M.I.E.T.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to Anna University Chennai)
TRICHY – PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 007

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL

EE6401 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

II YEAR - IV SEMESTER
 EE6401 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I
AIM
To expose the students to the basic principles of Electro mechanical Energy
Conversion in Electrical Apparatus and the operation of Transformers and DC Machines.

OBJECTIVES:
To introduce techniques of magnetic-circuit analysis and introduce magnetic
materials
To familiarize the constructional details, the principle of operation, prediction of
performance, the methods of testing the transformers and three phase transformer
connections.
To study the working principles of electrical machines using the concepts of
electromechanical energy conversion principles and derive expressions for
generated voltage and torque developed in all Electrical Machines.
To study the working principles of DC machines as Generator types,
determination of their no load / load characteristics, starting and methods of speed
control of motors.
To estimate the various losses taking place in D.C. Motor and to study the
different testing methods to arrive at their performance.
UNIT I MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnetic circuits –Laws governing magnetic circuits - Flux linkage, Inductance
and energy – Statically and Dynamically induced EMF - Torque – Properties of magnetic
materials, Hysterisis and Eddy Current losses - AC excitation, introduction to permanent
magnets-Transformer as a magnetically coupled circuit..
UNIT II TRANSFORMERS 9
Construction – principle of operation – equivalent circuit parameters – phasor
diagrams, losses – testing – efficiency and voltage regulation-all day efficiency-Sumpner’s
test, per unit representation – inrush current - three phase transformers-connections – Scott
Connection – Phasing of transformer– parallel operation of three phase transformers-auto
transformer – tap changing transformers- tertiary Winding
UNIT III ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION AND CONCEPTS IN
ROTATING MACHINES
Energy in magnetic systems – field energy, co energy and mechanical force –
singly and multiply excited systems. Energy in magnetic system – Field energy and coenergy
-force and torque equations – singly and multiply excited magnetic field systems-mmf of
distributed windings – Winding Inductances-, magnetic fields in rotating machines – rotating
mmf waves – magnetic saturation and leakage fluxes.
UNIT IV DC GENERATORS
Construction and components of DC Machine – Principle of operation - Lap and
wave windings-EMF equations– circuit model – armature reaction –methods of excitation-
commutation and inter poles - compensating winding –characteristics of DC generators.
UNIT V DC MOTORS 9
Principle and operations - types of DC Motors – Speed Torque Characteristics of
DC Motors-starting and speed control of DC motors –Plugging, dynamic and regenerative
braking- testing and efficiency – Retardation test- Swinburne’s test and Hopkinson’s test -
Permanent magnet dc motors(PMDC)-DC Motor applications
TEXT BOOKS
1. Nagrath I. J and Kothari D. P. ‘Electric Machines’, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Ltd,1990.
2. P.S. Bimbhra, ‘Electrical Machinery’, Khanna Publishers, 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Fitzgerald.A.E., Charles KingselyJr, Stephen D.Umans, ‘Electric Machinery’,
McGraw Hill BooksCompany, 1992.
2. P. C. Sen., ‘Principles of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics’, John
Wiley&Sons, 1997.
3. K. Murugesh Kumar, ‘Electric Machines’, Vikas publishing house Pvt Ltd, 2002.
 CHAPTER- 1
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1.1 Introduction

The law of conservation of energy states that the energy cannot be related or
destroyed but it can be converted from one form to other. An electrical energy does not occur
naturally and also cannot be stored. Hence the efforts are made to generate it continuously to
meet the large demands. But to generate an electrical energy means to convert some other
form of energy into an electrical form, according to law of conservation of energy. A
commonly used method to generate an electrical energy is converting mechanical energy into
electrical with the help of a rotating device. Such a machine which converts the mechanical
energy into an electrical energy is called a generator. The input mechanical energy can be
achieved from steam turbines, steam engines or using potential energy of water to run
hydraulic turbines. Such a device which inputs a mechanical energy to a generator is called a
prime mover. While converting energy from mechanical to electrical form, some losses take
place. The losses are kept to minimum value by properly designing the machine. Practically
the efficiencies of large generators are above 90 %

1.2 Magnetic Circuits

In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic lines of force leaves the north poles passes through
the entire circuit and return the starting point. A magnetic circuit usually consist of materials
having high permeability such as iron , soft steel etc., These materials offer very small
opposition to the flow of magnetic flux . consider a coil of N turns would on an iron core

Ampere’s law

H. dl J.da H : magnetic field intensity vector, J : current density.

C S

B.da 0B : magnetic flux density vector. magnetic flux density is conserved

S

BH r 0 : magnetic permeability of medium.

0 : permeability of free space 0 =410 7
r : relative permeability
 H. dl J.da Ni F
C S : magnetomotive force (mmf, ampere-turns).
Magnetic flux crossing surface S:
B.da (Weber, Wb)
S

c Bc Ac c: flux in core,
Bc : flux density in the core
Ac : cross-sectional area of the core.
B
c
H. dl Hl c c
lNi
c
F lF
c

A
C c

F lc : reluctance
Ac

Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit with air gap.

Flux is the same in the magnetic core and the air-gap.

Bc flux density in the magnetic core.

A
c
Bg flux density in the air-gap.
Ag
B
B g lc g
mmf H. d l Hl H g Ni F F c

l g
c c g c A
C 0 Ac 0 g

F
F ( c g )
c g

c : reluctance of core, g : reluctance of air-gap.

 Fig 1.1 Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits.
.

magnetism plays an important role in electricity. Electrical appliances like Generator,

Motor, Measuring instruments and Transformer are based on the electromagnetic
principle and also the important components of Television, Radio and Aero plane are
working on the same principle.

1.2.1 Magnetic Material

Magnetic materials are classified based on the property called permeability as

1. Dia Magnetic Materials

2. Para Magnetic Materials

3. Ferro Magnetic Materials

1. Dia Magnetic Materials

The materials whose permeability is below unity are called Dia magnetic
materials. They are repelled by magnet.

Ex. Lead, gold, copper, glass, mercury 2.

Para Magnetic Materials

The materials with permeability above unity are called Para magnetic materials. The
force of attraction by a magnet towards these materials is low.

Ex.: Copper Sulphate, Oxygen, Platinum, Aluminum.

3. Ferro Magnetic Materials

The materials with permeability thousands of times more than that of paramagnetic
materials are called Ferro magnetic materials. They are very much attracted by the
magnet.

Ex. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel.

Permanent Magnet

Permanent magnet means, the magnetic materials which will retain the magnetic
property at a] l times permanently. This type of magnets is manufactured by aluminum,
nickel, iron, cobalt steel (ALNICO).
 To make a permanent magnet a coil is wound over a magnetic material and DC supply is
passed through the coil.
Electro Magnet
Insulated wire wound on a bobbin in many turns and layers in which current is
flowing and a soft iron piece placed in the bobbin is called electromagnet.

Figure 1.2
This is used in all electrical machines, transformers, electric bells. It is also used in a
machine used by doctors to pull out iron filing from eyes, etc.

1.2.2 Magnetic Effect By Electric Current

If current passes through a conductor magnetic field is set up around the conductor.
The quantity of the magnetic field is proportion to the current. The direction of the
magnetic field is found by right hand rule or max well's corkscrew rule. Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is equal to the total number of lines existing on
the cross-section of the magnetic core at right angle to the direction of the flux.

H=

Where,
Φ - total flux
N - number of turns
I - current in amperes
S - reluctance
µ - permeability of free space
µ0 - relative permeability
a - magnetic path cross-sectional area in m2
l - lengh of magnetic path in metres
1.3 Laws Governing Magnetic Circuits
1.3.1. Magnetic flux:

The magnetic lines of force produced by a magnet is called magnetic flux. It is

denoted by ɸ and its unit is Weber.

1.3.2. Magnetic field strength

This is also known as field intensity, magnetic intensity or magnetic field, and is
represented by the letter H. Its unit is ampere turns per metre.
 H=

1.3.3.Flux density
The total number of lines of force per square metre of the cross-sectional area of the
magnetic core is called flux density, and is represented by the symbol B. Its SI unit (in the
MKS system) is testa (weber per metre square).
B=

where
φ-total flux in webers
A - area of the core in square metres

B - flux density in weber/metre square.

1.3.4 .Magneto-Motive Force

The amount of flux density setup in the core is dependent upon five factors - the
current, number of turns, material of the magnetic core, length of core and the cross-sectional
area of the core. More current and the more turns of wire we use, the greater will be the
magnetizing effect. We call this product of the turns and current the magneto motive force
(mmf), similar to the electromotive force (ernf).

MMF = NI ampere - turns

Where mmf is the magneto motive force in ampere turns
N is the number of turns, A.
1.3.5.Magnetic Reluctance
In the magnetic circuit there is something analogous to electrical resistance, and is
called reluctance, (symbol S). The total flux is inversely proportional to the reluctance and so
if we denote mmf by ampere turns. we can write

S=

Where, S - reluctance
I - length of the magnetic path in meters
o- permeability of free space µ r - relative permeability

a - cross-sectional area
1.3.6. Residual Magnetism
It is the magnetism which remains in a material when the effective magnetizing force
has been reduced to zero.
1.3.7. Magnetic Saturation
The limit beyond which the strength of a magnet cannot be increased is called
magnetic saturation.

1.3.8. End Rule

According to this rule the current direction when looked from one end of the coil
is in clock wise direction then that end is South Pole. If the current direction is in anti clock
wise direction then that end is North Pole.

1.3.9. Len’s Law

When an emf is induced in a circuit electromagnetically the current set up always opposes
the motion or change in current which produces it.

1.3.10. Electro magnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction means the electricity induced by the magnetic field

Faraday's Laws of Electro Magnetic Induction

There are two laws of Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. They are,

1) First Law 2) Second Law

First Law
Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux lines an emf is induced in the conductor.
Second Law
The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages.

1.3.11. Fleming's Right Hand Rule

This rule is used to find out the direction of dynamically induced emf. According to the
rule hold out the right hand with the Index finger middle finger and thumb at the right angels
to each others. If the index finger represents the direction of the lines of flux, the thumb
points in the direction of motion then middle finger points in the direction of induced current.

Figure 1.3 Fleming's Right Hand Rule

1.4 Flux Linkage, Inductance and Energy

1.4.1. Flux Linkage
When flux is changing with time and relative motion between the coils flux exist
between both the coils or conductors and emf induces in both coil and the total induced emf e
is given as
1.4.2 Inductance and Energy

A coil wound on a magnetic core, is used frequently used in electric circuits. The coil
may be representsd by an ideal circuit element called inductance which is defined as the flux
linkage of the coil per ampere of its circuit

1.5. Statically And Dynamically Induced Emf. Induced

electro motive forces are of two types. They are,

i) Dynamically induced emf.

ii) Statically induced emf .

1.5.1 Statically Induced Emf

Statically Induced emf is of two types. They are

1 .Self induced emf

2. Mutually induced emf.

1.5.1.1 Self Inductuced emf

Self induction is that phenomenon where by a change in the current in a conductor induces an
emf in the conductor itself. i.e. when a conductor is given current, flux will be produced, and
if the current is changed the flux also changes, as per Faraday's law when there is a change of
flux, an emf will be induced. This is called self induction. The induced emf will be always
opposite in direction to the applied emf. The opposing emf thus produced is called the counter
emf of self induction.

Uses of Self induction

.1. In the fluorescent tubes for starting purpose and to reduce the voltage.
2. In regulators, to give reduced voltage to the fans.
3. In lightning arrester.
4. In auto- transformers.
5. In smooth choke which is used in welding plant.
1.5.1.2 Mutually Induced EMF
It is the electromagnetic induction produced by one circuit in the near by second circuits due
to the variable flux of the first circuit cutting the conductor of the second circuit, that means
when two coils or circuits are kept near to each other and if current is given to one circuit and
it is changed, the flux produced due to that current which is linking both the coils or circuits
cuts both the coils, an emf will be produced in both the circuits. The production of emf in
second coil is due to the variation of current in first coil known as mutual induction.

Uses:

1. It is used in ignition coil which is used in motor car.

2. It is also used in inductance furnace.

3. It is used for the principle of transformer

1.5.2 Dynamically induced EMF

Dynamically induced emf means an emf induced in a conductor when the conductor moves
across a magnetic field. The Figure shows when a conductor “A”with the length
“L” moves across a “B” wb/m2.

Figure1.4 Dynamically induced emf.

