C H A P T E R

53
Blast Furnace Refractory Inspection
Technologies*

O U T L I N E

53.1 Introduction 516 53.6.6 Acousto-Ultrasonic-Echo

(AU-E) 528
53.2 Refractory Wear Mechanisms 517
53.6.7 AU-E Calibration 530
53.3 Determining the Refractory Lining 53.6.8 Thickness Measurements and
Status 519 Refractory Wear 530
53.6.9 Detection of Anomalies 531
53.4 Methods to Determine and
53.6.10 Detection of Refractory
Monitor Refractory Thickness and
Chemical Changes 532
Condition 520
53.6.11 Metal Penetration 533
53.5 Offline Blast Furnace Measurement 53.6.12 AU-E and Salamander
Techniques 520 Tapping 534
53.6.13 The Accuracy of AU-E
53.6 Online Refractory Measurement
Measurements 534
Techniques 521
53.6.14 Improvements in the AU-E
53.6.1 Refractory Thickness Estimates
Technique 535
Based on Thermal Modeling 521
53.6.2 Isotopes and Radioactive 53.7 Summary 535
Tracers 523
Exercises 536
53.6.3 Infrared Thermography 524
53.6.4 Acoustic Emission 524 References 536
53.6.5 Ultrasonic 526
Further Readings 538

*We thank Dr. Afshin Sadri, Global Director of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Group, Hatch Ltd. for his
contribution to this chapter.

Blast Furnace Ironmaking

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814227-1.00053-1 515 © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
516 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

53.1 INTRODUCTION improvements in the science and understand-

ing of blast furnace linings. For example, the
Blast furnace ironmaking involves the blast furnace hearth lining integrity can be
transformation, interaction, and flow of molten maintained and its life sustained by adding
liquids, solids, and gasses at elevated tempera- various minerals that contain titania (TiO2).
tures throughout the vessel. The steel shell is Such developments have increased blast
lined by carbon, graphite, and oxide refractory furnace campaign life and improved working
bricks to protect the integrity of the vessel. conditions for operational and maintenance
Water cooling elements are integrated with personnel. The typical campaign life of a
the shell to remove heat and keep the shell modern blast furnace can range from 10-20
temperature low. years, depending on the cooling and refrac-
Carbon and graphite refractories are used tory design, especially for the hearth area.
for blast furnace hearth linings as the risk of Hearth repairs and relining is the costliest
oxidation in the blast furnace process is repair activity for blast furnaces. As a result,
minimal. This allows the designer to take operators wish to extend the existing hearth
advantage of the superior thermal conductivity life as much as possible to delay repair
of carbon refractory and their ability to trans- expenses and the related down time. Under
fer heat to the shell and various water cooling normal operating conditions, the hearth lining
elements. At higher elevations, oxide and deteriorates slowly/gradually throughout the
silicon carbide are used for better abrasion life of the blast furnace. Unfortunately, many
protection. Understanding the performance of blast furnaces experience irregular refractory
these refractory systems is essential to allow wear for many reasons. Excessive hearth wall
for a reliable operation and to effectively plan wear can occur below the taphole, at the
campaign extension strategies and ultimately opposite side of the taphole, and at the base
reline plans and design improvements. of the hearth wall, commonly known as the
There are six main factors that affect the “elephant foot wear.”
campaign life of a blast furnace: Recent studies show that blast furnace
design, taphole position, and refractory quality
1. Design, have profound effects on the blast furnace
2. Refractory quality and reliability, hearth lining wear rate. Extended tapping time
3. Refractory lining quality and tightness, increases heat shocks/loading in the taphole
4. Quality of the burden materials, region. Related refractory wear rate accelerates
5. Operation consistency, and especially below the taphole(s). In addition to
6. Operation issues or amount of care and the expected lining wear, incidents such as gas
attention paid to maintaining the furnace and water leakage, hearth chilling, unsched-
lining and equipment. uled furnace shut downs, thermal and material
Over the past two decades, significant quality fluctuations can damage local areas of
improvements have been made to the design the hearth refractory. If local damage spreads,
of blast furnaces. These improvements include it may necessitate a refractory repair or relin-
increased furnace volume and operating ing. The degree of damage affects the repair
pressure, new furnace structures and cooling costs, can reduce productivity and create
designs, improved burden distribution safety concerns, especially hearth related dam-
methods, advances in monitoring instrumen- age. A reliable assessment of refractory lining
tation and control, and the introduction of status and thickness is crucial for maintaining
techniques to lower energy requirements and a healthy and productive blast furnace opera-
save labor. In addition, there have been tion and achieve a long campaign life.

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 53.2 REFRACTORY WEAR MECHANISMS 517

