; dependable, self-disciplined, 55; sympathetic, warm,
ANOVAa for USA 53; open to new experiences, complex, 49; extraverted, enthusiastic, 52; anxious, easily upset

Unstandardized Standardized
coefficients coefficients
Model B SE Beta t Significance

1
(Constant) 4.619 0.937 4.928 0.000
Idealism 0.218 0.093 0.227 2.349 0.021
Situationalism ⫺0.083 0.089 ⫺0.088 ⫺0.937 0.351
Individualism 0.078 0.090 0.085 0.862 0.391
Relativism ⫺0.127 0.092 ⫺0.126 ⫺1.377 0.172
49. Extraverted, enthusiastic 0.064 0.055 0.123 1.153 0.252
50. Critical, quarrelsome 0.026 0.046 0.055 0.567 0.572
51. Dependable, self-disciplined 0.314 0.076 0.415 4.151 0.000
52. Anxious, easily upset 0.037 0.056 0.077 0.673 0.503
53. Open to new experiences, complex ⫺0.025 0.074 ⫺0.035 ⫺0.333 0.740
54. Reserved, quiet ⫺0.101 0.045 ⫺0.230 ⫺2.243 0.027
55. Sympathetic, warm ⫺0.043 0.054 ⫺0.079 ⫺0.795 0.429
56. Disorganized, careless ⫺0.044 0.053 ⫺0.076 ⫺0.838 0.404
57. Calm, emotionally stable 0.147 0.076 0.234 1.931 0.057
58. Conventional, uncreative 0.007 0.049 0.014 0.146 0.884
Table IX.
Coefficientsa for USA Note: a Dependent variable: etiquette
industrialization and an increase in standard of living (Kasap, 2011). Additionally, Cross-cultural
they are a nation rich in resources such as coal, copper, sulfur and hydropower.
Because of their vibrancy, foreign investors and traders, including the USA, have
barriers
been highly attracted to this country. Business people of both the American and
Turkish cultures have to mingle with and understand how each other conduct
business. Turks view business etiquette as being highly important. To be successful
in Turkey, you must be trusted and liked, provide a long-term relationship, and 279
focus on the benefits that the Turks will be receiving on their end of the business
deal. Interestingly, when given the opportunity to participate in surveys, several
individuals in Turkey considered it offensive to ask about ethics and refused to
answer the questions.
The USA is a representative democracy, cherishing upward mobility, work ethic
and individualism (Donaldson, 1982). The USA is one of the largest and most
dynamic economies in the world. This is a prime destination for foreign companies
to conduct business and invest with. The workforce in America is one of the best
educated, most productive and most innovative in the world (“Country Guide: USA,
2013”). Many countries from all around the world look to the USA to do business
with. The businesses that develop in or with the USA continue to flourish and
expand. The USA has a large amount of natural resources, has a highly educated
workforce and is becoming increasingly more industrialized.
By studying the results of the three samples, Forsythe’s Ethics position
questionnaire revealed that Japan ranked the highest in situationalism (t-value
2.344, levels of significance 0.023). The situational nature of business in the country
explains the ceremonial approach Japanese business people take to many facets of
international interaction. For example, business meetings represent an area where
Japan greatly differs from the USA. Because these meetings represent the first time
business personnel from the USA interact with a company or customer in Japan, the
beginnings of these meetings pose the greatest challenge. When entering the
meeting, business people are expected to bow, unless the native employee first offers
a handshake, out of consideration for cultural differences. Bowing to greet someone
is one part of the meeting that signifies extreme importance to the Japanese.
Nonetheless, it represents more than just a bow, but rather a very intricate and
important gesture. There is a certain way one must bow: hands at the side with the
back completely straight. The longer and deeper the bow, the more respect one
shows. If someone is of equal status as the person whom they are bowing to, each
bow should last the same amount of time. However, if someone is bowing to a senior,
they will have a deeper and longer bow. As you repeat the bow, it becomes
increasingly more informal. Greeting with a handshake instead of a bow does not
necessarily mean that the business deal has already failed, but it does start the
meeting off on the wrong foot. One also loses an opportunity to gain credibility in the
eyes of the Japanese.
When it comes to greeting people in Turkey, like the USA, a firm handshake with
direct eye contact is appropriate. Handshakes are even more prevalent in Turkey
than in the USA. When walking into a room, instead of waving hello to everybody,
it is customary to walk around and shake each person’s hand. If it is family or
friends, Turks are found to greet each other with one or two kisses on each cheek.
Showing the elderly respect is very important in Turkish culture, even more so than
JTMC in the USA. When greeting an elderly individual, one simply kisses the right hand
and places their forehead to the hand of their counterpart to show respect