Flux density with “V” velocity, then the dynamically induced emf is induced in the
conductor. This induced emf is utilized in the generator. The quantity of the emf can be
calculated using the equation
emf= Blv volt

1.6. Properties of Magnetic Materials

1.6.1 Magnetic Hysteresis
It may be defined as the lagging of magnetization or Induction flux density (B) behind the
magnetizing force (H). It may also be defined as a quality of a magnetic substance due to
which energy is dissipated in it on the reversal of its magnetism
 Fig 1.5 Magnetic Hysteresis loop

1.6.2 Hysteresis Loop

Let us take a un magnetized bar of iron AB and magnetize in by placing it within the
magnetizing field of a solenoid (H). The Field can be increased or decreased by increasing or
decreasing current through it. Let `H' be increased in step from zero up to a certain maximum
value and the corresponding of induction flux density (B) is noted. If we plot the relation
between H and B, a curve like OA, as shown in Figure, is obtained. The material becomes
magnetically saturated at H = OM and has, at that time, a maximum flux density, established
through it. If H is now decreased gradually (by decreasing solenoid current) flux density B
will not decrease along AO (as might be expected) but will decrease less rapidly along AC.
When it is Zero B is not zero, but has a definite value = OC. It means that on removing the
magnetizing force H, the iron bar is not completely demagnetized. This value of B (=OC) is
called the residual flux density.

To demagnetize the iron bar we have to apply the magnetizing force H in

the reverse direction. When H is reversed by reversing current through the solenoid, then B is
reduced to Zero at point D where H - OD. This value of H required to wipe off residual
magnetism is known as coercive force and is a measure of the coercivity of materials i.e. its
`tenacity' with which it holds on to its magnetism. After the magnetization has been reduced
to zero value of H is further increased in the negative i.e. reverse direction, the iron bar again
reaches a state of magnetic saturation represented by point E. By taking H back from its value
corresponding to negative saturation (=OL) to its value for positive saturation (=OM), a
similar curve EFGA is obtained. If we again start from G, the same curve GACDEFG is
obtained once again. It is seen that B always lags behind H the two never attain zero value
simultaneously. This lagging of B, behind H is given the name Hysteresis' which literally
means `to lag behind.' The closed Loop ACDEFGA, which is obtained when iron bar is taken
through one complete cycle of reversal of magnetization, is known as Hysteresis loop.

1.7. Iron or Core losses

These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the rotation of
armature in the magnetic field of the poles.
They are of two types
(i) hysteresis loss
(ii) (ii) eddy current loss.

1.7.1. Hysteresis loss

Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine since any given part of the
armature is subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under successive poles.Figure.
(1.36) shows an armature rotating in two-pole machine. Consider a small
piece ab of the armature. When the piece ab is under N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a
to b. Half arevolution later, the same piece of iron is under S-pole and magnetic lines pass
from b to a so that magnetism in the iron is reversed. In order to reverse continuously the
molecular magnets in the armature core, some amount of power has to be spent which is
called hysteresis loss. It is given by Steinmetz formula. This formula is Hysteresis loss,

Ph=B16maxfV watts
where Bmax = Maximum flux density in armature f =
Frequency of magnetic reversals
V = Volume of armature in m3
h = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient

Figure 1.6 Hysteresis loss

In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of such materials which
have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel.

1.7.2 Eddy current loss

In addition to the voltages induced in the armature conductors, there are also voltages
induced in the armature core. These voltages produce circulating currents in the armature
core as shown in Figure. (1.37). These are called eddy currents and power loss due to their
flow is called eddy current loss. The eddy current loss appears as heat which raises the
temperature of the machine and
lowers its efficiency. If a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to eddy current
path will be small due to large cross-sectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude
of eddy current and hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy current can
be reduced by making core resistance as high as practical. The core resistance can be greatly
increased by constructing the core of thin, round iron sheets called laminations.The
laminations are insulated from each other with a coating of varnish. The insulating coating
has a high resistance, so very little current flows from one lamination to the other. Also,
because each lamination is very thin, the resistance to current flowing through the width of a
lamination is also quite large. Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which
decreases the eddy current and hence the eddy current loss.

Eddy current loss, Pe = KeB2maxf2t2V watts

where ,
Ke = Constant
Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz
t = Thickness of lamination in m
V = Volume of core in m3
 Figure 1.7 Eddy current loss
It may be noted that eddy current loss depends upon the square of lamination
thickness. For this reason, lamination thickness should be kept as small as possible.

1.7.3 Mechanical losses

These losses are due to friction and windage.
(i) friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush friction etc.
(ii) windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating armature.
These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they are
practically constant.
Note. Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called stray losses
Eddy current
When the armature with conductors rotates in the magnetic field and cuts the magnetic lines,
an emf will be induced in the conductors. As the armature is made of a metal and metal being
a conductor, emf will be induced in that metal also and circulate the current called eddy
current. These current produces some effects which can be utilized. This current are also
called as Focault current. Methods of Minimizing Eddy current always tends to flow at the
right angles to the direction ofthe flux, if the resistance of the path is increased by laminating
the cores. The power loss can be reduced because the eddy current loss varies as the square of
the thickness of the laminations.

Figure 1.8 Eddy current

1.8 Ac Operation Of Magnetic Circuits
For establishing a magnetic field, energy must be spent, though to energy is required
to maintain it. Take the example of the exciting coils of an electromagnet. The energy
supplied to it is spent in two ways, (i) Part of it goes to meet I2R loss and is lost once for all
(ii) part of it goes to create flux and is stored in the magnetic field as potential energy, and is
similar to the potential energy of a raised weight, when a mass M is raised through a height of
H, the potential energy stored in it is mgh. Work is done in raising this mass, but once raised
to a certain height. No further expenditure of energy is required to maintain it at that position.
This mechanical potential energy can be recovered so can be electric energy stored in a
magnetic field. When current through an inductive coil is gradually changed from Zero to a
maximum, value then every change
of it is opposed by the self-induced emf. Produced due to this change. Energy is needed to
overcome this opposition. This energy is stored in the magnetic field of the coil and is, later
on, recovered when those field collapse.
In many applications and machines such as transformer and a.c machines, the
magnetic circuits are excited by a.c supply. In such an operation, Inductance plays vital role
even in steady state operation though in d.c it acts as a short circuit. In such a case the flux is
determined by the a.c voltage applied and the frequency, thus the exciting current has to
adjust itself according to the flux so that every time B-H relationship is satisfied.

Consider a coil having N turns wound on iron core as shown in fig

The coil carries an alternating current i varying sinusoidally. Thus the flux produced by
the exciting current I is also sinusoidally varying with time.
According to Faraday’s law as flux changes with respect to coli, the e.m.f gets induced in the
coil given by,

e= N =N

Em = Maximum value = N

E= r.m.s value = =

E= = 4.44 fN

But = Ac Bm

The sign of e.m.f induced must be determined according to len’s law, opposing the
changes in the flux. The current and flux are in phase as current produces flux
instantaneously. Now induced e.m.f is cosine term and thus leads the flux and current
by .this is called back e.m.f as it opposes the applied voltage. The resistance drops is very
small and is neglecte3d in most of the electromagnetic devices

1.9. Transformer As A Magnetically Coupled Circuit

A two winding transformer where R1 and R2 are the primary and secondary winding
resistance. The primary current i1 into the dotted terminal produces
Core flux = ɸ 21
Leakage flux = ɸ1

Total flux = ɸ 1 + ɸ 21

1.10 Solved problems

Eg .No.1
A magnetic circuit with a single air gap is shown in Fig. 1.24. The core dimensions are:

Cross-sectional area Ac = 1.8 × 10-3 m2

Mean core length lc = 0.6 m

Gap length g = 2.3 x 10-3 m

N = 83 turns

Assume that the core is of infinite permeability ( ) and neglect the effects of fringing fields at
the air gap and leakage flux. (a) Calculate the reluctance of the core
R and that of the gap Rg . For a current of i = 1.5 A, calculate (b) the total flux , (c)
c

the flux linkages λ of the coil, and (d) the coil inductance L.

Solution:

g 2.3 10 3 6
R 1.017 10 A/Wb
R 0 since g A4 10 7 1.8 10 3
c 0 c

Ni 83 1.5
R R 1.017 106 1.224 10 4 Wb
c g

N 1.016 10 2 Wb

1.016 10 2
L 6.773 mH
i 1.5

Eg .No.2
Consider the magnetic circuit of with the dimensions of Problem 1.1. Assuming infinite core
permeability, calculate (a) the number of turns required to achieve an inductance of 12 mH
and (b) the inductor current which will result in a core flux density of 1.0 T.
Solution:

N2
L 12 10 3 mH N12 10 3 1.017 106 110.47 N 110 turns
Rg
B B 1.0 T B A 1.8 10 3 Wb
c g g c

N 110 1.8 10 3
i 16.5 A
L L 12 10 3
Eg .No.3
A square voltage wave having a fundamental frequency of 60 Hz and equal positive and
negative half cycles of amplitude E is applied to a 1000-turn winding surrounding a closed
iron core of 1.25 x 10-3m2 cross section. Neglect both the winding resistance and any effects
of leakage flux.
(a) Sketch the voltage, the winding flux linkage, and the core flux as a function
of time.

(b) Find the maximum permissible value of E if the maximum flux density is not to
exceed 1.15 T.

e voltage
T
E

max Φ

max

E
( )
d e( t ).dt E max max
4f 4 fN max 4 fNAc Bmax
e(t) max
dt T/2
E 4 60 1000 1.25 10 3 1.15 345 V
Eg.No.4
EE2251 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I
Eg.no.5
 CHAPTER- 2
TRANSFORMER
2.1 Principle Of Operation
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductor. A varying current in the first or primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, and thus a varying magnetic field
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive
force EMF or voltage in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding
is in proportion to the primary voltage , and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary to the number of turns in the primary as follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating
current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making greater than , or "stepped down" by
making less than .
2.1.1 Basic Principle
Construction

Figure 2.1 Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations

Laminated steel cores
Transformer use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high
permeability Si steel. The steel has permeability many times that of free and the core thus
serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely
couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from
solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect
with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by
stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination
is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The universal
transformer equation indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid
saturation.
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that
enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are
more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high
frequency transformers, with some types of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to
10 kHz.
Figure 2.2laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-shaped steel
sheets capped with shaped pieces, leading to its name of "E-I transformer”. Such a design
tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core
type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers
together. It is then cut in two, forming
two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel
strap.[73] They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the
metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's permanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is
removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush until the
effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied
alternating current. Over current protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow
this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power
transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can
cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss
high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial
cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light
load.
Solid cores
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that
operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials
combine high magneticpermeancehigh bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies
extending beyondthe VHFband, cores madefrom non-conductive
magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common. Some radio-frequency
transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of
the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.
 Toroidal cores

Figure 2.3 Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on
operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or perm alloy wound into a
coil, powdered iron, or ferrite. A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are
optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance.
The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core.[78] The
cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with
circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound
concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire
needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating
electromagnetic.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a
similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about
half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio
amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them
more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The
main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see "Classification" above).
Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to
exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of
kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of a switched-
mode power supply. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost
of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through
the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal
transformers are uncommon above ratings of a few kVA. Small distribution transformers may
achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then
inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

Air cores
A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be
produced simply by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed an "air-
core" transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless, and so
an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.[41] The leakage
inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are
unsuitable for use in power distribution. They have
however very high bandwidth, and are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications,
for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the
primary and secondary windings. They're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla
coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance.

Windings

Figure 2.4 Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in
all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the
current travels throughout every turn.For small power and signal transformers, in which
currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns are there.

Figure 2.5 Winding shapes

Cut view through transformer windings. White: insulator. Green spiral: Grain oriented
silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygen-free copper. Red: Secondary
winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core would be similar. The
black windings are made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all ends of both
windings. Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also need insulation.
Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary winding needed for low-power
high-voltage transformers. Bottom left: Reduction of leakage would lead to increase of
capacitance.
 Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low
power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current
windings. Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain
points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different
relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing
in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The
stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding
manufacture.
For signal transformers, the windings may be arranged in a way to minimize leakage
inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. This can be done by
splitting up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of
the other winding. This is known as a stacked type or interleaved winding.