53.2 REFRACTORY WEAR Hearth refractory wear typically follows a

MECHANISMS general wear pattern and cycle, as shown in
Fig. 53.1. The formation of cracks and flaws in
In a blast furnace, the refractory lining is refractories could start from the early baking
contained by an exterior steel shell. The and manufacturing stage.
refractory lining and embedded cooling ele- During the manufacturing process, and
ments protect the steel shell from the elevated later during transportation and construction,
temperatures of the gasses and molten materi- refractory bricks experience cracks and micro-
als. The lining protects the shell from the cracking. During the furnace start-up, the
resulting thermal stresses, chemical and refractory lining undergoes rapid temperature
mechanical attack. Depending on the brick changes resulting in thermal stresses which
location and the processes inside of the blast cause the nucleation, expansion, and growth
furnace, the refractory lining may either be in of the existing cracks. Spalling starts at the
direct contact with the molten materials, corners and edges and then new cracks form
exposed to radiation heat, exposed to fast because of thermal shocks and refractory
moving hot gas, covered by build-up/accre- expansions. At the areas in contact with the
tion, or exposed to abrasion by coke and molten metal and slag, impregnation starts at
ferrous burden. the refractory hot face and fills the cracks and
In the lower blast furnace and hearth, the the pores. The hot face of the cracks starts to
dominant refractories are carbon, graphite, and wear due to corrosion and erosion caused by
semi-graphite bricks and blocks. Carbon and the presence of molten metal. Eventually,
graphite bricks are produced with varying molten metal starts to penetrate in between
degrees of strength, elasticity, and porosity to the brick layers through joints and cracks. On
serve different areas of the furnace. Around the refractory hot face, thermal cycles and
the tuyeres, castable refractory is used and in stresses will cause metal impregnation into
the stack, silicon carbide refractories are used the pores and micro-cracks of the bricks,
to line the cast iron and copper staves. In the resulting in formation of an impregnated/
upper stack, abrasion resistant refractories non-impregnated boundary. After time, the
are deployed, especially in areas without water existing cracks expand because of thermal
cooling. cycles and eventually interconnect and form a
All castable refractory and bricks are brittle zone. At the brittle zone hot face, voids
designed to be physically and chemically start to form and in some areas, molten metal
stable at elevated temperatures greater than fills the voids. Pressure and thermal stresses
500
C.1 Depending on the operating environ- cause further cracking from the voids, result-
ment, refractories need to be resistant to ing in uplifting and spalling of the damaged
thermal shock, be chemically inert, have and brittle refractories. The impregnation and
specific ranges of thermal conductivity and cracking cycle repeat, continuously reducing
coefficient of thermal expansion. Each zone the thickness of the refractory lining and at
dictates the specific design of the refractories. the same time, cracks can align to form path-
For example, blast furnace hearths are lined ways for molten metal penetration.
with carbon and graphite refractories because In blast furnace hearths, zinc or alkali
of their high heat conductivity but the stack is gases can penetrate, condense, and expand
lined with silicon carbide based refractories to into carbon refractories. Steam can oxidize
resist the abrasion due to the movement of carbon refractory and carbon monoxide can
coke and pellets in that area. decompose and deposit carbon within the

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518 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 53.1 Distinct stages of refractory deterioration in an operating blast furnace.1

carbon refractories, creating cracks. These Chemical attack can create a brittle zone where
events can ultimately break or oxidize the the carbon is susceptible to being dissolved into
carbon, graphite, or semi-graphite refractory the hot metal as the hearth wall cooling is greatly
blocks. Once a crack exists, more gases and reduced by the relatively insulating brittle zone.
moisture can access the area, leaving a weak There are two requirements to make this happen.
matrix of carbon particles. Interestingly, the Firstly, the refractory must be in contact with hot
depth and position of these chemically metal (i.e. not protected by solidified material
attacked blocks in the furnace are often uni- such as build-up, i.e. frozen hot metal). Secondly,
form, which suggests that there is a specific the hot metal must be liquid (T . 1150
C) to allow
isotherm around 800-1000
C in the hearth dissolution of the carbon refractory. In the taphole
wall where zinc and alkali condense within areas, casting will provide a rapid flow of the
the carbon.2 The temperature ranges for vari- hot metal in the local area which will accelerate
ous modes of chemical attack on refractories the carbon refractory wear especially under the
are presented in Fig. 53.2. tapholes where hot metal velocity is the highest.

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 53.3 DETERMINING THE REFRACTORY LINING STATUS 519

FIGURE 53.2 Temperature ranges for refractory chemical attack in blast furnace hearths.3

Water leakage and steam attack are excep- cooling plates, promote refractory integrity
tionally destructive to blast furnace refractory by maintaining a lower temperature in the
linings. Leakage can occur from failed refractory bricks. The cooling elements create
tuyeres, tuyere coolers, staves, and cooling a thermal equilibrium in the multilayered
plates. In some cases, water leakage can be wall lining that reduces thermal shocks and
undetected for an extended period. Water the possibility of chemical attacks to the
migrates from leaking cooling members into refractory, which helps to maintain the refrac-
the refractory lining, tracks along the refrac- tory integrity.
tory cold face, and progresses downward in
the furnace, ultimately into the hearth refrac-
tory. For carbon-based hearth refractories, 53.3 DETERMINING THE
water can migrate to the hot face and oxidize REFRACTORY LINING STATUS
the carbon and graphite blocks. A brittle zone,
resulting from a chemical attack, can form Blast furnace refractory lining failures
where the water and steam have attacked the could happen in any mode of blast furnace
hearth blocks causing a soft and pasty resid- operation and the intensity of operation could
ual material. This attacked refractory is some- be only one of the causes for lining failure.
times called “punky carbon”. The lining failure could be localized, small,
Modern furnaces have cooling elements and manageable, which is typically called a
such as staves and plate coolers to enhance gas or metal “leak,” shell overheating, and
the performance of the refractory wall lining cracking. A hearth failure could result in a
and increase the refractory lining service life. “run-out,” a larger and uncontrollable leak of
In the hearth, cooling by staves, jackets, or molten iron and slag. A run-out causes
shell sprays pushes the freeze line further catastrophic outcomes including unplanned
toward the hot face of the lining. This pro- shutdown and serious health and safety risks,
motes the formation of accretion/buildup that especially explosions if the molten iron and
protects the carbon blocks. In the lower stack, slag contact water. The resulting unplanned
stave and plates act in an analogous way downtime and emergency repairs impose
promoting an accretion that protects the wall considerable cost to the plant. To prevent the
from erosion and abrasion. In the mid and occurrence of an unplanned shutdown or run-
upper stack, the cooling elements, especially out, refractory lining thickness measurements

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520 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

and condition monitoring can be completed.

These procedures are fundamental in under-
standing the health and structural integrity
of a blast furnace and have become an
indispensable part of furnace integrity and
maintenance programs. Several methods and
techniques that have been used to determine
lining conditions in operating furnaces will be
described in the next sections.