9,3 (“Turkey-Turkish Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette, 2013”). Differences of
etiquette occur throughout the country. For example:
[…] in the business context, most women will shakes hands with me […] this may not be
the case in eastern or rural Turkey, where people are more conservative. If unsure, wait for
280 the woman to extend her hand (Kalafatoglu, 2010).
In the USA, the most common form of greeting somebody is by handshake. A
handshake is firm and brief, making eye contact with the person being greeted.
Americans are not very affectionate people when it comes to those outside of family,
so hugging or kissing will not occur unless with family at close gatherings.
Americans greatly judge others on their handshake. When an individual gives a
firm and strong handshake, it shows strength and power. On the other hand, a
handshake that is weak and limp implies frailty, intimidation and uncertainty. A
handshake, for Americans, is a good way to give and receive a first impression when
meeting amongst colleagues.
Business cards represent a huge importance in the Japanese culture and receive
ceremonial treatment. First and foremost, it is highly recommended that business
cards are bilingual. The business card should be presented with both hands and a
slight bow. Throwing, pushing, tossing or sliding business cards is extremely
unacceptable and disrespectful. Once the individual receives the business card, it
will be carefully and thoroughly examined. After reviewing the card, it will be
placed directly in a briefcase or another area where it will be safely stored (Scagliotti
and Mujtaba, 2010). The purpose of treating a business card with this much care is
to show that the card is being treated with respect, and, in turn, the individual can
expect the same, and greater, respect to be displayed in any business between the
two. Proper business card etiquette includes never writing on, fidgeting with or
pushing aside and forgetting another person’s business card.
Similarly, in Turkey, business cards are a vital part of conducting business. If
someone offers a business card, then this could be a sign of interest in developing a
business relationship, and a business card should be offered in return. Turkish
individuals value academic degrees and titles on a business card and recommend
prospective business partners include these proper designations. When presenting
or receiving a card, it is important to use both hands and maintain eye contact. Take
the time to actually read over the other person’s business card to show genuine
interest. On business cards, make sure that one side is in English and the other side
is in Turkish. Translating business cards shows respect and value towards the other
person. In Turkey, be sure to hand out cards to everybody introduced to, especially
individuals with whom a business relationship is desirable (Kalafatoglu, 2010).
In the USA, business cards receive less ceremony; the exchange is a lot more
relaxed in comparison to the Japanese or Turkish culture. Appearance of the card is
very important, and only business cards that are clean and crisp should be handed
out, while any cards that are crumpled, bent or faded should be thrown away. When
handing out business cards, it is especially important to wait until the right moment
to hand it out. The right timing allows prospects to give the amount of attention and
interest hoped for without coming off as pushy or overly aggressive. During a
business meeting in America, business cards are commonly traded before the Cross-cultural
meeting begins to make sure everybody knows each other in the room, thus
increasing the efficiency of the meeting. Upon receiving a business card, it is
barriers
important to take a moment to review the business card and make a small comment
about it, showing interest and respect toward the other person. While, in Japan, it is
highly unacceptable and disrespectful to write on a business card, in the USA, it is
completely acceptable. Writing on a business card can even be a subtle compliment, 281
showing that an individual stands out from the crowd. Additional information or
details about the person’s experience are examples of what could be written down to
make the other person feel appreciated.
The Japanese believe that people within their society have a distinctive place
within the hierarchical system. The Japanese do not see themselves as a society of
equals; the distinction between superior and inferior is a huge part of their culture
(Maher and Wong, 1994). The results of the Big-5 Mini-Markers’s survey also
showed that Japan had the lowest scores in the disorganized/careless category
(t-value ⫽ ⫺2.29, levels of significance ⫽ 0.026), meaning that they greatly stress
organization and detailed care in the workplace. This is why everything from the
way they bow to each other and introduce themselves stems back to the hierarchical
system. A superior member of society will never be introduced to an inferior. The
inferior is always the one who is introduced first. This shows respect toward the