Power transformers often have internal connections or taps at intermediate points on

the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage regulation control
purposes. Such taps are normally manually operated, automatic on-load tap changers being
reserved, for cost and reliability considerations, to higher power rated or specialized
transformers supplying transmission or distribution circuits or certain utilization loads such as
furnace transformers. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to
public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A
center is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit.
Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.Certain transformers have the
windings protected by epoxy resin. By impregnating the transformer with epoxy under a
vacuum, one can replace air spaces within the windings with epoxy, thus sealing the
windings and helping to prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or
water. This produces transformers more suited to damp or dirty environments, but at
increased manufacturing cost.

Cooling

Figure 2.6 Cooling

 Cutaway view of oil-filled power transformer. The conservator (reservoir) at top
provides oil-to-atmosphere isolation. Tank walls' cooling fins provide required heat
dissipation balance.

Though it is not uncommon for oil-filled transformers to have today been in operation
for over fifty years high temperature damages winding insulation, the accepted rule of thumb
being that transformer life expectancy is halved for every 8 degree C increase in operating
temperature. At the lower end of the power rating range, dry and liquid-immersed
transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation. As
power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by such other means as forced-air
cooling, force-oil cooling, water-cooling, or a combinations of these. The dialectic coolant
used in many outdoor utility and industrial service transformers is transformer oil that both
cools and insulates the windings. Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that
inherently helps thermally stabilize winding conductor insulation, typically paper, within
acceptable insulation temperature rating limitations. However, the heat removal problem is
central to all electrical apparatus such that in the case of high value transformer assets, this
often translates in a need to monitor, model, forecast and manage oil and winding conductor
insulation temperature conditions under varying, possibly difficult, power loading conditions.
Indoor liquid-filled transformers are required by building regulations in many jurisdictions to
either use a non-flammable liquid or to be located in fire-resistant rooms. Air-cooled dry
transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at capacity ratings where oil-cooled
construction would be more economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced building
construction cost.

The oil-filled tank often has radiators through which the oil circulates by natural
convection. Some large transformers employ electric-operated fans or pumps for forced-air or
forced-oil cooling or heat exchanger-based water-cooling. Oil-filled transformers undergo
prolonged drying processes to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water before
the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical breakdown under load. Oil-filled
transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays, which detect gas evolved during
internal arcing and rapidly de-energize the transformer to avert catastrophic failure. Oil-filled
transformers may fail, rupture, and burn, causing power outages and losses. Installations of
oil-filled transformers usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment,
and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

Insulation drying
Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the
windings be thoroughly dried before the oil is introduced. There are several different methods
of drying. Common for all is that they are carried out in vacuum environment. The vacuum
makes it difficult to transfer energy (heat) to the insulation. For this there are several different
methods. The traditional drying is done by circulating hot air over the active part and cycle
this with periods of hot-air vacuum (HAV) drying. More common for larger transformers is
to use evaporated solvent which condenses on the colder active part. The benefit is that the
entire process can be carried out at lower pressure and without influence of added oxygen.
This process is commonly called vapor-phase drying (VPD).

For distribution transformers, which are smaller and have a smaller insulation weight,
resistance heating can be used. This is a method where current is injected in the windings to
heat the insulation. The benefit is that the heating can be controlled
very well and it is energy efficient. The method is called low-frequency heating (LFH) since
the current is injected at a much lower frequency than the nominal of the grid, which is
normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency reduces the effect of the inductance in the
transformer, so the voltage needed to induce the current can be reduced. The LFH drying
method is also used for service of older transformers.
Terminals
Very small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the
coils, and brought out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. Larger transformers may
have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers
or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control
of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil.

2.1.2 An ideal Transformer

Figure 2.7 Basic principle of Operation

An ideal transformer. The secondary current arises from the action of the secondary
EMF on the (not shown) load impedance.The transformer is based on two
principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and
second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends
of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the
magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the
secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the
primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a
core of very high magnetic, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through
both the primary and secondary coils. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the
load current and voltage will be in the directions indicated, given the primary current and
voltage in the directions indicated (each will be alternating current in practice).

2.1.3 Induction Law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated
from Faraday's law of induction,
which states that:
where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil and Φ
is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux
density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-
sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according
to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the
primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for Vs and Vp gives the basic equation for stepping up or
stepping down the voltage

Np/Ns is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any
transformer. In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the
reciprocal, Ns/Np. Turns ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for
example, a transformer with primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150
turns is said to have a turns ratio of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.

An elementary transformer consists of a soft iron or silicon steel core and two
windings, placed on it. The windings are insulated from both the core and each other. The
core is built up of thin soft iron or low reluctance to the magnetic flux. The winding
connected to the magnetic flux. The winding connected to the supply main is called the
primary and the winding connected to the load circuit is called the secondary.

Although in the actual construction the two windings are usually wound one over the
other, for the sake of simplicity, the figures for analyzing transformer theory show the
windings on opposite sides of the core, as shown below Simple Transformer .

When primary winding is connected to an ac supply mains, current flows through it.
Since this winding links with an iron core, so current flowing through this winding produces
an alternating flux in the core. Since this flux is alternating and links with the secondary
winding also, so induces an emf in the secondary winding.
The frequency of induced emf in secondary winding is the same as that of the flux or
that of the s supply voltage. The induced emf in the secondary winding enables it to deliver
current to an external load connected across it. Thus the energy is transformed from primary
winding to the secondary winding by means of electro-magnetic induction without anychange
in frequency. The flux of the iron core links not only with the secondary winding but also
with the primary winding, so produces self-induced emf in the primary winding:

This induced in the primary winding opposes the applied voltage and therefore
sometimes it is known as back emf of the primary. In fact the induced emf in the primary
winding limits the primary current in much the same way that the back emf in a dc motor
limits the armature current.
Transformation ratio.
The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is known as the voltage
transformation ratio and is designated by letter K. i.e. Voltage transformation ratio.
Current ratio.
The ratio of secondary current to primary current is known as current ratio and is
reciprocal of voltage transformation ratio in an ideal transformer.
2.2 Equivalent Circuit
The electrical circuit for any electrical engineering device can be drawn if
theequations describing its behavior are known. The equivalent circuit for
electromagneticdevice is a combination of resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltages
etc. In theequivalent circuit, (R1+jX1) and (R2+jX2) are the leakage impedances of the
primary andsecondary windings respectively. The primary current I1 consists of two
components.One component, I1´ is the load component and the second is no-load current Io
which iscomposed of Ic and Im. The current Ic is in phase with E1 and the product of these
twogives core loss. Ro represents the core loss and is called core-loss resistance. The
currentIm is represented by a reactance Xo and is called magnetizing reactance. The
transformermagnetization curve is assumed linear, since the effect of higher order harmonics
can’t berepresented in the equivalent circuit. In transformer analysis, it is usual to transfer
thesecondary quantities to primary side or primary quantities to secondary side.
 Figure 2.8 Equivalent Circuit

2.3 Transformer Losses

1. Primary copper loss
2. Secondary copper loss
3. Iron loss
4. Dielectric loss
5. Stray load loss
These are explained in sequence below.
Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistances due to
the flow of the current in them. The primary and secondary resistances differ from their d.c.
values due to skin effect and the temperature rise of the windings. While the average
temperature rise can be approximately used, the skin effect is harder to get analytically. The
short circuit test gives the value of Re taking into account the skin effect.

The iron losses contain two components - Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The
Hysteresis loss is a function of the material used for the core.Ph = KhB1.6f For constant
voltage and constant frequency operation this can be taken to be constant. The eddy current
loss in the core arises because of the induced emf in the steel lamination sheets and the eddies
of current formed due to it. This again producesa power loss Pe in the lamination.wheret is
the thickness of the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is much smaller than
the depth of penetration of the field, the eddy current loss can be reduced by reducing the
thickness of the lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness and are capable
of operation at 2 Tesla.

These reduce the eddy current losses in the core.This loss also remains constant due to
constant voltage and frequency of operation. The sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses
can be obtained by the open circuit test.The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the
transformer due to the large electric stress. In the case of low voltage transformers this can be
neglected. For constant voltage operation this can be assumed to be a constant. The stray load
losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These leakage fluxes link the
metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them. Thus they take
place ’all round’ the transformer instead of a definite place , hence the name ’stray’. Also the
leakage flux is directly proportional to the load current unlike the mutual flux which is
proportional to the applied voltage. Hence this loss is called ’stray load’ loss.This can also be
estimated experimentally.

It can be modeled by another resistance in the series branch in the equivalent circuit.
The stray load losses are very low in air-cored transformers due to the absence of the metallic
tank. Thus, the different losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage
dependant) and Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of the
transformer operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of 2, can be
written as losses and Pvar the variable losses at full load.For a given power factor an
expression for in terms of the variable x is thus obtained.Bydifferentiating with respect to x
and equating the same to zero, the condition formaximum efficiency is obtained. The
maximum efficiency it can be easily deduced that thismaximum value increases with increase
in power factor and is zero at zero power factor of the load. It may be considered a good
practice to select the operating load point to be at the maximum efficiency point. Thus if a
transformer is on

constant and variablelosses.However, in the

modern transformers the iron losses are so low
full load, for most part of the time that it is practicallyimpossible to reduce the full
then the max can be made to occur load copper losses to that value. Such a design
at full load by proper selection of wastes lot of copper. This point is illustrated with
the help of an example below.Two overcome the hysteresis and eddy current losses
100 kVA transformers And B are occurring in the core in addition to small amount
taken. Both transformers have total of copper losses occurring in the primary only
full loadlosses to be 2 kW. The (no copper loss occurs in the secondary, because
break up of this loss is chosen to be it carries no current, being open circuited.) From
different for the two vector diagram shown in above it is obvious that
transformers.Transformer A: iron
loss 1 kW, and copper loss is 1 kW.
The maximum efficiency of 1. Induced emfs in primary and secondary
98.04%occurs at full load at unity windings, and lag the main flux by and are in
power factor.Transformer B: Iron phase with each other.
loss =0.3 kW and full load copper 2. Applied voltage to primary and leads the main
loss =1.7 kW. This also has a full flux by and is in phase opposition to
load of 98.04%. Its maximum .
occurs at a fractional load of 3. Secondary voltage is in phase and equal to
q0.31.7 = 0.42. The maximum since there is no voltage drop in secondary.
efficiency at unity power factor
being at the corresponding point the 4. is in phase with and so lags
transformer A has an efficiency of 5. is in phase with the applied voltage .
Transformer A uses iron of more
loss per kg at a given flux density, 6. Input power on no load = cos where
but transformer B uses lesser
quantity of copper and works at
higher current density.

When the primary of a

transformer is connected to the
source of an ac supply and the
secondary is open circuited, the
transformer is said to be on no load.
Which will create alternating flux.
No-load current, also known as
excitation or exciting current has
two components the magnetizing
component Im and the energy
component Ie.

Figure2.9
Transformer on No
Load
Im is used to create the flux
in the core and Ie is used to
Transformer on Load
The transformer is said to be loaded, when its secondary circuit is completed through
an impedance or load. The magnitude and phase of secondary current (i.e. current flowing
through secondary) with respect to secondary terminals depends upon the characteristic of the
load i.e. current will be in phase, lag behind and lead the terminal voltage respectively when
the load is non-inductive, inductive and capacitive. The net flux passing through the core
remains almost constant from no-load to full load irrespective of load conditions and so core
losses remain almost constant from no-load to full load.

Secondary windings Resistance and Leakage Reactance In actual practice, both of the
primary and have got some ohmic resistance causing voltage drops and copper losses in the
windings. In actual practice, the total flux created does not link both of the primary and
secondary windings but is divided into three components namely the main or mutual flux
linking both of the primary and secondary windings, primary leakage flux linking with
primary winding only and secondary leakage flux linking with secondary winding only.

The primary leakage flux is produced by primary ampere-turns and is proportional to

primary current, number of primary turns being fixed. The primary leakage flux is in phase
with and produces self inducedemf is in phase with and produces self inducedemf E given as
2f in the primary winding. The self inducedemf divided by the primary current gives the
reactance of primary and is denoted by .

i.e. E = 2fπ

2.4 Transformer Tests

1 .Open-circuit or no-load test
2.Short circuit or impedance test
2.4.1 Open-circuit or No-load Test.
In this test secondary (usually high voltage) winding is left open, all metering
instruments (ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter) are connected on primary side and normal
rated voltage is applied to the primary (low voltage) winding, as illustrated below
 Figure2.10 Open Circuit
Iron loss = Input power on no-load W0 watts (wattmeter reading) No-load current = 0
amperes (ammeter reading) Angle of lag, = /Io Ie = and Im = √o - Caution: Since no load
current I0 is very small, therefore, pressure coils of watt meter and the volt meter should be
connected such that the current taken by them should not flow through the current taken by
them should not flow through the current coil of the watt meter.