53.4 METHODS TO DETERMINE

AND MONITOR REFRACTORY
THICKNESS AND CONDITION

Refractory measurement techniques have

been classified into two categories: “offline”
and “online.” Offline measurements refer to
techniques which can only be used when the
blast furnace is not operating and, in turn,
online measurements refer to techniques which
are used when the furnace is operational. The
measurement techniques can be similarly
classified as either “direct” or “indirect.”
Direct measurements refer to the use of physi- FIGURE. 53.3 Direct measurements of the brick thick-
cal measuring tools such as measuring tapes, ness at the sidewall of an off-line blast furnace. Source:
Photo courtesy: Dr. Afshin Sadri, Hatch Ltd.
drills, and rulers to measure exposed refrac-
tory bricks while the blast furnace is taken out
of operation and the internal areas are accessi- Experience with blast furnace repair and
ble. All other techniques are indirect because relining is important for direct measurements.
the measurements are done when the refrac- Sometimes the working lining looks perfect
tory brick is not exposed and the blast furnace but it could in fact be heavily impregnated with
is in operation. iron, zinc, and alkali compounds. Samples must
be extracted, marked, weighed, and later ana-
lyzed to understand the metal impregnation
53.5 OFFLINE BLAST FURNACE and chemical composition of the impregnated
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES materials. Careful drilling and precise sampling
of the lining is very important for learning and
For offline furnaces, direct measurements can measuring purposes. Reference locations such
be done to determine refractory thickness and as tuyere numbers and vertical elevations must
condition. Direct measurements yield the most apply to identify the location and position of
accurate refractory thickness measurements. the samples and photos.
These measurements involve many phases, Once inside the furnace, drilling is done on
including efforts to investigate, study, and learn the hearth and the sidewalls to verify remain-
from digging out the lining, see Fig. 53.3. ing refractory thickness and to extract samples

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 521
for laboratory studies to determine refractory 53.6.1 Refractory Thickness Estimates
compositional changes. Drilling is also done Based on Thermal Modeling
from outside during operation of the furnace
for measuring thickness and quality of the Numerous mathematical models have
refractory. A more detailed explanation will be been developed to determine remaining refrac-
provided in the next section. tory thickness and to monitor deterioration
Laser scanning allows for a three- and wear in a blast furnace. The base of all
dimensional inner volumetric measurement mathematical models is the heat transfer and
of the hearth and other exposed areas when conductivity of the lining. Specialized finite
the blast furnace interior is accessible. Prior to element analysis models based on numerical
the laser scanning, the accretion/buildup must analysis and algorithms have been developed
be removed so that the actual remaining lining for blast furnaces considering the presence of
can be determined. After the laser scan, the the operational components, such as “elephant
volumetric values can be compared to the foot,” “deadman,” and “mushroom effects.”3,4
original lining to determine the extent of In modern blast furnaces, the walls and
refractory wear. hearth have hundreds of embedded thermo-
couples to monitor the temperatures of the fur-
nace lining. Using the temperature readings
from the thermocouples, the heat fluxes in the
53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY refractory lining can be calculated. These heat
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES flux calculations are used in the computational
model(s), based on heat flow and energy
Several methods are available to measure conservation, to project the remaining refrac-
refractory lining thickness and condition while tory and buildup thicknesses. There are
the blast furnace is in operation. These numerous types of mathematical modeling
techniques are known as “indirect” methods. approaches and types of thermocouples that
Different indirect techniques have measure- are used to make refractory wear calculations.
ment frequencies which can range from bian- The models are only as good as the accuracy
nual inspections to continuous monitoring. of the assumptions and coefficients. These
Indirect techniques require certain assumption models rely heavily on the quantity of the
(s) in their calculations and measurements installed thermocouples, the accuracy of the
which can result in discrepancies and errors if refractory thermal conductivity values and
the data analysis is not done correctly. In addi- thermocouple distribution around the furnace.
tion, the selection and implementation of the Refractory thickness monitoring by use of
instrumentation and method must be made thermocouples and thermal models is essential
based on the objectives and specific area of the and a routine tool for the blast furnace
blast furnace. operator for assessing hearth wear. A common
Ideally, the blast furnace refractory lining approach uses duplex or triplex thermocou-
thickness and condition must always be ples, that is a single thermocouple arrange-
known to the operators. In the following ment with temperature measured at two or
sections, the history and application of various three depths. The one-dimensional heat trans-
techniques to determine refractory lining thick- fer between the thermocouple positions can
ness in blast furnaces will be presented. provide an indication of the heat transfer at

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522 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 53.4 Two viable solutions for the same thermocouple reading.4

this position. Once the temperature gradient or

effective thermal resistance is established, the
1150
C isotherm position can be estimated.
This isotherm is generally accepted as the posi-
tion of the refractory hot face.
While thermal modeling is an effective
and commonly used tool, it does have
notable limitations including the following: FIGURE 53.5 Estimating the skull thickness when a
brittle zone is present and carbon refractory thickness
• The heat load between thermocouple
is independently measured by Acousto Ultrasonic-Echo
positions is unknown and must be (AU-E).4
extrapolated.
• Failure of the deepest thermocouple can
reduce accuracy.
of concern when elephant foot wear is
• Thermocouples, especially at the hot face,
present.
can provide suspect readings once they
• Thermal models are not effective in the
exceed their service temperature. A
taphole areas as the heat transfer is complex
thermocouple can appear to come alive as
and not one-dimensional. This is of concern
carbon deposits at the hot junction and
as refractory wear in the taphole area is a
recreates an electrical signal and apparent
common weak point in the hearth refractory
temperature reading. These readings cannot
system. Three-dimensional models can
be trusted.
provide an indication of refractory
• Without specific knowledge of the refractory
temperatures and wear.
thickness, extrapolation of the refractory and
• To be effective, thermocouple temperatures
skull thickness can be challenging based on
must be stored from the campaign start and
heat flux—see Fig. 53.4.
in detail, that is, hourly averages for the
• The presence of a brittle zone adds an
entire campaign. This may be a 20-year
unknown thermal resistance in the heat
period, therefore suitable computing
transfer network. Skull thickness can only
infrastructure is needed.
be estimated if an independent
measurement of the refractory thickness is Due to limitations in the effective range of
available—see Fig. 53.5. the thermocouples and multivariable assump-
• One- and two -dimensional models may not tions used in the thermal models, it is impor-
predict corner effects well such as where the tant to use other means of “nonintrusive”
hearth wall meets the hearth bottom. This is techniques to determine the refractory profile