individual who is of a superior status in society. “Saving face” is a Chinese concept
that means keeping one’s dignity, social status and how others view one at an
acceptable standard. Making someone “lose face” is extremely disrespectful and is
rarely forgiven in the Japanese culture. “Losing face” is when someone is lowered in
the eyes of peers, resulting in loss of dignity and social status. A Japanese “losing
face” is very detrimental and embarrassing, so it is extremely important that a
foreigner coming into Japan takes care not to cause a Japanese businessperson to
“lose face”.
Turkey has a definite social hierarchy. Before attending a meeting, it is extremely
important to know who is at the top of the hierarchy system, as there is a lot of
respect in Turkey for rank, education and authority. When introductions occur, it is
custom to be introduced to the person who is of the most importance. It is
recommended to learn the titles of those whom you will be meeting with, as well as
properly pronouncing their names. Senior members of a Turkish company generally
do not even meet someone until the individuals below them have built a level of trust
with that person (Kalafatoglu, 2010).
The USA is not as strict on hierarchy status as Japan and Turkey are. However,
the status and importance of an individual is still recognized. When meeting
someone, it is respectful to introduce the lower ranking person to the more important
person. Also, one’s professional title is very important to recognize. If introducing a
Mr, Mrs, or Dr, it is proper etiquette to make sure the appropriate title is used.
The language barrier undoubtedly creates problems when an expatriate does not
understand or speak Japanese. In Japan, many personal questions will be asked. The
reason for inquiring so much into the personal life is due to the Japanese language
being very complex and having many different forms of address. Questions about
job, title and number of reporting employees are all to be expected. These questions
allow the Japanese to figure out which form of the Japanese language will be used to
JTMC speak with during the meeting. Even though the subtlety of this form of Japanese
will be lost when it is translated into English, it is still very important to the
9,3 Japanese. The Japanese are very concerned with language being polite and,
therefore, are incredibly indirect and quiet with their language. Because they are
indirect with their language, they have a very difficult time telling someone “no”. In
the business world, this may pose a problem for an expatriate. It takes practice for
282 someone to understand what exactly is being said while considering the
indirectness of the Japanese language. Picking up on little cues, such as “I’ll consider
it” or “that is difficult”, and realizing that they are indirectly saying “no” is very
important:
There are many things Turks like to engage in conversation about, and there are also a few
topics that are best left alone. Turkish people appreciate being asked about their family
and children. Discussions of political history should be avoided, but Turks are proud of
their history and culture, so feel welcome to discuss those two areas. In addition, many
Turks are interested in current affairs and will engage in conversation on this topic
(Abercrombie and Deis, 2011).
In Turkey, verbal communication is more dominant over written expression. The
communication style is indirect and subtle, unlike the USA. Business discussions
may begin with warm hospitality or politeness, such as talking about current
sporting events; however, if a foreigner were to enter a discussion among Turks, it
may appear overwhelming and chaotic. The chaotic appearance derives from the
fact that conversation often revolves around attending to other’s immediate needs
and issues to reduce the risk of offending any participant in the conversation. Turks
are accustomed to handling multiple matters while simultaneously carrying on
several conversations (Cavusgil et al., 2003).
The candidness in the USA is something that Americans value. “The manner and
the style of the American approach in business communication, going directly to the
point, must at times seem blunt and offensive to the Japanese businessman”, but it
is simply the way of business in America (Johnston, 1980). Americans must be very
subtle in the way that they speak to the Japanese and Turks and the way transition
is made from one topic to the next. Americans can subtly steer the conversation
without being obvious, continuing to make the others feel comfortable. In the USA,
Americans are expected and expect others to speak clearly and in a very
straightforward manner, as to not waste time. Not saying exactly what is being
thought or felt is considered a waste of time and money. If there is an issue,
Americans will confront and debate the issue right then and there. Of course,
foreigners who are traveling to the USA may find this characteristic to be brusque