2.4.2 Short-circuit or Impedance Test.

This test is performed to determine the full-load copper loss and equivalent resistance
and reactance referred to secondary side. In this test, the terminals of the secondary (usually
the low voltage) winding are short circuited, all meters (ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter)
are connected on primary side and a low voltage, usually 5 to 10 % of normal rated primary
voltage at normal frequency is applied to the primary, as shown in fig below.

The applied voltage to the primary, say Vs’ is gradually increased till the ammeter A
indicates the full load current of the side in which it is connected. The reading Ws of the
wattmeter gives total copper loss (iron losses being negligible due to very low applied voltage
resulting in very small flux linking with the core) at full load. Le the ammeter reading be Is.

Figure 2.11Short Circuit

Equivalent impedence referred to primary= Commercial Efficiency and Allday
Efficiency (a) Commercial Efficiency. Commercial efficiency is defined as the ratio of power
output to power input in kilowatts.(b) All-day Efficiency. The all day efficiency is defined as
the ratio of output in kwh to the input in kwh during the whole day. Transformers used for
distribution are connected for the whole day to the line but loaded intermittently. Thus the
core losses occur for the whole day but copper losses occur only when the transformer is
delivering the load current. Hence if the transformer is not used to supply the load current for
the whole day all day efficiency will be less than commercial efficiency. The efficiency
(commercial efficiency) will be maximum when variable losses (copper losses) are equal to
constant losses (iron or core losses).sign is for inductive load and sign is for capacitive load
Transformer efficiency, Where x is the ratio of secondary current I2 and rated full load
secondary current.
2.5 Efficiency
Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in
operation are required to handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load.
An unloaded transformer draws only the magnetization current on the primary side, the
secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the primary and secondary currents
increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled by the
transformer also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I2R losses in the
windings certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer.

This gives rise to the concept of efficiency. Efficiency of a power equipment is

defined at any load as the ratio of the power output to the power input. Putting in the form of
an expression, while the efficiency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the
load, the deficiency focuses our attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a
matter of fact the losses heat up machine. The temperature rise decides the rating of the
equipment. The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural
configuration, method of cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak
temperature attained directly affects the life of the insulations of the machine for any class of
insulation.

These aspects are briefly mentioned under section load test.The losses that take place
inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is sometimes termed as deficiency.
Except in the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of the input power gets lost inside
the machine while handling the power. Thus the value for the efficiency is always less than
one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is expressed in terms of apparent power. It is
nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the current drawn. The actual power
delivered is a function of the power factor at which this current is drawn.

As the reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a zero average
value over a cycle of the supply wave it does not have any direct effect on the efficiency. The
reactive power however increases the current handled by the machine and the losses resulting
from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a transformer at any given load play a vital
role in determining the efficiency. The losses taking place inside a transformer can be
enumerated as below:
1. Primary copper loss
2. Secondary copper loss
3. Iron loss
4. Dielectric loss
5. Stray load loss
These are explained in sequence below.
Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistancesdue to
the flow of the current in them. The primary and secondary resistances differ from their d.c.
values due to skin effect and the temperature rise of the windings. While the average
temperature rise can be approximately used, the skin effect is harder to get analytically. The
short circuit test gives the value of Re taking into account the skin effect.The iron losses
contain two components Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The Hysteresis loss is a
function of the material used for the core.Ph = KhB1.6f For constant voltage and constant
frequency operation this can be taken to be constant. The eddy current loss in the core arises
because of the induced emf in the steel lamination sheets and the eddies of current formed
due to it. This again producesa power loss Pe in the lamination. Where t is the thickness of
the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is much smaller than the depth of
penetration of the field, the eddy current loss can be reduced by reducing the thickness of the
lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness and are capable of operation at
2 Tesla.
 These reduce the eddy current losses in the core.This loss also remains constant due to
constant voltage and frequency of operation. The sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses
can be obtained by the open circuit test.The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the
transformer due to the large electric stress. In the case of low voltage transformers this can be
neglected. For constant voltage operation this can be assumed to be a constant. The stray load
losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These leakage fluxes link the
metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them. Thus they take
place ’all round’ the transformer instead of a definite place, hence the name ’stray’. Also the
leakage flux is directly proportional to the load current unlike the mutual flux which is
proportional to the applied voltage.

Hence this loss is called ’stray load’ loss.This can also be estimated experimentally. It
can be modeled by another resistance in the series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray
load losses are very low in air-cored transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank.
Thus, the different losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage dependant)
and Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of the transformer
operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of 2 can be written as
losses and Pvar the variable losses at full load. For a given power factor an expression for _
in terms of the variable x is thus obtained. By differentiating _ with respect to x and equating
the same to zero, the condition for maximum efficiency is obtained. The maximum efficiency
it can be easily deduced that this Maximum value increases with increase in power factor and
is zero at zero power factor of the load. It may be considered a good practice to select the
operating load point to be at the maximum efficiency point.

Thus if a transformer is on full load, for most part of the time then the max can be
made to occur at full load by proper selection of constant and variablelosses.However, in the
modern transformers the iron losses are so low that it is practically impossible to reduce the
full load copper losses to that value. Such a design wastes lot of copper. This point is
illustrated with the help of an example below. Two 100 kVA transformers A and B are taken.
Both transformers have total full load losses to be 2 kW. The breakup of this loss is chosen to
be different for the two transformers. Transformer A: iron loss 1 kW, and copper loss is 1
kW. The maximum efficiency of 98.04%occurs at full load at unity power factor.
Transformer B: Iron loss =0.3 kW and full load copper loss =1.7 kW. This also has a full load
of 98.04%. Its maximum occurs at a fractional load of q0.31.7 = 0.42. The maximum
efficiency at unity power factor being at the corresponding point the transformer A has an
efficiency of Transformer A uses iron of more loss per kg at a given flux density, but
transformer B uses lesser quantity of copper and works at higher current density.

% Efficiency = ×100
 All day efficiency
Large capacity transformers used in power systems are classified broadly into Power
transformers and Distribution transformers. The former variety is seen in generating stations
and large substations. Distribution transformers are seen at the distribution substations. The
basic difference between the two types arises from the fact that the power transformers are
switched in or out of the circuit depending upon the load to be handled by them. Thus at 50%
load on the station only 50% of the transformers need to be connected in the circuit. On the
other hand a distribution transformer is never switched off. It has to remain in the circuit
irrespective of the load connected. In such cases the constant loss of the transformer
continues to be dissipated. Hence the concept of energy based efficiency is defined for such
transformers. It is called ’all day’ efficiency. The all day efficiency is thus the ratio of the
energy output of the transformer over a day to the corresponding energy input. One day is
taken as duration of time over which the load pattern repeats itself. This assumption,
however, is far from being true. The power output varies from zero to full load depending on
the requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the square of the fractional loads. The
no-load losses or constant losses occur throughout the 24 hours. Thus, the comparison of
loads on different days becomes difficult. Even the load factor, which is given by the ratio of
the average load to rated load, does not give satisfactory results. The calculation of the all day
efficiency is illustrated below with an example. The graph of load on the transformer,
expressed as a fraction of the full load is plotted against time. In an actual situation the load
on the transformer continuously changes. This has been presented by a stepped curve for
convenience. For the same load factor different average loss can be there depending upon the
values of xi and ti. Hence a better option would be to keep the constant losses very low to
keep the all day efficiency high. Variable losses are related to load and are associated with
revenue earned. The constant loss on the other hand has to be incurred to make the service
available. The concept of all day efficiency may therefore be more useful for comparing two
transformers subjected to the same load cycle. The concept of minimizing the lost energy
comes into effect right from the time of procurement of the transformer. The constant losses
and variable losses are capitalized and added to the material cost of the transformer in order
to select the most competitive one, which gives minimum cost taking initial cost and running
cost put together. Obviously the iron losses are capitalized more in the process to give an
effect to the maximization of energy efficiency. If the load cycle is known at this stage, it can
also be incorporated in computation of the best transformer.

2.6 Voltage Regulation

With the increase in load on the transformer, there is a change in its terminal voltage.
The voltage falls if the load power factor is lagging. It increases if power is leading. The
change in secondary terminal voltage from full load to no load, expressed as a percentage of
full load voltage is called the percentage voltage regulation of the transformer

% Regulation E- V/V x 100.

2.6.1 Circuit Diagram

Figure 2.2Load Test

2.6.2 Procedure:
• Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig (a)
• Apply full load and note down the readings of wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter.

• Decrease the load and note down the readings.

• Calculate efficiency and regulation.

2.6.3 Observation Table

Wl Vl I2

2.6.4 Calculation
= V2 I2 / Wi * 100

% Reg = E – V * 100 / V
2.6.5 Discussion
By calculating the voltage regulation the figure of merit which determines the
voltage characteristics of a transformer can be determined. Also the transformer efficiency
can’t be determined with high precision since the losses are of order of only 1 to 4%. The
best and accurate method of determining the efficiency of a transformer would be to compute
losses from open circuit and short circuit test and then determine the efficiency.

2.7 Auto Transformer

Figure2.13 Autotransformer - Physical Arrangement

The primary and secondary windings of a two winding transformer have induced emf in them
due to a common mutual flux and hence are in phase. The currents drawn by these two
windings are out of phase by 180◦. This prompted the use of a part of the primary as
secondary. This is equivalent to fusing the secondary turns into primary turns. The fused
section need to have a cross sectional area of the conductor to carry (I2−I1) ampere! This
ingenious thought led to the invention of an auto transformer. Fig. 28 shows the physical
arrangement of an auto transformer. Total number of turns between A and C are T1. At point
B a connection is taken. Section AB has T2 turns. As the volts per turn, which is proportional
to the flux in the machine, is the same for the whole winding,

V1 : V2 = T1 : T2 (76)
For simplifying analysis, the magnetizing current of the transformer is neglected. When the
secondary winding delivers a load current of I2 ampere the
demagnetizing ampere turns is I2T2 . This will be countered by a current I1 flowing from the
source through the T1 turns such that,
I1T1 = I2T2 (77)
A current of I1 ampere flows through the winding between B and C . The current in the
winding between A and B is (I2 − I1) ampere. The cross section of the wire to be selected for
AB is proportional to this current assuming a constant current density for the whole winding.
Thus some amount of material saving can be achieved compared to a two winding
transformer. The magnetic circuit is assumed to be identical and hence there is no saving in
the same. To quantify the saving the total quantity of copper used in an auto transformer is
expressed as a fraction of that used in a two winding transformer as,
 This means that an auto transformer requires the use of lesser quantity of copper
given by the ratio of turns. This ratio therefore denotes the savings in copper. As the space for
the second winding need not be there, the window space can be less for an auto transformer,
giving some saving in the lamination weight also. The larger the ratio of the voltages, smaller
is the savings. As T2 approaches T1 the savings become significant. Thus auto transformers
become ideal choice for close ratio transformations. The savings in material is obtained,
however, at a price. The electrical isolation between primary and secondary

2.8 Three-phase autotransformer connection

2.8.1 Design, Vector group

A three-phase transformer consists of the interconnection of three single-phase transformers
in Y– or D – connection. This transformer connects two three-phase systems of different
voltages (according to the voltage ratio). This arrangement is mainly used in the USA – in
Europe only for high power applications (>200 MVA) because of transportation problems.
The combination in one single three-phase unit instead ofthree single-phase units is usual
elsewhere. The technical implementation is very simple. Three single-phase transformers,
connected to three phase systems on primary and secondary side, are to be spatially arranged.
A complete cycle of the measuring loop around the three iron cores results in = 0 i u and:

Figure 2.14 Three-phase assembly

2.8.2 Three-Leg Transformer
The magnetic return paths of the three cores can be dropped, which results in the
usual type of three-phase transformers.

Figure2.15 Spatial arrangement

One primary and one secondary winding of a phase is arranged on any leg Five-leg
transformers are used for high power applications (low overall height).