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 523
in operating furnaces. In addition, refractory where:
wear monitoring by mathematical modeling
I 5 Intensity of radiation at the detector,
techniques is not able to distinguish between
Io 5 Intensity of radiation at the source,
the types of various defects that are demon-
u1, u2 5 Absorption coefficients of the
strated in Fig. 53.1.
materials between the detector and
A combination of drilling and temperature
the source of radiation in centimeter,
calculations is also used to determine the
x1, x2 5 Thickness of the absorbing
remaining refractory thickness. This practice is
materials, in centimeter.
common when a more accurate thickness
measurement in a more focused local area is Using this approach, the radioactive tracers
required, such as locating the salamander are placed as the emission source in the
position prior to tapping as part of a shutdown refractories at different depths and elevations
process before relining. In this case, due to in the blast furnace. A baseline measurement
presence of molten metal, the drilling is never made by an isotope counter or Geiger counter
done completely through the lining and usu- is carried out from the shell at the opposite
ally, it is always cautiously monitored by side of each source prior to the blast furnace
handheld thermocouples. Once the refractory start-up. This is used as the reference point
temperatures reach a certain value (B500
C), for each measuring station. After the blast
the drilling stops and the remaining brick furnace is blown-in, the refractory wear even-
thickness is estimated indirectly by use of ther- tually reaches the tracers which will be
mal calculations. scraped off from the walls and carried down
to the hearth where eventually they dissolve
into molten metal or slag and exit through the
53.6.2 Isotopes and Radioactive Tracers tapholes. By periodic monitoring of the mea-
Isotopes and radioactive tracers have been suring stations and comparing the results
used for determining refractory thickness in with the previous readings, the missing
blast furnaces since the 1960s.59 This method sources can be detected. This can be used to
relies on radiation from the tracer passing determine the refractory loss and wear rate in
through the refractory and this radiation is the blast furnace. The radioactive sources are
detected by an isotope counter or Geiger weak enough that the slag and hot metal
counter. The higher the radiation count rate, usage are not impacted.
the thinner the refractory is. The selected iso- There has been other experimental work,
tope tracer must have high energy gamma such as introducing the tracers at the top of
emitters for easy detection, a short half-life in the blast furnace contained within the iron ore
the same order as the refractory lining, higher pellets. As the tracer laden pellets move
melting point than iron, and slow diffusion downward with the burden, the receiver
rate into the refractory, low vapor pressure, counts the radiation that passes through the
and low costs. buildup, refractory, and the shell. Ideally, the
Following the selection of the radioactive quality of the refractory is the same through-
tracer, the source location and isotope emis- out the furnace and shell thickness is uniform
sions are detected based on the following and so an increase in radiation counts indi-
equation: cates thinner and more worn refractory lining.
Worn blast furnace linings are not uniform
I 5 Io e2ðu1 x1 1u2 x2 1...Þ (53.1) and several types of refractories with different

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524 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

densities and material properties are utilized identify relative hot spots and elevated tem-
in the lining. In addition, the presence of perature areas. Many blast furnaces have
staves and plates for cooling purposes adds to water film cooling on the hearth shell where
the complexity of the lining. The presence and the water flows over the shell continuously for
thickness of accretion, impregnation of molten cooling and heat transfer purposes. While the
iron/slag into the refractory, and variation of water is running, IR cameras are ineffective for
refractory quality influence the radiation hearth wall temperature measurements.
counts. As a result, the fluctuations in radia- Sections of the film cooling can be shut off
tion counts do not necessarily indicate changes for a brief period and images are taken for
in refractory thickness. evaluation purposes. Another problem related
Literature reviews on the use of radioactive to IR thermography is that blast furnaces have
tracers describe the use of 40La, 192Ir, and 60Co a steel shell which oxidizes over time. The
isotopes for lining thickness measurements.610 rusting of the steel shell affects the surface
In addition to measurement uncertainty, emissivity which results in inaccuracies in the
another issue with radioactive tracers is radia- IR thermography measurements.11 In addition,
tion exposure and their toxicity that may cause gaps, cracks, and looseness of the refractory
health hazards to the operators. As a result, the bonding will affect the results. Nearby heat
use of radioactive tracers has diminished. sources and thermal reflections also affect the
IR thermography data.11,12
For these reasons, IR thermography is
mainly used for rough estimates and the
53.6.3 Infrared Thermography thermal images must be carefully collected
Infrared (IR) thermography is the most com- under the same conditions for comparison
mon nondestructive testing (NDT) technique purposes. IR thermography is effective at
used for determining hotspots and areas of finding hot areas of the shell above the
potential concern. IR cameras provide a ther- tuyeres, in the blast furnace bosh, belly, and
mal image showing the temperature of the stack.
object on a color scale where the darker colors
are cooler and the lighter areas are hot spots.
Every object on earth emits IR energy. The
amount of emitting energy depends on the
53.6.4 Acoustic Emission
temperature of the object and its surface Acoustic emissions (AEs) are small ampli-
emissivity. Emissivity represents a material’s tude elastic stress waves generated due to a
ability to emit thermal radiation and is an deformation within a structure. The formation
optical property of matter. Each material has of a crack or failure of a structural component
different emissivity and is affected by source will trigger the release of AE waves which
temperature and IR wavelength. Temperature collectively are known as “acoustic events.”
differences on the surface may be related to AE transducers are attached to the blast
differences in refractory thickness or may be furnace shell, with specific patterns to detect
a result of subsurface defects. In recent years, a acoustic events, see Fig. 53.6.
large variety of systems have been commer- An AE system collects data from the
cially available with a broad range of image acoustic events and provides the location and
resolutions. intensity of the deformation. The ability to
For blast furnaces with stave and plate identify the source location gives the AE
cooling, IR cameras can only be used to method an advantage over other monitoring

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 525

FIGURE 53.6 Acoustic emission sensors locations on the blast furnace shell.

