Unit I

OPERATING SYSTEMS

By B Lokesh Joel
UNIT-I:
Title and Content Layout with List
 Introduction:  Operating-System Structures:
 What Operating Systems Do,  Operating-System Services,
 Computer-System Organization,  User Operating-System Interface,
 Computer-System Architecture,  System Calls
 Operating-System Structure,  Types of System Calls,
 Operating-System Operations  System Programs
 Operating-System Design and
Implementation
 Operating-System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 Operating-System Debugging
 Operating-System Generation
 System Boot.
What is an Operating System?
 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of
a computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
1. Execute user programs
2. Make computer system convenient to use
3. Use computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components:
1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
2. Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications
and users
3. Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources
are used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video
games
4. Users
 People, machines, other computers
 Four Components of a Computer System

Similar to
a Government!
1. What Operating Systems Do
What Operating Systems Do
 Depends on the point of view
 Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must
keep all users happy
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and
battery life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
System view of an Operating System
1. OS is a resource allocator
2. OS is a control program
1. Resource Manager

 Resource Manager:
 Manages and protects multiple computer resources:
 CPU, Processes, Internal/External memory, Tasks, Applications, Users,
Communication channels, etc…
 Handles and allocates resources to multiple users or multiple
programs running at the same time and space (e.g., processor
time, memory, I/O devices).
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use (e.g., maximize throughput, minimize response
time).
 Sort of a bottom-up view.
OS as a Resource Manager
Resource Manager oriented OS names

 DEC RSX – Resource Sharing eXecutive

 MIT Multics – MULTiplexed Information and Computing Services
 IBM MFT/MVT – Multiple Fixed/Variable Tasks
 IBM MVS – Multiple Virtual Storage
 DEC VMS – Virtual Memory System
 MVS TSO – Time Sharing Option
 CTSS – Compatible Time Sharing System
 IBM VM – Virtual machine
2. Control Program

 Control Program:
 Manages all the components of a complex computer
system in an integrated manner.
 Controls the execution of user programs and I/O devices
to prevent errors and improper use of computer resources.
 Looks over and protects the computer:
 Monitor, Supervisor, Executive, Controller, Master, Coordinator ….
 Sort of a black box view.
Control program oriented OS names

 Unisys MCP – Master Control Program

 DR CP/M – Control Program/Microcomputer
 IBM VM/CP – VM Control Program
 IBM AIX – Advanced Interactive eXecutive
 DEC RSX – Resource Sharing eXecutive
Operating System Definition
 No universally accepted definition
 One View
 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is a
good approximation
 But varies wildly
 Another view:
 “The one program running at all times on the computer (is the
kernel. )
 Everything else is either
 a system program (ships with the operating system) , or
 an application program.
2. Computer System
Organization
Computer Startup
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EEPROM, generally known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
2 Computer System Organization
1. Computer-System Operation
2. Storage Structure
3. I/O Structure
Computer System Organization
 A computer system consists of
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
Buses
 Set of wires or connections for data transfer
1. Address bus
– address of memory location (or I/O port)
2. Control bus
– read (fetch) or write (store) commands
3. Data bus
– data to be stored, or instructions to be used
1. Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation
by causing an interrupt
 An interrupt is a signal indicating that an event has occurred
Common Functions of Interrupts
 When the CPU receives an interrupt,
 it must save the current state of the running program &
execute the interrupt routine[interrupt service routine ]
 An interrupt routine is a method
 Once the CPU is finished running the interrupt routine,
 the CPU must transfer back to the original program from the
place where it left off
 Note that the CPU can only execute one instruction
from a program at a time
Common Functions of Interrupts
An operating system is interrupt driven.
 OS invoked when (different events may cause
an interrupt)
 System Calls - user issues I/O request
 Hardware devices - I/O device
 Errors - division by 0
 Console (operator interrupt) - operator can signal
interrupt
Interrupt Handling
 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by
storing registers and the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 Polling
 Vectored interrupt system
 Separate segments of code determine what action
should be taken for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
Computer System Organization
1. Computer-System Operation
2. Storage Structure
3. I/O Structure
I/O Structure
 Synchronous Method:
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon
I/O completion
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access)
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous
I/O processing
I/O Structure (cont..)
 Asynchronous Method:
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion
 System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O
completion
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
 OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status
and to modify table entry to include interrupt
 Two I/O Methods

Synchronous Asynchronous
Device-Status Table
Direct Memory Access Structure
 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
information at close to memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather
than the one interrupt per byte
How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