Figure2.16 Three-leg transformer

Primary and secondary winding can be connected in Y– – connection, according to

Requirements. The additional opportunity of a so called zigzag connection can be used on the
secondary side. The separation of the windings into two parts and their application on two
different cores characterize this type of connection. This wiring is particularly suitable for
single-phase loads. Significant disadvantage is the additional copper expense on thesecondary
side increased about a factor 2/3compared to Y– or D
– connection. A conversion from line-to-line quantities to phase quantities and the usage of
single-phase ecdand phasor diagram is reasonable for the calculation of the operational
behavior of balanced loaded three-phase transformers.
The method of symmetrical components (see 2.6) is suited for calculations in case of
unbalanced load conditions. In a parallel connection of two three-phase transformers the
transformation ratio as well as the phase angle multiplier of the according vector group needs
to be adapted.
Examples for vector groups (based on VDE regulations):

Figure2.17 Table showing phasor diagrams and ecd according to vector group and
multiplier
With:
· upper case letter à vector group on primary side
· lower case letter à vector group on secondary side
· Y, y à star connection
· D, d à delta connection (?)
· z à zigzag connection
The multiplier gives the number of multiples of 30°, defining the total phase shift, of
which the low voltage (secondary side) lags behind the higher voltage (same
orientation of reference arrow assumed).
Mnemonic: clock
higher voltageμ 12 o’clock
lower voltage: number of multiplier (on the clock)

2.9 Parallel Operation Of Transformers

By parallel operation we mean two or more transformers are connected to the same
supply bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the secondary side.
Such requirement is frequently encountered in practice. The reasons that necessitate parallel
operation are as follows.
1. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.
2. The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of the
capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.
3. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is taken
out for maintenance/repair the load can continued to be serviced.
4. To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one machine can
be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of similar rating has to
be available. The problem of spares becomes more acute with fewer machines in service at a
location.
5. When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site, it may be
easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel. Fig. 37 shows the physical
arrangement of two single phase transformers working in parallel on the primary side.
Transformer A and Transformer B are connected to input voltage bus bars. After ascertaining
the polarities they are connected to output/load bus bars. Certain conditions have to be met
before two or more transformers are connected in parallel and share a common load
satisfactorily. They are,
1. The voltage ratio must be the same.
2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be the same.
3. The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating current between the
transformers.
4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference must exist between the
voltages of the two transformers.

Figure 2.18 PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

Where,
V1=Load bus voltage
V2=Supply voltage
These conditions are examined first with reference to single phase transformers and
then the three phase cases are discussed. Same voltage ratio generally the turns ratio and
voltage ratio are taken to be the same. If the ratio is large there can be considerable error in
the voltages even if the turns ratios are the same. When the primaries are connected to same
bus bars, if the secondaries do not show the same voltage, paralleling them would result in a
circulating current between the secondaries. Reflected circulating current will be there on the
primary side also. Thus even without connecting a load considerable current can be drawn by
the transformers and they produce copper losses. In two identical transformers with
percentage impedance of 5 percent, a no-load voltage difference of one percent will result in
a circulating current of 10 percent of full load current. This circulating current gets added to
the load current when the load is connected resulting in unequal sharing of the load. In such
cases the combined full load of the two transformers can never be met without one
transformer getting overloaded.
Per unit impedance Transformers of different ratings may be required to operate in
parallel. If they have to share the total load in proportion to their ratings the larger machine
has to draw more current. The voltage drop across each machine has to be the same by virtue
of their connection at the input and the output ends. Thus the larger machines have smaller
impedance and smaller machines must have larger ohmic impedance. Thus the impedances
must be in the inverse ratios of the ratings. As the voltage drops must be the same the per unit
impedance of each transformer on its own base, must be equal. In addition if active and
reactive powers arerequired to be shared in proportion to the ratings the impedance angles
also must be the same. Thus we have the requirement that per unit resistance and per unit
reactance of both the transformers must be the same for proper load sharing. Polarity of
connection The polarity of connection in the case of single phase transformers can be either
same or opposite. Inside the loop formed by the two secondaries the resulting voltage must be
zero.
If wrong polarity is chosen the two voltages get added and short circuit results. In the
case of polyphase banks it is possible to have permanent phase error between the phases with
substantial circulating current. Such transformer banks must not be connected in parallel. The
turn’s ratios in such groups can be adjusted to give very close voltage ratios but phase errors
cannot be compensated. Phase error of 0.6 degree gives rise to one percent difference in
voltage. Hence poly phase transformers belonging to the same vector group alone must be
taken for paralleling. Transformers having −30degree angle can be paralleled to that having
+30 angle by reversing the phase sequence of both primary and secondary terminals of one of
the transformers.
This way one can overcome the problem of the phase angle error. Phase sequence the
phase sequence of operation becomes relevant only in the case of poly phase systems. The
poly phase banks belonging to same vector group can be connected in parallel. A transformer
with +30◦ phase angle however can be paralleled with the one with −30∙ phase angle; the
phase sequence is reversed for one of them both at primary and secondary terminals. If the
phase sequences are not the same then the two transformers cannot be connected in parallel
even if they belong to same vector group.

The phase sequence can be found out by the use of a phase sequence indicator.
Performance of two or more single phase transformers working in parallel can be computed
using their equivalent circuit. In the case of poly phase banks also the approach is identical
and the single phase equivalent circuit of the same can be used. Basically two cases arise in
these problems. Case A: when the voltage ratio of the two transformers is the same and Case
B: when the voltage ratios are not the same. These are discussed now in sequence.

2.10 Tap Changing

Regulating the voltage of a transformer is a requirement that often arises in a power
application or power system. In an application it may be needed
1. To supply a desired voltage to the load.
2. To counter the voltage drops due to loads.
3. To counter the input supply voltage changes on load.
On a power system the transformers are additionally required to perform the task of
regulation of active and reactive power flows.
 Figure 19 Tap changing and Buck Boost arrangement
The voltage control is performed by changing the turns ratio. This is done by provision of
taps in the winding. The volts per turn available in large transformers is quite high and hence
a change of even one turn on the LV side represents a large percentage change in the voltage.
Also the LV currents are normally too large to take out the tapping from the windings. LV
winding being the inner winding in a core type transformer adds to the difficulty of taking out
of the taps. Hence irrespective of the end use for which tapping is put to, taps are provided on
the HV winding. Provision of taps to control voltage is called tap changing. In the case of
power systems, voltage levels are sometimes changed by injecting a suitable voltage in series
with the line.
This may be called buck-boost arrangement. In addition to the magnitude, phase of
the injected voltage may be varied in power systems. The tap changing arrangement and buck
boost arrangement with phase shift are shown in Fig. 42. Tap changing can be effected when
a) the transformers is on no- load and b) the load is still remains connected to the transformer.
These are called off load tap changing and on load tap changing. The Off load taps changing
relatively costs less. The tap positions are changed when the transformer is taken out of the
circuit and reconnected. The on-load tap changer on the other hand tries to change the taps
without the interruption of the load current.

In view of this requirement it normally costs more. A few schemes of on-load tap
changing are now discussed. Reactor method The diagram of connections is shown in Fig.
43. This method employs an auxiliary reactor to assist tap changing. The switches for the taps
and that across the reactor(S) are connected as shown. The reactor has a center tapped
winding on a magnetic core. The two ends of the reactor are connected to the two bus bars to
which tapping switches of odd/even numbered taps are connected. When only one tap is
connected to the reactor the shorting switch S is closed minimizing the drop in the reactor.
The reactor can also be worked with both ends connected to two successive taps. In that case
the switch ’S’ must be kept open. The reactor limits the circulating current between the taps
in such a situation. Thus a four step tapped winding can be used for getting seven step
voltage on the secondary(see the table of switching).

Taps Switches closed

1 1,S
2 1,2
3 2,S
4 2,3
5 3,S
6 3,4
7 4,S
8 4,5
49
 9 5,S
Reactor method the diagram of connections is shown in Fig. 43. This method
employs an auxiliary reactor to assist tap changing. The switches for the taps and that across
the reactor(S) are connected as shown. The reactor has a center tapped winding on a magnetic
core. The two ends of the reactor are connected to the two bus bars to which tapping switches
of odd/even numbered taps are connected. When only one tap is connected to the reactor the
shorting switch S is closed minimizing the drop in the reactor. The reactor can also be
worked with both ends connected to two successive taps. In that case the switch ’S’ must be
kept open. The reactor limits the circulating current between the taps in such a situation. Thus
a four step tapped winding can be used for getting seven step voltage on the secondary (see
the table of switching). The advantage of this type of tap changer is

1. Load need not be switched.

2. More steps than taps are obtained.
3. Switches need not interrupt load current as a alternate path is always provided.
The major objection to this scheme seems to be that the reactor is in the circuit always
generating extra loss. Parallel winding, transformer method In order to maintain the
continuity of supply the primary winding is split into two parallel circuits each circuit having
the taps. as
Two circuit breakers A and B are used in the two circuits. Initially tap 1a and 1b are
closed and the transformer is energized with full primary voltage. To change the tap the
circuit breaker A is opened momentarily and tap is moved from 1a to 2a. Then circuit breaker
A is closed. When the circuit A is opened whole of the primary current of the transformer
flows through the circuit B. A small difference in the number of turns between the two circuit
exists. This produces a circulating current between them. Next, circuit breaker B is opened
momentarily, the tap is changed from 1b to 2b and the breaker is closed. In this position the
two circuits are similar and there is no circulating current. The circulating current is
controlled by careful selection of the leakage reactance.

Generally, parallel circuits are needed in primary and secondary to carry the large
current in a big transformer. Provision of taps switches and circuit breakers are to be
additionally provided to achieve tap changing in these machines. Series booster method in
this case a separate transformer is used to buck/boost the voltage of the main transformer.
The main transformer need not be having a tapped arrangement. This arrangement can be
added to an existing system also. It shows the booster arrangement for a single phase supply.
The reverser switch reverses the polarity of the injected voltage and hence a boost is
converted into a buck and vice versa. The power rating of this transformer need be a small
fraction of the main transformer as it is required to handle only the power associated with the
injected voltage.
The advantage of this type of tap changer are The major objection to this scheme
seems to be that the reactor is in the circuit always generating extra loss. Parallel winding,
transformer method In order to maintain the continuity of supply the primary winding is split
into two parallel circuits each circuit having the taps. Two circuit breakers A and B are used
in the two circuits. Initially tap 1a and 1b are closed and the transformer is energized with full
primary voltage. To change the tap the circuit breaker A is opened momentarily and tap is
moved from 1a to 2a. Then circuit breaker A is closed. When the circuit A is opened whole
of the primary current of the transformer flows through the circuit B. A small difference in
the number of turns between the two circuits exists. This produces a circulating current
between them. Next, circuit breaker B is opened momentarily, the tap is changed from1b to
2b and
the breaker is closed. In this position the two circuits are similar and there is no circulating
current. The circulating current is controlled by careful selection of the leakage reactance.
Generally, parallel circuits are needed in primary and secondary to carry the large current in a
big transformer. Provision of taps switches and circuit breakers are to be additionally
provided to achieve tap changing in these machines. Series booster method in this case a
separate transformer is used to buck/boost the voltage of the main transformer. The main
transformer need not be having a tapped arrangement.

This arrangement can be added to an existing system also. It shows the booster
arrangement for a single phase supply. The reverser switch reverses the polarity of the
injected voltage and hence a boost is converted into a buck and vice versa. The power rating
of this transformer need be a small fraction of the main transformer as it is required to handle
only the power associated with the injected voltage. One precaution to be taken with this
arrangement is that the winding must output side. In smaller ratings this is highly cost
effective. Two winding arrangements are also possible. The two winding arrangement
provides electrical isolation. Not be open circuited. If it gets open circuited the core (B in fig)
gets highly saturated.
In spite of the small ratings and low voltages and flexibility, this method of voltage
control costs more mainly due to the additional floor space it needs. The methods of voltage
regulation discussed so far basically use the principle of tap changing and hence the voltage
change takes place in steps. Applications like a.c. and D.C. motor speed control, illumination
control by dimmers, electro-chemistry and voltage stabilizers need continuous control of
voltage. This can be obtained with the help of moving coil voltage regulators. Moving coil
voltage regulator shows the physical arrangement of one such transformer. a, b are the two
primary windings wound on a long core, wound in the opposite sense. Thus the flux produced
by each winding takes a path through the air to link the winding. These fluxes link their
secondaries a2 and b2. A short circuited moving coil s is wound on the same limb and is
capable of being held at any desired position. This moving coil alters the inductances of the
two primaries. The sharing of the total applied voltage thus becomes different and also the
induced emf in the secondaries a2
and b2.
The total secondary voltage in the present case varies from 10 percent to 20 percent
of the input in a continuous manner. The turn’s ratios of a1μ a2 and b1μ b2 are 4.8θ and 10.θ
respectively. 5 4.86 + 95 10.6 = 10% when s is in the top position. In the bottom position it
becomes 95 4.86 + 5 10.6 = 20%. By selecting proper ratios for the secondaries a2 and b2
one can get the desired voltage variation. Sliding contact regulators these have two winding
or auto transformer like construction. The winding from which the output is taken is bared
and a sliding contact taps the voltage. The minimum step size of voltage change obtainable is
the voltage across a single turn. The conductor is chosen on the basis of the maximum load
current on the output side. In smaller ratings this is highly cost effective. Two winding
arrangements are also possible. The two winding arrangement provides electrical isolation
also.
2.11 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 1:

A source which can be represented by a voltage source of 8 V rms in series with an internal
resistance of 2 kΩ is connected to a η0-Ω load resistance through an ideal transformer.
Calculate the value of turns ratio for which maximum power is supplied to the load and the
corresponding load power? Using MATLAB, plot the the power in milliwatts supplied to the
load as a function of the transformer ratio, covering ratios from 1.0 to 10.0.