techniques. The relative coordinates of the area

of plastic deformation or microcracking across
the entire furnace shell can be calculated based
on the information from the AE signals.
The source location methodology originated
in seismology, where the objective was to
locate the epicenter of an earthquake from
seismograms obtained at points distributed
over the Earth’s surface. Such source location
was possible using an array of sensors and
time of flight data, provided that the wave
propagation characteristics between the source FIGURE 53.7 Source location problem.
and the receivers were known. The source
location solution is illustrated in Fig. 53.7.
For an array of i sensors, their coordinates For an array of i sensors, i unique nonlinear
are (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2), . . ., (xi, yi, zi). equations can be formed. If t0 is the travel time
Only the first breaks of the P-wave arrival required to reach the sensor closest to the
times are used for the location of AE events. source and Δti is the time difference between
From the Pythagorean theorem, the ith sensor arriving at the closest sensor and arriving at
located at xi, yi, zi will detect the signal when the ith sensor such that ti 5 t0 1 Δti, then the
Eq. (53.2) is satisfied (ti is the time required to source location can be determined by solving
reach the ith sensor, c is the wave velocity). for the four unknowns x0 , y0 , z0 , and t0 using

2 four or more measured Δti values. In practice,
ðx0 2xi Þ2 1 y0 2yi 1 ðz0 2zi Þ2 5 ðcti Þ2 (53.2)

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526 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

large sensor arrays are often used to allow pulse velocity, Vp, is computed by using the
overdetermination and enhance accuracy. following equation;
AE is a passive system and a failure or X
deformation must occur to trigger the system VP 5 (53.3)
t
and provide information. In 1990, a study was
conducted by the European Commission (EC) where X is the distance between the two
regarding the application of AE for detecting transducers and t is the travel time for the
tuyere leakage, furnace shell cracking, and pulse traveling between the transmitting
the application of “audiometry” or noise transducer and the receiving transducer.
measurement of material flow over the blast Generally, high ultrasonic wave speeds
furnace charging system chute.13 The EC indicate low porosity, high density, and high
study concluded that even though signal con- modulus of elasticity.
ditioning and recognition are difficult, the AE “Ultrasonic pulse-echo” (UP-E) systems are
technique is a powerful technique to solve required to measure refractory thickness on an
specific monitoring problems. operating blast furnace. UP-E systems place
In 2008, a furnace integrity monitoring sys- the transmitting and receiving transducers on
tem (FIMS) based on application of AE was the same surface such as the blast furnace shell
developed.14 FIMS has been utilized in operat- plate. In practice, the distance between the
ing blast furnaces to monitor furnace shell transmitting and receiving transducers should
cracking and refractory wear. The FIMS tech- be minimized. The thickness and position of a
nique involves filtering the surrounding noise discontinuity are estimated based on the
from the signal in real-time and relating tran- change in the travel time of the ultrasonic
sient stress wave emissions to cracking or signal. Eq. (53.4) can be used to determine the
refractory movements and deterioration. The refractory thickness;
primary objective of FIMS is to prevent furnace
X5

VP t
(53.4)
leaks and run-outs and secondary objective of 2
FIMS is to monitor refractory wear in operat- where Vp is ultrasonic or P-wave speed and t
ing blast furnaces. is the travel time.
Parker et al. demonstrated that the refrac-
tory/molten metal interface creates a distin-
guishable reflection surface because the
53.6.5 Ultrasonic acoustic impedance in liquid is typically
Low-frequency “ultrasonic pulse velocity” 1315% less than for a solid refractory or
(UPV) systems such as PUNDIT and V-Meter accretion material.15 As a result, at least 10%
have been used to determine refractory of the waves are reflected from the wall at the
quality since the mid-1980s. UPV systems refractory/molten metal interface. In their
involve placing a refractory with known study, Parker demonstrated that a large
thickness between a transmitting transducer amount of ultrasonic energy attenuates within
and receiving transducer which are at the solid refractory because of temperature
opposite ends of the refractory sample. A and porosity. A decrease in the amplitude of
low-frequency “ultrasonic through transmis- reflected ultrasonic signals was noted as the
sion” system with frequencies between 20 and sample was heated to higher temperatures.
200 kHz is used to determine the time of flight Temperature gradients also affect the travel
between the transmitter and receiver. The path of ultrasonic waveforms in solid

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 527
materials.16 As the material temperature the system has not been used on thicker
increases, the longitudinal or P-wave path furnace refractories.17 The authors believe that
widens which results in higher attenuation LFPU could be successfully implemented for
and a change in the reflection angle. refractory wall thickness measurements of up
After years of testing, conventional ultra- to 300 mm.
sound was determined to not be viable for In the mid-1990s, researchers from the
measuring refractory thickness wear in blast Magnitogorsk State Technical University in
furnaces. A conventional ultrasonic system Russia attempted to utilize the “ultrasonic
uses a single frequency transducer with fixed tomography” technique to identify blast
and narrow bandwidth. Instead, an ultrasonic furnace hearth refractory lining layers.
system with a “sweep frequency” or a “chirp” Ultrasonic tomography is widely used in the
pulse generator and broadband transducers medical profession and refers to imaging by
was developed by the industry to determine sections or sectioning, using penetrating
stave thicknesses in blast furnaces. This ultrasonic waves. Magnitogorsk used the
low-frequency pulse ultrasonic (LFPU) is a “ultrasonic mirror-shadow method” to trans-
pulse-echo system that is capable of measuring mit and receive ultrasonic waves across
stave thicknesses with a 6 2 mm precession. sections of a blast furnace, see Fig. 53.8.
The multifrequency ultrasonic pulses can This method uses ultrasonic sensors above
travel into different layers of the blast furnace 20 kHz to transmit and receive the signals.
wall and measure accretion and refractory The receiving transducers are placed at 0, 20,
thicknesses up to the tip of the stave. Even 40, 60 degree angles from the transmitting
though LFPU was proven to be accurate for sensor across the blast furnace hearth. The
blast furnace stave thickness measurements, measurements are repeated in three to four

FIGURE 53.8 (left) Transmission and receiving pathways for the ultrasonic signals across the blast furnace. (right)
Software for result generation.1,17