and unnecessary.
The view of silence is very different in Japan in comparison to the USA. In the
“Japanese society silence and silences are generally considered to be positively
meaningful; they are socio-culturally accepted to a much higher degree (Misa,
2004)”. When there is silence in Japan, it is typically taken as a neutral response or
even a positive response. Below are explanations, given by Communicating with
Japanese in Business, of the reason the Japanese may be silent:
• “I’m translating or processing the English which I’ve heard. (Please wait)”.
• “I’m thinking about how to respond to what you said. (Please wait)”.
 • “I really don’t know. (Please suggest a course of action and save my face)”. Cross-cultural
• “I’m confused by your words or logic. (Please paraphrase or elaborate)”. barriers
• “I trust you, and we don’t need to say anything else right now. (Please remain
silent)”.
• “I partially disagree with you but want to avoid direct confrontation (Please
consider my position and reconsider your position)”.
283
In the USA, silence is considered to be extremely awkward, uncomfortable,
frustrating and is taken very negatively. These feelings are exemplified by the
results of the Mini-Markers Survey in the “reserved/quiet” category. Due to
Americans loathing silence, it tends to be avoided as much as possible. When
someone is silent, it is interpreted as disinterest in what in the topic or simply a lack
of attention. Americans need to understand that when business people in Japan are
silent, it is not a sign of disrespect, but rather a pause for linguistic and cultural
reasons, especially if the conversation is being held in English:
It is also important to realize that there are cultural differences in how silence is utilized
because it can cause miscommunication between parties if silence is wrongly interpreted
(Jones, 2012).
There are certain aspects of Japan that are a lot more traditional in comparison to the
USA. When it comes to what the Japanese wear, a more traditional look is often
chosen for business wear. Japanese men will wear either a black or grey suit,
depending on the time of the year, with a subtle tie that does not stand out. Looks
that are not acceptable include wearing a black suit with a white shirt and white tie,
or wearing all white. The weather in Japan is typically hot and humid in the summer,
so the Japanese will wear half-sleeve shirts during the summer months. When it
comes to hairstyles in Japan, it is most common to have a groomed short hairstyle.
However, if one is of very important status or ranking in the business world, then it
is allowed and accepted to sport a ponytail. Surprisingly, companies in Japan do not
allow male employees to wear beards or have shaved heads. When it comes to
women, conservative looks like trouser or longer skirt suits with the same colors as
the men are the norm. Women who practice business should have shorter hair, and
it is not very common, or acceptable, for jewelry, short skirts or high-heels to be
worn. If a woman wears high-heeled shoes, she must not be taller than her Japanese
counterparts (Scagliotti and Mujtaba, 2010). In addition, businesswomen in Japan
are very aware of fashion and tend to wear designer brand clothing.
When doing business in Turkey, it is crucial to dress conservatively and in smart,
professional outfits. Men will be expected to wear a dark suit and a tie. As for
women, it is extremely important not to wear any revealing clothing. Wearing short
skirts or shorts, and low-cut blouses are frowned upon. Suits and high-heeled shoes
are expected of women in Turkey to be worn in the business world. Turkey’s
weather is very hot in the summer; however, it is rare that you will see anybody take
off a jacket or tie, no matter what the temperature.
The business attire in America greatly varies with location. Areas in the East
tend to wear mostly suits and formal business attire. In the West Coast, the style is
a lot more relaxed and informal. However, executives, regardless of the region, will
dress formally. In urban regions, the attire will be a lot more formal, whereas rural
JTMC areas will be less formal and more relaxed. It is becoming increasingly more popular
for companies to have a “business casual” policy; however, guidelines on what is
9,3 deemed inappropriate exclude choices such as ripped jeans.
The negotiating style between the USA and Japan is very different. Tung (1984)
lists the differences that US companies, who either had subsidiary or affiliate
operations in Japan, found in negotiating styles between Americans and the
284 Japanese:
• “The Japanese like to avoid direct confrontation issues (67 per cent)”.
• “The Japanese take a longer time to make major decisions (49 per cent)”.
• “The Japanese negotiators seemed to be more concerned with establishing
long-term associations (37 per cent)”.
• “The Americans are more flexible (33 per cent)”.
• “The Japanese place heavy emphasis on “face-saving” (32 per cent)”.