 Storage Definitions and Notation Review

The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1. All other storage
in a computer is based on collections of bits. Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer
can represent: numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name a few. A byte
is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk of storage. For example, most
computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is
word, which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more bytes.
For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-
byte) words. A computer executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured and manipulated in bytes
and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a
gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in
bits (because networks move data a bit at a time).
Storage Structure
 Main memory
 Within the memory storage unit
 Only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly.
 Another name for main memory is RAM
 RAM (Random Access Memory) means that the data stored in
memory can be accessed at random (in any order)
 In other words, where the data is stored in memory does not influence
the time required to return the data
Storage Structure
 To run a program, the program must have be
loaded into main memory
 Ideally programs & data should be stored in main
memory permanently
 Not practical because
1. Main memory too small & too expensive
2. Main memory is volatile (needs power, or data is lost)
Storage Structure
 Secondary storage
 Extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity.
 A typical example is magnetic disks
 Rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors.
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer.
Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
 Speed
 Faster access to data at top of hierarchy
 Cost
 More expensive storage at top of hierarchy
 Volatility
 Power is required to store data at top of hierarchy, with cutoff
at electronic disk
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
 Important principle, performed at many levels in a
computer (in hardware, operating system, software)
 Information being used is copied from slower storage to faster
storage temporarily
 This temporary storage place is called a “cache”
 Pronounced like “cash”
 For example, because data in memory is much slower to access than
data in the CPU, the CPU has a cache to store recently used instructions
and data
Caching
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if data is
there
 If it is, data read directly from the cache
 If not, read data from the slower storage & put a copy in the faster
cache
 For example, web browsers have a cache of the most recently viewed web
pages
 Caches have a limited size
 Cache management important design problem
Various Levels of Storage
 Details on levels of storage hierarchy
Data Migration
 Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
 Data is stored in multiple places when it is being moved from
storage to the CPU & back
 Must be careful to use most recent value, no matter where it is stored in the
storage hierarchy
Data Migration
 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency
in hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent data
value in their cache
 Distributed environment situation even more complex
 Several copies of the data can exist on different computers
 Device
Controllers
Memory CPU
Bus Interrupt
Direct Driven
Operation I/O
I/O
Structure
Storage DMA
Structure Secondary
Storage
Organisation Main
Memory
Computer
System
Operating System
3 Computer-System Architecture
1. Single-Processor Systems
2. Multiprocessor Systems
3. Clustered Systems
Computer-System Architecture
1- Single general-purpose processor
 On a single-processor system, there is one main CPU
capable of executing a general-purpose instruction
set, including instructions from user processes.
 Single-processor systems are the most common.
Computer-System Architecture
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specie task.
 Boss-Slaves
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks(within OS)
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
 Multi-chip and multicore
 Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate systems
Clustered Systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring
each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid inconsistent
operations
Clustered Systems
 Device
Controllers
Memory CPU
Bus Interrupt
DirectDriven
Single * Operation I/O
I/O
Multi processor Structure
processor Architectur Storage DMA
Structure Secondary
e
Storage
Clusters Organisation Main
Distributed Memory
Computer
System
Operating System
Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all
times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so
CPU always has one to execute
 A job is a program in execution (a running program)
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job
Operating System Structure(cont..)
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches
jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
 A program loaded into memory & running is called a process
 In other words, a process is a program in execution
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out
to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations

 Similar to the interrupts created by hardware,

software errors or requests create exceptions or
traps
 Division by zero, request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop,
processes modifying each other or the operating
system
Operating-System Operations (cont.)
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel
code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process controlling resources
 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
 Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time
 Device
Controllers
Memory CPU
Bus Interrupt
Direct Driven
Single * Operation I/O
I/O
Multi processor Structure
Architecture Storage DMA
processor Secondary
Structure
Storage
Clusters Organisation Main
Distributed Memory
Computer
System
Services User Interface
Input/Output Operating System
What GUI or CLI
Management
Process is it?
Manag. User
Memory View
Management Operation
Dual
Mode
UNIT-I:
Title and Content Layout with List
 Introduction:  Operating-System Structures:
 What Operating Systems Do,  Operating-System Services,
 Computer-System Organization,  User Operating-System Interface,
 Computer-System Architecture,  System Calls
 Operating-System Structure,  Types of System Calls,
 Operating-System Operations  System Programs
 Operating-System Design and
Implementation
 Operating-System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 Operating-System Debugging
 Operating-System Generation
 System Boot.
 Unit I
part 2
OPERATING SYSTEMS