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528 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

various locations around the hearth diameter. thickness and quality evaluation in blast and
Based on wave speed differences due to mate- non-ferrous furnaces since 1998.
rial changes for each layer, the measured AU-E is a stress wave propagation tech-
waves are used to create an “image-shadow.” nique that uses time and frequency data
The so-called image shadow is developed analysis to determine refractory thickness and
based on mathematical modeling and correla- detect anomalies such as cracks, gaps, or metal
tions between the arriving ultrasonic waves penetration within the refractory lining.
with the blast furnace layers.18 During the measurement, a mechanical impact
From the published literature, the ultra- on the surface of the structure (via a hammer
sonic signals travel through the shell, ram- or a mechanical impactor) generates a stress
ming, thick refractory lining, molten metal, pulse, which propagates into the refractory
hot and porous “deadman” in the center of layers. The wave is partially reflected by
the hearth and again the molten metal, thick the change in material properties of each layer
refractory lining, ramming, and finally shell of the refractory lining. The wave also propa-
before they are detected and collected on gates through the solid refractory layers to a
the opposite side (Fig. 53.8, see the center brick/brick or brick/gas or brick/molten metal
pathway).18 The high frequency of ultrasonic interface. The compressive waves (or P-waves)
waves (above 20 kHz), high rate of signal are received by a sensor/receiver and the
attenuation because of temperature and mate- signals are analyzed for refractory quality and
rial porosity, and complex signal pathway thickness assessment.
from high-to-low and low-to-high acoustic The AU-E technique uses the “apparent
impedances are part of the challenges and wave speed” in the thickness calculation,
concerns in conducting ultrasonic tomogra- instead of the standard P-wave speed. The
phy on an operating blast furnace. The degree apparent wave speed is an average wave
of success of the ultrasonic tomography speed in a three-dimensional geometric space
technique to measure the internal state of an and considers the effects of numerous factors
operating blast furnace is unknown. including the brick density, thermal gradients,
shape factor, and elastic properties of the
brick. The AU-E technique uses correction
factors to account for the effects on the wave
speed in each layer. The thermal correction
53.6.6 Acousto-Ultrasonic-Echo (AU-E) factor, α, of a layer is calculated based on the
dynamic Young’s modulus of elasticity under
The Acousto Ultrasonic-Echo (AU-E) tech-
service temperature conditions compared to
nique was developed in late-1990s based on
the dynamic Young’s modulus at room tem-
the same principles governing the impact-echo
perature [Eq. (53.5) and Fig. 53.9]. If the
technique 1921. The AU-E technique considers
dynamic modulus of elasticity over a tempera-
additional modifications to account for the
ture gradient is given as Ed (T), the tempera-
effects of extreme temperature on wave propa-
ture correction factor, α, can be calculated as;
gation, blast furnace shape, and dimensional
effects and the multilayer refractory lining Ð
T2
Ed ðTÞdT
with different acoustic impedances for each α511 T1
(53.5)
Eo
layer.1921 AU-E is a patented technology (US
Patent Number 7,174,787 B2 and 7,665,362 B2) where Eo is the dynamic modulus of elasticity
that has been used commercially for refractory at room temperature, Ed(T) is the modulus of

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 529
Considering the above factors, the govern-
ing equation for the AU-E technique is
indicated by the following equation;
αβVp
T5 (53.6)
2fp

where T is the thickness or depth of the reflect-

ing surface, α is the thermal correction factor
[Eq. (53.5)], β is the shape factor, Vp is the
propagation speed of P-wave in the material
[Eq. (53.3)], and fp is the P-wave frequency.
For a multilayered section such as a blast
furnace hearth, the thickness of the final
FIGURE 53.9 Effect of an increase in temperature on refractory layer (Tn) is calculated based on the
the dynamic Young’s modulus of refractories.22
following equation;

 " #
Vp n αn β n 1 X n21
2 Ti
elasticity between the temperature gradients of Tn 5 2 (53.7)
2 f i51
ðVP Þi αi β i
T1 and T2, where T2 is a higher temperature
than T1. where f is the resonance frequency for the
In this calculation, one assumes the thickness of the nth layer.
Young’s modulus of elasticity of the refractory Eq. (53.7) can be used to determine the
changes within a uniform gradient between refractory lining thickness up to the hot face, if
the hot and cold face as a function of tempera- the P-wave speed (Vp)i, the thermal correction
ture. The change of the Young’s modulus of αi, the shape correction factor β i, and the thick-
elasticity as a function of temperature also ness Ti of the layers prior to the inner most
depends on the type of refractory material in layer are known. Eq. (53.7) assumes that stress
question. For example, the average magnesia waves are generated by a controlled impact
and alumina-based refractories are more source and that the waves contain sufficient
affected by temperature change than the energy to reach the inner most layer of the
average carbon/graphite-based refractories, lining and resonate back and forth between
see Fig. 53.9. the two faces to create a desirable or defined
The shape factor β accounts for the P-wave thickness frequency.
reduction in wave speed due to the geometry In addition to understanding the mechan-
of the structures through which the wave isms of the stress wave measurements, a key
propagates. The reduction in apparent wave factor for successful AU-E inspections is the
speed is due to excitation of the structure’s utilization of the right tools to complete the
natural frequencies by the impact force. inspection. A broadband vertical displacement
The shape factor value depends on the transducer of a suitable frequency range
cross-sectional dimensions of the testing area. was designed with the ability to function at
For example, the β factor for the cross-section elevated temperatures and in wet environ-
of a column is 0.87.19 For most blast furnaces ments. Impactors with specific spherical tip
where lateral dimensions are at least six times diameter, capable of generating a specific
the thickness of the lining, the β factor is 0.96. range of frequencies, were selected for stress

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530 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

wave generation. A military grade data acqui-

sition system is required that is water and dust
resistant and can withstand low and elevated
temperatures between 50 and 90
C.