Solution:

For maximum power transfer, the load resistance (referred to the primary) must be equal to
the source resistance.

R N1 R n 2 R2000 n 2000 6.32

L L L
N2 50

The primary current:

V 2 V2 V2
I s Power supplied to the load: P RI R s s 8 mW
1 2R load L 1 s 4R 2 4R
s s s

2
Vs Vs 2 2 Vs
I P RI n R
1 R R R n2R load L 1 LR n2R
For a general turns ratio n: s L s L s L

Example 2
A 460-V:2400-V transformer has a series leakage reactance of 37.2 Ω as referred to
the high-voltage side. A load connected to the low-voltage side is observed to be absorbing
25 kW, unity power factor, and the voltage is measured to be 450 V. Calculate the
corresponding voltage and power factor as measured at the high-voltage terminals.

Solution:

Secondary current:
P
load 25000 460
I 2 55.55 A Primary current I1 55.55 10.65 A
V
load 450 2400
V1 j 37.2 I 1 V2 V2 2400 450 2347.8 V
Primary voltage: 460

V1 j 37.2 I1 V2 j 37.2 10.65 2347.8 2347.8 j396.18 2381.0 9.58 V

Power factor at primary terminals: cos(9.58 ) = 0.9861 lagging

Example 3:
The resistances and leakage reactances of a 30-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400-V:240-V distribution
transformer are

R1 = 0.68 Ω R2 = 0.00θ8 Ω
Xl1 = 7.8 Ω Xl2 = 0.0780 Ω

where subscript 1 denotes the 2400-V winding and subscript 2 denotes the 240-V winding.
Each quantity is referred to its own side of the transformer.

a. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (i) the high- and (ii) the low-voltage sides.
Label the impedances numerically.

b. Consider the transformer to deliver its rated kVA to a load on the low-voltage side
with 230 V across the load. (i) Find the high-side terminal voltage for a load
power factor of 0.85 lagging. (ii) Find the high-side terminal voltage for a load
power factor of 0.85 leading.

c. Consider a rated-kVA load connected at the low-voltage terminals operating at

240V. Use MATLAB to plot the high-side terminal voltage as a function of the
power-factor angle as the load power factor varies from 0.6 leading through unity
power factor to 0.6 pf lagging.

Solution:

(a)
(i) referred to the HV side 0.68 j7.8 0.68 j7.8
240 : 2400

+ Z +
H

VL VH
_ _

(ii) referred to the LV side 0.0068j0.078 0.0068 j0.078 240 : 2400

+ +
ZL

VL VH

_ _

(b) Using the equivalent circuit referred to the HV side, VL 230 0 V

53
 I 30000
Load current: load
230 93.8 A where is the pf angle ( 0 for leading pf).

Referred to the HV side:

IH 9.38 A VH VL Z H I H 2300 0 (1.36 j15.6)9.38

VH 2300 12.7568cos 146.328sin j(146.328cos 12.7568sin )

pf = 0.85 leading 31.79 VH 2233.76 j131.1 2237.6 3.36 V

pf = 0.85 lagging 31.79 VH 2387.93 j117.66 2390.83 2.82 V

Example 4:
A single-phase load is supplied through a 35-kV feeder whose impedance is 95 + j360 Ω and
a 35-kV:2400-V transformer whose equivalent impedance is (0.23 + j1.27) Ω referred to its
low-voltage side. The load is 160 kW at 0.89 leading power factor and 2340 V.

a. Compute the voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the transformer.

b. Compute the voltage at the sending end of the feeder.
Compute the power and reactive power input at the sending end of the feeder.

Solution:

feeder 35 : 2.4

+ Zf = 95+j360 + +

V V V
send H load
_ _ _

(a) Equivalent circuit for the transformer and load:

Zeq= 0.23+ j1.27

+ +
I
load V
V' H
160 103 76.83 A
load
V
_ _ PL load . I load .cos I
load

2340 0.89
cos 1 0.89 27.13 leading I load 76.83 27.13 A

The HV side voltage referred to the LV side:

VZ I
H eq load VL (0.23 j1.27)(76.83 27.13 ) 2340 2311.2 j 94.9 V
35
VH VH 33.71 j1.384 kV VH 33.734 kV
2.4
(b) Load current referred to the HV side:
I I 2.4
load feed
35 76.83 27.13 5.2683 27.13 A
V ZI V
send f feed H (95 j 360) 5.2683 27.13 3371 j1384 33.286 j3.3 kV
V
send 33.45 kV

Example 5:
The following data were obtained for a 20-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400:240-V distribution transformer
tested at 60 Hz:

Voltage, Current, Power,

V A W
With high-voltage winding open-circuited 240 1.038 122
With low-voltage terminals short-circuited 61.3 8.33 257

a. Compute the efficiency at full-load current and the rated terminal voltage at 0.8 power
factor.

b. Assume that the load power factor is varied while the load current and secondary
terminal voltage are held constant. Use a phasor diagram to determine the load power
factor for which the regulation is greatest. What is this regulation?

Solution:

(a) Rated current on the HV side = 20 kVA / 2400 = 8.33 A. Therefore, total power loss
at full load current:
PL= 122 + 257 = 379 W. Load power at full load, 0.8 pf = 0.8 × 20 kW = 16 kW.
Therefore, input power = 16 + 0.379 = 16.379 kW efficiency = (16 / 16.379) × 100% =
97.7 %.

Z R jX
eq , H eq , H eq ,H
(b) The equivalent impedance of the transformer:
P Z V
R sc 257 eq sc 61.3
eq , H 3.7 ,H I 7.36
I sc 2 8.332 sc 8.33
X (Z )2 (R )2 6.36
eq , H eq , H eq ,H

V
Let load current and voltage referred to the HV side: lH V0 I lH I
 Z I
V V Z I eq V V Z I
s lH eq lH V lH ( Z) V d d eq lH and Z

(V Vd cos ) jVd sin

V s
(V V cos
d
)2 (V sin )2
d
V2 2VV cosV 2
d d

V
s
V
lH
V 2 2VV cos d
V2
d
V 2V cos
d
V 2 d

Regulation V V 1 V V2 1
lH

Therefore, regulation is maximum when cosα is maximum

X
1 eqH
cos 1 Z 0 Z tan 59.81
R
eqH

Maximum regulation:

Vd 7.36 8.33 61.31 V

V
d 61.31
0 Vs V Vd Regulation 0.026 2.6%
When V 2400

Example 6:

A three-phase generator step-up transformer is rated 26-kV:345-kV, 850 MVA and has a
series impedance of 0.0035 + j0.087 per unit on this base. It is connected to a 26-kV, 800-
MVA generator, which can be represented as a voltage source in series with a reactance of
j1.57 per unit on the generator base.
(a) Convert the per unit generator reactance to the step-up transformer base.

(b) The unit is supplying 700 MW at 345 kV and 0.95 power factor lagging to the system
at the transformer high-voltage terminals.

(i) Calculate the transformer low-side voltage and the generator internal voltage
behind its reactance in kV.
(ii) Find the generator output power in MW and the power factor.

Solution:

850
X
(a) On the transformer base gen 1.57 800 1.668 pu

(b) Per-unit equivalent circuit:

ZG= j1.668 Zeq= 0.0035+ j0.087

+ +
Is
EG + VL VH

_ 56 _
(i) Transformer low-side voltage and generator internal voltage:

V 345 kV, V
base , H base ,L 26 kV, VAbase 850 MVA
VH 1.0 0 pu.
I I VA
700 base 850
s kA 1.233 kA base ,H kA 1.4225 kA
3V
3 345 0.95 base ,H 3 345
1.233
Is 0.8668 pu. Is 0.8668 18.2 pu.
1.4225
700 P 0.8235
OR P 0.8235 pu. Is pu 0.8668 pu.
850 V 1 0.95
H pu cos
V V
L (0.0035 j 0.087)I s 1.0264
H j0.071 pu. 1.0289 3.94
VL 1.0289 pu. 26.75 kV
EG VL ( j1.668)I s 1.478 j1.4442 pu. 2.0664 44.34 pu. EG 26 2.0664 53.73 kV

(ii) Generator output power (at its terminals)

S
VL I s 1.0289 3.94 0.8668 18.2 0.8261 j0.3361 pu.
G

P G 0.8261 850 702.19 MW

1
power factor cos(tan 0.3361 ) 0.9263 lagging
0.8261
 CHAPTER- 3
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION AND CONCEPTS IN
ROTATING MACHINES
3.1 Energy In Magnetic Systems
It is often necessary in today's computer controlled industrial setting to convert an
electrical signal into a mechanical action. To accomplish this, the energy in the electrical
signal must be converted to mechanical energy. A variety of devices exist that can convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy using a magnetic field. One such device, often
referred to as a reluctance machine, produces a translational force whenever the electrical
signal is applied. There are several variations of the reluctance machine but all operate on the
same basic electromechanical principles.

The principles of electromechanical energy conversion are investigated. The motivation for
this investigation is to show how the governing equations of an electromechanical device can
be derived from a magnetic circuit analysis. An expression for the mechanical force will be
derived in terms of the magnetic system parameters.

3.1.1Electromechanical-Energy-Conversion Principles
The electromechanical-energy-conversion process takes place through the medium of the
electric or magnetic field of the conversion device of which the structures depend on their
respective functions.
Transducers: microphone, pickup, sensor, loudspeaker
Force producing devices: solenoid, relay, electromagnet
Continuous energy conversion equipment: motor, generator
This chapter is devoted to the principles of electromechanical energy conversion and the
analysis of the devices accomplishing this function. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of
systems that use magnetic fields as the conversion medium.The concepts and techniques can
be applied to a wide range of engineering situations involving electromechanical energy
conversion.Based on the energy method, we are to develop expressions for forces and
torques in magnetic-field-based electromechanical systems.

3.1.2 Forces and Torques in Magnetic Field Systems

The Lorentz Force Law gives the force on a particle of charge in the presence of electric and
magnetic fields.

F: newtons, : coulombs, : volts/meter, qEB: telsas, : meters/second In a

pure electric-field system, F=qE
In pure magnetic-field systems, F=q*(v*B)
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

Figure 3.1 Right-hand rule for F=q*(v*B)

For situations where large numbers of charged particles are in motion F=J*V most
electromechanical-energy-conversion devices contain magnetic material.
Forces act directly on the magnetic material of these devices which are constructed of rigid,
nondeforming structures. The performance of these devices is typically determined by the net
force, or torque, acting on the moving component. It is rarely necessary to calculate the
details of the internal force distribution.Just as a compass needle tries to align with the earth’s
magnetic field, the two sets of fields associated with the rotor and the stator of rotating
machinery attempt to align, and torque is associated with their displacement from alignment.
In a motor, the stator magnetic field rotates ahead of that of the rotor, pulling on it and
performing work.For a generator, the rotor does the work on the stator.