Decision-making in Turkey, like the Japanese culture, is very slow. The first
discussion is with those members of a lesser seniority. Once one is deemed
trustworthy – and the proposal financially viable and beneficial – the next step is to
meet with members who are of a higher seniority. The individual who is the head of
the company will make the ultimate decision. Turks negotiate with extremes in the
beginning to evaluate and assess the way a counterpart responds, often looking for
a genuine and respectful response. Financial gains are not the only benefits that
Turks look for. Instead of solely focusing on financials, it is good to show the areas
of gain in power, influence, respect and other non-monetary incentives. Creating
deadlines or using other pressure tactics will backfire on a company in Turkey.
Turks will turn around and threaten to cancel agreements and will completely end
all negotiations if these tactics are used (“Turkey-Turkish Language, Culture,
Customs and Etiquette, 2013”). Patience is key.
Americans are very decisive and quick in the negotiation process. Time
efficiency and speedy negotiations are fundamental, resulting in little unnecessary
socializing or postponement. To save time, deals are often cut short. Negotiations
are almost solely based on facts, and not necessarily on favorites. It is important that
the USA understand their counterpart’s negotiation strategy and behavior to bridge
the gaps and conduct business in a harmonious manner. This is especially important
when conducting business in Japan and Turkey, seeing that the negotiation process
is not rushed (Gong, 2011).
In Japan, contracts have caused many issues among the Japanese and
businessmen from the USA. Japan has very brief and vague contracts and often
complains about how in-depth and detailed Western contracts are. The reason for
vague contracts is to avoid any possible disputes in the future. Japanese are also
known for not sticking to the agreements that are stated in the contract. Contracts
are viewed as a piece of paper that is merely stating an agreement to do business and
a general outline of the agreement. Any underlying agreements are not enforced.
The Japanese are a lot less litigious because of the stress placed on keeping peace
and harmony and the fact that litigation in Japan is slow and extremely expensive.
Contracts made in Turkey are not rushed and will not be created during the
business meeting. After the meeting is over, Turks will continue the negotiating
process and discussions before reaching a decision. Patience is very important when Cross-cultural
trying to form a contract with Turks, especially, as being rushed is frowned upon.
Once a decision is made, a written contract will be prepared. Unlike Japan, where
barriers
contracts are not strictly followed, the Turkish culture highly respects contracts and
will strictly follow them once created and signed. However, there are times where the
contract may be broken or modified, and in these situations, it is essential to be
flexible because maintaining a trusting and respectable relationship is important. 285
Having the contract reviewed by a legal representative before signing is acceptable,
however, bringing them into the meeting to review the contract could be taken by
the Turks as a sign of distrust (“Meeting Etiquette, 2013”).
The USA puts a great deal of value on their written word. Contracts in the USA
almost always require writing instead of oral commitment. Verbal contracts are
rarely enforced and legally binding. If Americans decide to move forward with
conducting business, a contract will be in place with a clear set of actions by the end
of the meeting. American contracts are typically long and extremely detailed, and
the terms are almost always enforced. When an American receives a contract, a
lawyer will always be sought for legal counsel before signing and agreeing to the
contract.
International business is becoming increasingly more popular and common in
today’s society. “The increasing globalization of businesses presents many
challenges including the challenges of cultural integration and cross-cultural
conflicts (Jianfeng et al., 2014)”. Business personnel are being exposed to so many
unfamiliar cultures; to be successful, a deep understanding of the culture and
business etiquette of a nation is essential. Many cultures will find it offensive and
disrespectful if an expatriate arrives in their country with no knowledge on their
customs and ways of conducting business. Cross-cultural business requires a lot of
knowledge and all-encompassing research. Companies have gone so far as to put
their employees through a cross-cultural training program. Building relationships is
essential in the business world, and takes a lot more work when you are dealing with
foreign countries. Even if a successful relationship is built, not filling in the
cross-cultural gap can be detrimental to long-term success.