53.6.7 AU-E Calibration

Prior to the collection of field data, the
apparent P-wave speed of each brick layer is
determined by calibrating representative brick
samples at room temperature. The wave
speed calibration measurements must be
carried out on all the materials through which
the wave propagates. The α factor can either
FIGURE 53.10 Typical time domain signal from a fur-
be calculated experimentally, by heating brick
nace wall.1
samples and measuring the wave speeds at
the desired temperatures, or it can be
calculated by the brick’s elastic and thermal
from an opened crack across a single brick
properties. The β factor can be calculated
in a furnace wall, from top to bottom
upon measuring the dimensions of the testing
perpendicularly.
area. After the calibration is done, a mathe-
Refractory wear is usually thought of as
matical model is created to help the AU-E
the reduction of refractory thickness over
specialist customize their field data collection
time caused by the thermal and mechanical
hardware and software settings.
stresses in the blast furnace. When using
the AU-E technique, there are a few other
refractory conditions that could erroneously
53.6.8 Thickness Measurements and
appear as detected remaining refractory thick-
Refractory Wear ness, namely, metal impregnated refractory
The field data collected in the time domain and accretion or buildup, see Fig. 53.12.
are extremely complex, containing numerous Fig. 53.13 illustrates the results of an AU-E
frequencies and multiple reflections, diffrac- blast furnace hearth monitoring during a
tions, refractions from body, and surface certain period, demonstrating refractory wear
waves, see Fig. 53.10. and accretion formation.
In the frequency domain, the results are When refractory is impregnated by metal
better defined but still there are many different (see Fig. 53.1 stage 3), the impregnated por-
elements that can lead to misinterpretation, see tion has a significant reduction in its elastic
Fig. 53.11. properties compared to good refractory. As a
Note that, as described by Eq. (53.7), a lower result, the AU-E signals will be reflected from
reflection frequency corresponds to a greater the impregnation boundary, which can be
distance to the signal reflection interface. mistaken for the remaining refractory
Fig. 53.11 demonstrates two example fre- thickness.
quency spectra which resulted from a signal When accretion or buildup is formed on the-
collected on a blast furnace wall with no cracks hearth wall, the buildup/molten material inter-
or impregnation and a signal collected across face can be misinterpreted as the remaining

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 531

FIGURE 53.11 Hearth wall refractory top to bottom: without impregnation or buildup; refractory thickness and
refractory with large opened crack.1

refractory thickness, while the buildup/refrac- 53.6.9 Detection of Anomalies

tory interface can be misinterpreted as a crack.
Proper interpretation of AU-E signals can be In the context of the AU-E technique, an
aided by a good understanding of the blast anomaly is defined as a clear signal reflected
furnace process and operating conditions. Like from within the refractory lining but where the
other tasks that require judgment, the AU-E source of the reflection is unknown. Anomalies
technique requires the experience of an AU-E could be cracks, voids, metal penetration, oxi-
specialist. dation, or a combination of these features.

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532 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

FIGURE 53.12 Hearth wall refractory lining top-to-bottom; echoes from good refractory, good refractory and impreg-
nated refractory; good refractory, impregnated refractory and buildup.1

When there are discontinuities, cracks, or inter- 53.6.10 Detection of Refractory

faces of various materials (see Fig. 53.1), the Chemical Changes
signals often show multiple reflections and
those reflections tend to be at higher frequen- The P-wave speed is dramatically lower in
cies compared to the low-frequency reflection hydrated/carbonized or oxidized refractory
for the full refractory thickness. The signal when compared to nonaffected refractory. In
reflection frequencies are used to determine such cases, greater than expected refractory
the position of the anomaly. The location of thickness is typically measured in areas of
any potential cracks is important for develop- hydrated/carbonized or oxidized refractory.
ing mitigation measures or monitoring plans. It is important to understand that hydration,
Cracks that coalesce and propagate may cause carbonization, or oxidation occur because of a
the spalling of refractory at the hot face, which chemical reaction between the refractory and
will result in a sudden reduction of refractory oxygen or water at certain temperatures. The
thickness. severity of the chemical changes to the bricks
When significant gaps/cracks are present in depends on the volume of the external agent
a refractory lining, impact signals may not be (i.e., water in the case of hydration), time
able transmit through the entire thickness of of exposure, temperature, and how favorable
the brick. They will be attenuated by the gaps the conditions are for the chemical change.
and thus, signals seem to reflect from a thinner The effect on the P-wave signals depends
region closer to the cold face. As such, the on the severity of material changes within the
actual remaining refractory could be thicker lining. If the area of the chemical change is
than detected by the signals. small in relation to the length and geometry

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 53.6 ONLINE REFRACTORY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 533

FIGURE 53.13 AU-E measurements showing progression of refractory wear and skull/accretion formation.

of the lining, the AU-E signals may not 53.6.11 Metal Penetration
be affected and so the change in refractory
quality may not be detected. On the other Another possible explanation for “thicker
hand, if the chemical effects are extensive than normal” lining measurements is the
in geometry and material properties in presence of metal penetration into the refrac-
relation to the lining, AU-E signals will tory. AU-E cannot identify metal penetration
readily detect the altered area. There is not within the hearth wall refractory layers when
enough field data to readily identify the the penetration is “smaller than the signal’s
distinct stages of chemically altered refractory half wavelength” which is less than 50 mm.
using AU-E measurements. When metal penetration is too small for AU-E

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534 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

to detect, the additional metal thickness is

reported as part of the lining resulting in a
“thicker than normal” reading. When using
the AU-E technique in areas with both metal
penetration and carbonization or oxidation, it
is possible that they could be mistaken for
each other.