3.2 The Field Energy

Based on the principle of conservation of energy: energy is neither created nor
destroyed; it is merely changed in form.
3.2.1 Energy Balance
Fig. 3.3(a): a magnetic-field-based electromechanical-energy-conversion device. A
lossless magnetic-energy-storage system with two terminals
The electric terminal has two terminal variables: (voltage), (current).
The mechanical terminal has two terminal variables: (force), (position)
The loss mechanism is separated from the energy-storage mechanism.
– Electrical losses: ohmic losses.
– Mechanical losses: friction, windage.
A simple force-producing device with a single coil forming the electric terminal, and a
movable plunger serving as the mechanical terminal.

Figure 3.2 Schematic Magnetic field

 Figure 3.3 Simple force producing device
The interaction between the electric and mechanical terminals, i.e. the electromechanical
energy conversion, occurs through the medium of the magnetic stored energy. Equation (3.9)
permits us to solve for the force simply as a function of the flux and the mechanical terminal
position x.Equations (3.7) and (3.9) form the basis for the energy method.

Consider the electromechanical systems whose predominant energy-storage mechanism is in

magnetic fields. For motor action, we can account for the energy transfer.

The ability to identify a lossless-energy-storage system is the essence of the energy method. This
is done mathematically as part of the modeling process. For the lossless magnetic-energy-storage
system of Fig. 3.3(a), rearranging (3.9) in form of (3.10) gives
dWelec=dmech+dfld
Here E is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by the changing magnetic stored
energy. It is through this reaction voltage that the external electric circuit supplies power to the
coupling magnetic field and hence to the mechanical output terminals. The basic energy-conversion
process is one involving the coupling field and its action and reaction on the electric and mechanical
systems.
dWelec=eidt=dmech+dfld
3.3 The Co Energy

The magnetic stored energy is a state function, determined uniquely by the values of the
independent state variables and x

Coenergy: Here the force can be obtained directly as a function of the current. The selection
of energy or coenergy as the state function is purely a matter of convenience.

For a magnetically-linear system, the energy and coenergy (densities) are numerically equal:

Wfld+W’fld=λi
.
Figure 3.4 Graphical interpretation of energy and coenergy in a singlyexcitedsystem.

Figure 3.5change of energy with λ held constant

Figure 3.6change of coenergy with i held constant.

The force acts in a direction to decrease the magnetic field stored energy at constant
flux or to increase the coenergy at constant current. In a singly-excited device, the force acts
to increase the inductance by pulling on members so as to reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path linking the winding.
3.4 Force In A Singly Excited Magnetic Field System
3.4.1 Model& Analysis
The conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy follows the law of conservation of
energy. In general, the law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed. Equation (1) describes the process of electromechanical energy conversion for a
differential time interval dt, where dW e is the change in electrical energy, dWm is the change
in mechanical energy, and dWf is the change in magnetic field energy. Energy losses in the
form of heat are neglected.
dWe = dWm + dWf _____________________________ (1)
If the electrical energy is held constant, the dWe term is zero for Equation (1). The
differential mechanical energy, in the form of work, is the force multiplied by the differential
distance moved. The force due to the magnetic field energy is shown in Equation (2). The
negative sign implies that the force is in a direction to decrease the reluctance by making the
air gap smaller.

_____________________________(2)
An expression for the energy stored in the magnetic field can be found in terms of the
magnetic system parameters. This expression is then substituted into Equation
(2) for Wf to get an expression for the force. This derivation is shown in Appendix A. The
result is Equation (3), in terms of the current, i, the constant for the permeability of free
space, m0, the cross-sectional area of the air gap, Ag, the number of turns, N, and the air gap
distance, x .

________________________(3)
To verify this relationship in the lab, it is convenient to have an expression for the current
necessary to hold some constant force. In a design, the dimensions and force are often
known. So, the user of the reluctance machine needs to know how much current to supply.
Rearranging terms in Equation (3) yields Equation (4).

________________________(4)
3.4.2 Sample Calculations
For the simple magnetic system of Figure 1, the current necessary to suspend the armature
can be calculated using Equation (4).

Figure 3.7.Electromechanical system.

For an air gap length of 0.12 mm, an air gap cross sectional area of 1092 mm 2, and a 230
turn coil the current required to just suspend the 12.5 newton armature is

_______________(5) 3.4.3Derivation of Magnetic Field Energy and Magnetic Force

Let Wf be the energy stored in a magnetic field.

where l is flux linkages,

L(x) is the inductance as a function of the air gap length, x.

where Ag is the area of the air gap.

The magnetic force is
3.5 Force In A Multiply Excited Magnetic Field System
For continuous energy conversion devices like

Alternators, synchronous motors etc., multiply excited magnetic systems are used. In
practice ,doubly excited systems are very much in use.

Figure 3.8.Electromechanical system.

The Figure 3.8 shows doubly excited magnetic system. This system has two independent
sources of excitations. One source is connected to coil on stator while other is connected to
coil on rotor.
Let i1 = Current due to source 1
i2 = Current due to source 2

= Flux linkages due to i1

= Flux linkages due to i2

= Angular displacement of rotor

Tf = Torque developed

Due to two sources, there are two sets of three independent variables

i.e. ( , ) or (i1,i2, )

Case:1 Independent Variables , i.e. i1,i2,

From the easier analysis it is known,

Tf = ….Currents are Variables ………..(1)

While the field energy is,

Wf( , )= + ……… (2)

Now let L11 = Self inductance of stator

L22 = Self inductance of rotor
L12= L21 = Mutual inductance between stator and rotor
 = L11 i1 + L12 i2
………..(3)
And = L12 i1 + L22 i2
………..(4)

Solve equation (3) and (4) to express i1 and i2interms of and asand
are independent variables.
Multiply equation (3) by L12 and equation (4) by L11,
L12 =L11L12 i1+L2 12 i2

and L11 =L11L12 i1+L11L22 i2

Subtracting the two ,

L12 - L11 = L212 i2 - L11L22 i2

= [L2 12 - L11L22]i2

i2 = -

i2 = + ………….(η)

Note that negative sign is absorbed in defining.

Similarly i1 can be expressed interms ofand as ,

i1 = + ………….(θ)

Where =

= =

Using in equation (2),

Wf( , )= +

Integrating the terms we get ,

Wf( , )= + ………
(7)

The self and mutual inductances of the coils are dependent on the angular position of the
rotor.
Case :2 Independent Variables i1,i2, i.e., i1 and i2 are constants.
The torque developed can be expressed as ,

Tf = ……….(8)

The co-energy is given by ,

= + ……….(λ)

Using = L11 i1 + L12 i2

and = L12 i1 + L22 i2

= +

= + ………
(10)

Force in a doubly excited system :

F=

Where are constants which are the stator and rotor current respectively

F= + ]

F= +
3.6 Mmf Of Distributed Windings
3.6.1 Alternating Field Distribution
Spatial field distribution and zerocrossings remain the same, whereasthe field strength
amount changes periodically with current frequency.This kind of field is called alternating
field.

Figure4.5Alternating field distribution

Figure4.6Stator, two pole-pairs

Figure4.7mmf for two pole-pair stator

 The fundamental wave of the square-wave function (Figure. 131 etc.) can be
determined byFourier analysis. This results in an infinite count of single waves of odd ordinal
numbers andanti-proportional decreasing amplitude with ordinary numbers. The amplitudes
offundamental waves and harmonics show proportional dependency to the current,
zerocrossings remain the same. These are called standing wave. The existence of harmonics
isto be attributed to the spatialdistributions of the windings.The generating current is ofpure
sinusoidal form, notcontaining harmonics. it necessarily needs to be distinguished between

wave: spatiotemporal behaviour,

oscillation: pure time dependent behavior

Figure4.8 Fundamental wave, 3rd and 5th harmonics

3.6.2 Rotating field
Rotating fields appear as spatialdistributed fields of constant form andamount, revolving with
angularspeed w1:

Figure4.9progressive wave
A sinusoidal alternating field can be split up into two sinusoidal rotating fields. Their
peakvalue is of half the value as of the according alternating field, their angular speeds
areoppositely signed
3.6.3 Three-phase winding
Most simple arrangement of a three-phase stator consist of:
k composed of laminations with approximately 0,5 mm thickness, mutual
insulation for a reduction of eddy currents
2. The number of pole pairs is p= 1 in Fig.138. In case of p>1, the configuration repeats p-
times along the circumference.
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

Figure 4.10 Three-phase stator, rotational angle

3.6.4 Determination of slot mmf for different moments (temporal)

quantity of slot mmf is applied over the circumference angle.
line integrals provide enveloped mmf, dependent on the circumference angle. total
mmf is shaped like a staircase step function, being constant between the slots. At slot
edges, with slots assumed as being narrow, the total mmf changes about twice the
amount of the slot mmf,the air gap field results from the total mmf

3.7 Magnetic Fields In Rotating Machines

3.7.1 Winding factor
If w windings per phase are not placed in two opposing slots, but are moreover spread
overmore than one slot (zone winding) and return conductors are returned under an electric
angle smaller than < 180°, the effective number of windings appears smaller than it is in real

Figure 4.11Three-phase winding, chording

This means is utilized for a supression of harmonics, which cause parasitic torques and
losses,influencing proper function of a machine..Actually there is no machine with q

Rotating Magnetic Field

A symmetric rotating magnetic fieldcan be produced with as few as three coils. The
three coils will have to be driven by a symmetric 3-phase AC sine current system, thus each
phase will be shifted 120 degrees in phase from the others. For the purpose
of this example, the magnetic field is taken to be the linear function of the coil's current.

Figure 4.12Coils
Sine wave current in each of the coils produces sine varying magnetic field on the
rotation axis. Magnetic fields add as vectors. Vector sum of the magnetic field vectors of the
stator coils produces a single rotating vector of resulting rotating magnetic field.

The result of adding three 120-degrees phased sine waves on the axis of the motor is a
single rotating vector. The rotor has a constant magnetic field. The N pole of the rotor will
move toward the S pole of the magnetic field of the stator, and vice versa. This magneto-
mechanical attraction creates a force which will drive rotor to follow the rotating magnetic
field in a synchronous manner.

A permanent magnet in such a field will rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the
external field. This effect was utilized in early alternating current electric motors. A rotating
magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with a 90 degree phase
difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied
through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents.

This inequality would cause serious problems in the standardization of the conductor
size. In order to overcome this, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are
equal in magnitude and have a 120 degree phase difference. Three similar coils having
mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees will create the rotating magnetic field in this case.
The ability of the three phase system to create the rotating field utilized in electric motors is
one of the main reasons why three phase systems dominate in the world electric power supply
systems.
Figure 4.13 Coil
Rotating magnetic fields are also used in induction motors. Because magnets degrade with
time, induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet) which follow the
rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. In these motors, the short circuited turns of the
rotor develop eddy currents in the rotating field of stator which in turn move the rotor by
Lorentz force. These types of motors are not usually synchronous, but instead necessarily
involve a degree of 'slip' in order that the current may be produced due to the relative
movement of the field and the rotor.

The single coil of a single phase induction motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field,
but a pulsating 3-φmotor runs from 1-φ power, but does not start.
Figure 4.14 Single Phase Stator Produces a Non Rotating Pulsating Magnetic Field

Another view is that the single coil excited by a single phase current produces two
counter rotating magnetic field phasor, coinciding twice per revolution at 0o (Figure above-a)
and 180o (figure e). When the phasor rotate to 90o and -90o they cancel in figure b. At 45o
and -45o (figure c) they are partially additive along the +x axis and cancel along the y axis.
An analogous situation exists in figure d. The sum of these two phasor is a phasor stationary
in space, but alternating polarity in time. Thus, no starting torque is developed.

However, if the rotor is rotated forward at a bit less than the synchronous speed, It
will develop maximum torque at 10% slip with respect to the forward rotating phasor. Less
torque will be developed above or below 10% slip. The rotor will see 200% - 10% slip with
respect to the counter rotating magnetic field phasor. Little torque (see torque vs. slip curve)
other than a double frequency ripple is developed from the counter rotating phasor.

Thus, the single phase coil will develop torque, once the rotor is started. If the rotor is
started in the reverse direction, it will develop a similar large torque as it nears the speed of
the backward rotating phasor. Single phase induction motors have a copper or aluminum
squirrel cage embedded in a cylinder of steel laminations, typical of poly-phase induction
motors.

3.7.2 Distribution factor

All w/p windings per pole and phase are distributed over q slots. Any of the
w/pq
conductors per slot show a spatial displacement of.