Method
Samples
This paper reported on data from three samples. The first sample consisted of 73
business people from Japan of which 23 (31.9 per cent) were male and 49 (61.8 per
cent) female with a mean age of 26.54 years. The second sample consisted of 95
Turkish business people, 46 (49.5 per cent) male and 47 (51.5 per cent) female; with
a mean age of 28.02 years. The third sample polled 128 business people from the
USA, 45 (35.4 per cent) male and 82 (64.6 per cent) female with a mean age of 34.6
years. When using a 0.05 level of significance, the regression formulas for Japan and
the USA provided data supporting etiquette trends in these countries. However, the
regression formula for Turkey did not meet the 0.05 threshold; this may be, in part,
due to failure of citizens to answer all questions relating to ethics. For the questions
on Forsythe’s survey, the responses were standardized to present results in how
each country thought the survey accurately, or inaccurately, tested the four areas of
idealism, situationalism, individualism and relativism.
JTMC Measures
Dependent variable.
9,3

Etiquette
The measure of etiquette was derived from a study of international attitudes,
286 behaviors and actions.
The Big-5 Mini-Markers was used as a measure of personality while Forsyth’s
Ethics Position Questionnaire was used as a measure of ethics.
Control variable.

Demographics
Age and gender were collected from each sample as control data.

Results
**Interpretations**
JAPAN: Regression equation: level of significance is 0.000; therefore, it is significant
and can be used to make inferences about etiquette in the USA based on the Saucier
and Forsythe surveys:
• Situationalism: t ⫽ 2.344, 0.023 levels of significance. The situational nature of
business in the country explains the ceremonial approach Japanese business
people take to many facets of international interaction.
• Extraverted, enthusiastic: t ⫽ 2.273, 0.027 levels significance. Japan business
people appreciate enthusiasm in the business exchanges. This can relate also
to the ceremony, etc. of business practices. One of the key ways to showing
enthusiasm in Japan is by showing respect to your colleagues/potential
business partners.
• Sympathetic, warm: t ⫽ 2.113, 0.040 levels significance. Emphasizes again the
importance of showing respect in business rituals.
• Disorganized, careless: t ⫽ ⫺2.290, 0.026 levels significance. Very organized,
care a lot in the business world […] again respect!!
• Calm, emotionally stable: t ⫽ 2.552, 0.014 levels significance. Same as above.
Most of Japan’s results that are significant all are indicators of the respect and
ceremony required in business etiquette in Japan.

Turkey: The level of significance is above the 0.05 threshold at 0.069, so the
dependent variable of etiquette can not make conclusions that are significant. The
only coefficient that in itself is significant is “dependable, self-disciplined” at a
t-value of 2.479 with 0.024 levels of significance.
USA: Regression equation: level of significance is 0.000; therefore, it is significant
and can be used to make inferences about etiquette in USA based on the Saucier and
Forsythe surveys:
• Idealism: t ⫽ 2.349, 0.021 levels significance. High level of idealism in the USA
impacts the way etiquette is perceived in the area of business. This can be
 related to the importance of contracts, commitments and charitable, giving/ Cross-cultural
philanthropic tendencies in corporate America.
barriers
• Dependable, self-disciplined: t ⫽ 4.151, 0.000 levels significance. Extremely
high dependability and self-discipline also relates to the importance of
contractual agreements in America, especially in international business.
• Reserved, quiet: t ⫽ ⫺2.243, 0.027 levels significance. Scored very low in
reserved quiet, relates to the candor that Americans typically use while 287
engaging in business, along with their direct nature when negotiating.

Beginning with Japan, the results from the research is as follows.

Discussion
Future research should examine how these results might differ when considering
individuals from different cultures, generations or gender differences. As shown by
Sturman and Carraher (2007), cognitive complexity may be important at influenced
observed dimensionalities, but it may also have other important organizational
impacts both in terms of leadership potential, general attitudes and performance
across organizational stages. Additional research should also examine if similar
results would be found if we were to examine these types of relationships within
China.

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Corresponding author
Charles E. Carraher can be contacted at: [email protected]

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