53.6.12 AU-E and Salamander Tapping

The AU-E technique is also capable of deter-
mining the location to conduct “salamander”
tapping prior to a reline or long stop.
Salamander tapping is done at the salamander
base, which is the bottom-most level of the
liquid pool in a blast furnace hearth. A high
degree of precision is required to tap the
salamander base effectively and the operator
has only one chance to get the drain hole
implemented. Traditionally, the location the
salamander base was determined by thermo-
FIGURE 53.14 A plan view of tighter spacing on the
couple readings and by pilot core drillings at shell of the blast furnace for salamander tapping location
multiple locations. These methods are typically in comparison to the regular AU-E measuring stations.
inaccurate, expensive, and time consuming.
The AU-E technique replaces core drilling
with traditional methods used to drain the
to quickly determine where the salamander
salamander.
base is located. The methodology is shown in
Figs. 53.14 and 53.15; a vertical line of mea-
surement points is made at a selected location 53.6.13 The Accuracy of AU-E
on the blast furnace hearth wall.
The expected range (e.g., 1.2 m) of the
Measurements
salamander base is determined by thermocou- In an article, Sadri et al. have discussed the
ple and blast furnace operator data. Over the causes of AU-E errors in detail.24 In general,
expected range of the salamander base, tightly based on numerous verifications, the accuracy
packed AU-E measurement points with of the AU-E measurements is between 4 and
smaller spacing are made and points to the 7% of the actual thicknesses or anomaly
left and right (e.g., 20 cm away) are added to positions. Accretion or buildup thickness
confirm the measurements. The salamander measurements are within 15% of physical
base is then determined by carefully measurements due to the greater uncertainty
observing the signals of the tightly spaced of the wave speed of accretion material.
measurement points. The AU-E technique has Sadri et al. have written and presented
proven to accurately determine the salaman- numerous papers on the various aspects and
der base in operational blast furnaces and to applications of AU-E inspections, namely mea-
successfully eliminate the problems associated surement principles, case studies for blast

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 53.7 SUMMARY 535

FIGURE 53.15 Methodology and results of using AU-E to determine the salamander tapping location.23

furnaces, nonferrous furnaces and vessels, and analysis of the linings and analyzing it in con-
preventing and predicting maintenance.22,2435 junction with the AU-E results have proved to
add excellent value to the understanding of
the refractory deterioration process.
53.6.14 Improvements in the AU-E
Technique
Since the invention of the AU-E technique 53.7 SUMMARY
in 1998, many different improvements have
been introduced. Some of them can be credited Due to the large cost to stop and reline a
to the overall rapid development and blast furnace, operators are always looking for
increased affordability of computers, digitizers, knowledge to extend the blast furnace cam-
and software development tools. Data proces- paign in a responsible way. Hearth breakouts
sing speed has increased and the results can present a considerable safety and business risk
be presented in a customized way to clearly to any steel company. Lining assessments such
and quickly report on the issues detected in as those described will grow in usage and
the blast furnace lining. Greater knowledge of sophistication as blast furnace operators
blast furnace operations has improved data stretch the blast furnace service life as much as
interpretation and refractory lining thickness possible.
assessments. This is in part thanks to better The “direct” use of measuring tapes on the
cooperation with furnace operators and refractory brick is a highly accurate technique;
other technical personnel as the value of AU-E however, it can only be conducted while the
became more apparent to operating compa- blast furnace is shut down and when internal
nies. Obtaining feedback from the postmortem access is possible, which is a costly procedure.

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536 53. BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES

The refractory thickness can be measured dur- possible solution to prevent the sensor
ing blast furnace operation by a “semi-direct” from being triggered by this noise?
method combining core drilling into the refrac- 53.5. You are inspecting the hearth and
tory and in-hole temperature measurements. sidewall of a blast furnace that was last
The drill tip cannot go all the way to the relined 14 years ago. The operators have
refractory hot face as this will trigger a metal told you that the sidewall lining could
leak and run-out. To be completed safely, the be thin, as low as 200 mm. Should you
drilling is interrupted and temperature read- use a small diameter sphere impactor or
ings taken at regular intervals by an accurate a large diameter sphere impactor? Why?
thermocouple. The drilling stops once the bot- 53.6. In an AU-E inspection, an increase in
tom of the drilled hole temperature reaches a the thermal factor will have what effect
safe temperature, for example 500
C. From on the calculated refractory thickness?
that point, the thickness is calculated based on 53.7. Why are regular ultrasonic systems
the brick thermal conductivity and drilled inappropriate to measure refractory
thickness. Due to the involved nature, only a thicknesses in blast furnaces?
limited number of holes can be drilled and this 53.8. What could cause the temperature
is a one-time measurement. readings by thermocouple to drop in an
All other techniques presented in this section operating furnace?
use “indirect” approaches because the measure- 53.9. Why should the temperature readings
ments are done while the blast furnace is in on the blast furnace shell measured by a
operation. Each technique’s capabilities and handheld thermo-gun/thermo-camera
limitations must be taken into consideration not be used in calculations to estimate
once the data are processed and assessments the refractory thickness in the vessel?
made. Combining techniques can increase con- 53.10. What is the difference between stave
fidence and allow for better decision making cooling and shell cooling in a blast
regarding the state of the blast furnace hearth. furnace on AU-E measurements? Why?

EXERCISES References
53.1. What is the most common reason for 1. Sadri A, Ying W, Chataway D, Gordon Y. Principles for
termination of a blast furnace campaign blast furnace refractory lining inspection, and monitoring
using acoustic and ultrasonic technologies, AISTech 2016.
life and subsequent reline? Pittsburgh, PA: Association of Iron & Steel Technology
53.2. Name one NDT techniques that is (AIST); 2016. p. 68193.
capable of direct refractory 2. Sarna SK. Refractory lining of blast furnace. Ispat Guru;
measurement in operating furnaces. 2014. ,http://ispatguru.com/refractory-lining-of-blast-
furnace/..
53.3. Why did blast furnaces stop using
3. Chomyn K, Clement A, Ghorbani H, Busser J, Cameron
isotope tracers for refractory thickness I, Hyde JB. Blast furnace hearth thermal assessment and
measurements? identification of wear zones, AISTech 2017. Nashville, TN:
53.4. While you are collecting AU-E signals Association of Iron and Steel Technology (AIST); 2017.
on a blast furnace, the system is p. 85361.
triggered by another signal (noise), 4. Chomyn K, Philips S, Ghorbani H. Blast furnace assess-
ment by combining AU-E and thermocouple data. In:
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could be the source of noise? How you September 2016, Linz, Austria; 2016. 23-33, 978-3-200-
determine the source of noise? What is a 04745-7.

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