Figure 4.15 Stator, distribution factor

The resulting number of windings wresper phase is computed by geometric addition of all q
partial windings w/pq. The vertices of all q phasors per phase, being displaced by

Purpose: The purpose of utilizing zone winding is to aim

slot mmf fundamental waves adding up
harmonics compensating each other, as they suppose to do.
3.7.3 Pitch factor
If windings are not implemented as diametral winding, but as chorded winding, return-

actice the windings are

distributed over two layers. Line conductors are placed into the bottom layer, whereas
return conductors are integrated into the top layer. That arrangement complies with a
superposition of two winding systems of halved number of windings, being displaced

Figure 4.16 Three phase winding, chording

add up
to the resulting number of windings.
3.8 Rotating Mmf Waves
The principle of operation of the induction machine is based on the generation of a rotating

magnetic field. Let us understand this idea better.

Consider a cosine wave from 0 to 3θ0◦. This sine wave is plotted with unit amplitude.
• Now allow the amplitude of the sine wave to vary with respect to time in a simisoidal
fashion with a frequency of 50Hz.Let the maximum value of the amplitude is, say, 10 units.
This waveform is a pulsating sine wave.
Now consider a second sine wave, which is displaced by 120◦ from the first (lagging).
• and allow its amplitude to vary in a similar manner, but with a 120◦time lag.Similarly
consider a third sine wave, which is at 240◦ lag.
• and allow its amplitude to change as well with a 240◦ time lag. Now we have three
pulsating sine waves.Let us see what happens if we sum up the values of these three sine
waves at every angle.
The result really speaks about Tesla’s genius. What we get is a constant amplitude travelling

sine wave!
In a three phase induction machine, there are three sets of windings,phase A winding, phase
B and phase C windings. These are excited by a balanced three-phase voltage supply.

This would result in a balanced three phase current. Note that they have a 120◦ time lag
between them.Further, in an induction machine, the windings are not all located in the same
place.They are distributed in the machine 120◦ away from each other (more about this in the
section on alternators). The correct terminology would be to say that the windings havetheir
axes separated in space by 120◦. This is the reason for using the phase A, B and Csince waves
separated in space as well by 120◦. When currents flow through the coils, they generate
mmfs. Since mmf is proportional to current, these waveforms also represent the mmf
generated by the coils and the total mmf.Further, due to magnetic material in the machine
(iron), these mmfs generate magnetic flux,which is proportional to the mmf (we may assume
that iron is infinitely permeable and non-linear effects such as hysterisis are neglected). Thus
the waveforms seen above would also represent the flux generated within the machine. The
net result as we have seen is a travelling flux wave. The x-axis would represent the space
angle in the machine as one travels around the air gap. The first pulsating waveform seen
earlier would then represent the a-phase flux, the second represents the b-phase flux and the
third represents the c-phase.This may be better visualized in a polar plot. The angles of the
polar plot represent the space angle in the machine, i.e., angle as one travels around the stator
bore of the machine.

• This plot shows the pulsating wave at the zero degree axes. The amplitude is maximumat
zero degree axes and is zero at λ0◦ axis. Positive parts of the waveform are shown in red
while negative in blue. Note that the waveform is pulsating at the 0−180◦ axis and red and
blue alternate in any given side. This corresponds to the sinewave current changing polarity.
Note that the maximum amplitude of the sinewave is reached only along the 0−180◦ axis. At
all other angles, the amplitude does not reach a maximumof this value. It however reaches a
maximum value which is less than that of the peak occuring at the 0 − 180◦ axis. More
exactly, the maximum reached at any space angle would be equal to costimes the peak at the
0 − 180◦ axis. Further, at any space angle ,the time variation is sinusoidal with the frequency
and phase lag being that of the excitation, and amplitude being that corresponding to the
space angle.

• This plot shows the pulsating waveforms of all three cosines. Note that the first is pulsating
about the 0 − 180◦ axis, the second about the120◦− 300◦axis and the thirdat 240◦− 3θ0◦axis.

• This plot shows the travelling wave in a circular trajectory. Note that while individual
pulsating waves have maximum amplitude of 10, the resultant has amplitude of 15. If f1 is
the amplitude of the flux waveform in each phase.It is worthwhile pondering over the
following points.
1. what is the interpretation of the pulsating plots of the animation? If one wants to know
the ‘a’ phase flux at a particular angle for all instants of time, how can it be obtained?

2. What will this time variation look like? It is obviously periodic. What will be the
amplitude and frequency?

3.8.1 Voltage induction caused by influence of rotating field

Voltage in three-phase windings revolving at variable speed, induced by a rotating field is
subject to computation in the following:
Spatial integration of the air gap field results in the flux linkage of a coil. Induced voltage
ensues by derivation of the flux linkage with respect to time. Using the definition of slip and
a transfer onto three-phase windings, induced voltages in stator and rotor can be discussed.
The following considerations are made only regarding the fundamental wave
3.8.2 Flux linkage
The air gap field is created in the three-phase winding of the stator, characterized by the
number of windings w1 and current I1:
First of all, only one single rotor coil with number of windings w2 and arbitrary

from spatial integration of the air gap flux density over one pole pitch.

Figure4.17 Three phase winding

3.8.3 Induced voltage, slip
Induced voltage in a rotor coil of arbitrary angle of twist a(t), which is flowed through by the

air gap flux density, computes from variation of the flux linkage with time.Described
variation of flux linkage can be caused by both variation of currents iu(t), iv(t), iw(t) with
time, inside the exciting three-phase winding and also by rotary motion a(t) of the coil along
the air gap circumference.

Figure 4.18 Rotor position, rotation angle

Some aspects regarding induced voltage dependencies are listed below: the
amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the line frequency of the
statorand to the according slip.
frequency of induced voltage is equal to slip frequency
at rotor standstill (s= 1), frequency of the induced voltage is equal to line
frequency.
when rotating ( s
fundamental wave of the stator windings.
 no voltage is induced into the rotor at synchronous speed (s= 0).
phase displacement of voltages to be induced into the rotor is only dependent
from thespatial position of the coil, represented by the (elec.) angle p R a .Is a
rotor also equipped with a three-phase winding, instead of a single coil similar
to thestator arrangement with phases being

greaterthan 1 (q>
follows for the induced voltage of single rotor phases.
3.9 Torque In Ac And Dc Machines
As fulfilled previous considerations, only the fundamental waves of the effects caused
by the air gap field are taken into account.Rotatingmmf, caused in stator windings,
isrevolving. An according rotating mmf is evoked in the rotor windings. Initially no
assumptions are made for the number of pole pairs, angular frequency and phaseangle of
rotating magneto-motive forces of stator- and rotor.With appliance of Ampere’s law, the
resulting air gap field calculates from superimposing ofboth rotating magneto-motive forces
of stator and rotor

A time-variant sinusoidal torque with average value equal to zero appears which is
called oscillation torque. Only if angular frequencies of the exciting currents agree,

rotating field agree (at equal number of pole pairs), a time-constant torque derives for
e -motive forces is porportional to their amplitudes and the sine-value of the enclosed angle.

M = maximum for e=
2. M
Magneto-motive force reflects the geometrical sum of stator and rotor mmf, which complies
with the resulting air gap field.Displacement between U1 und I1 is U1 is orientated in
the direction of the +Re-axis (real) whereas I0 is orientated in direction of the –Im-axis
(imaginary), for complex
coordinate presentation.
Torque In Ac Machines
 Effective torque exerted on the shaft derives from transmitted air-gap power divided
by synchronous speed. Neglecting stator copper losses, the absorbed active power is equal to
the air-gap power.

Figure 4.20 Synchronous machine phasor diagram

The torque equation (8.28) solely applies for stationary operation with IF = const and
n = n1.If the load increases slowly, torque and angular displacement increases also, until
breakdowntorque is reached at V, and the machine falls out of step
– means standstill in motoroperation and running away in generator mode. High pulsating
torques and current peaksoccur as a consequence of this. In this case machines need to be
disconnected from the mainsimmediately. Overload capability, the ratio of breakdown torque
and nominal torque, only depends on no load-short-circuit-ratio KC and power factor.

Figure4.21 Range of operation

The higher dm/dv, the higher appears the back-leading torque Msyn after load
operation.

Figure 4.22 Synchronizing torque

3.10 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 1:
An actuator with a rotating vane is shown in Fig. 3.26. You may assume that the
permeability of both the core and the vane are infinite ( ). The total air-gap length is 2g and
shape of the vane is such that the effective area of the air gap can be assumed to be of the
form
2
4
Ag A0 1

/6
(valid only in the range ). The actuator dimensions are g = 0.8 mm, A0 = 6.0
mm2, and N = 650 turns.
(a) Assuming the coil to be carrying current i, write an expression for the magnetic
stored energy in the actuator as a function of angle θ for /6.

Figure 1 Actuator with rotating vane (a) Side view. (b) End view.
Solution
0Ni
(a) Flux density in the air-gap: Bg
2g
1 Bg2
Magnetic energy density
2 0
2
W
1 Bg2 V W
0 N 2 i2 4
fld ag Vag 2 gAg fld A0 1
2 0 4g
(b)
2W 2
W 1 L ( )i 2 L( ) fld 0N2 A 1 4
fld 2 i2 2g 0

Example 2:
As shown in Fig. 2, an N-turn (N = 100) electromagnet is to be used to lift a slab of
iron of mass M. The surface roughness of the iron is such that when the iron and the
electromagnet are in contact, there is a minimum air gap of gmin = 0.18 mm in each leg. The
electromagnet cross-sectional area Ac = 32 cm2 and coil resistance is 2.8
Ω. Calculate the minimum coil voltage which must be used to lift a slab of mass 95 kg
against the force of gravity. Neglect the reluctance of the iron.
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

Solution

0
N2A 1 dL N2A
2
i2
0
L( g ) c
f i 2
c

coil inductance: 2g fld 2 dg 4g

f f
fld Mg e g e 9.8 m/s2 : acceleration due to gravity fld 931 N
f
i 2 g min fld 2 0.18 10 3 931
min N A 450 4 10 7 32 10 4 0.385 A
0 c

v Ri
min min 1.08 V

Example :3

An inductor is made up of a 525-turn coil on a core of 14-cm2 cross-sectional area

and gap length 0.16 mm. The coil is connected directly to a 120-V 60-Hz voltage source.
Neglect the coil resistance and leakage inductance. Assuming the coil reluctance to be
negligible, calculate the time-averaged force acting on the core tending to close the air gap.
How would this force vary if the air-gap length were doubled?

Solution
0
N2 A 1 dL 1 0
N2A i2L
2 2
L c
f i i c

g fld 2 dg 2 g2 2g
Since coil resistance and leakage inductance are negligible, the current in the coil
can be written as
V
m
i (t ) I m cos t where Im
L
f i2L I2L f I2 L V2 L V2
fld m
cos2 t fld rms rms rms

2g 2g 2g 2 g 2L2 2 2 N 2A
0 c
f 1202
fld
2 2 7 4 104.48 N
2(120 ) 525 4 10 14 10

The average force is independent of the air-gap length g.

Example 5:
Two windings, one mounted on a stator and the other on a rotor, have self- and mutual
inductances of

L11= 4.5 H L22= 2.5 H L12 = 2.8cosθ H

where θ is the angle between the axes of the windings. The resistances of the windings may
be neglected. Winding 2 is short-circuited, and the current in winding 1 as a function of time
is il = 10 sin ωt A.
a. Derive an expression for the numerical value in newton-meters of the instantaneous torque
on the rotor in terms of the angle θ.
b. Compute the time-averaged torque in newton-meters when θ = 45°.
c. If the rotor is allowed to move, will it rotate continuously or will it tend to come to rest? If
the latter, at what value of θ0 ?
T i i dL( ) 2.8i i sin
(a) fld 12 d 12

Winding 2 short-circuited
L
e v 0 Li L i 0 i 21
i 1.12i cos
2 2 2 21 1 22 2 2 L 1 1
22
T 2.8i i sin 3.14i 2 sin cos 314sin 2 ( t) sin cos
fld 12 1

(b) Time-averaged torque

T T 1 1
fld 157sin cos 45 fld 157 2 2 78.5 N-m

Note: sin2 ( t ) 1 1 cos(2 t) d ( t) 1

0 2 2
(c) The rotor will not rotate because the average torque with respect to θ is zero. It will
come to rest when

sin cos 1 sin(2 ) 0

2 2
Example 6:
A loudspeaker is made of a magnetic core of infinite permeability and circular
symmetry, as shown in Figs. 3.37a and b. The air-gap length g is much less than the radius r 0
of the central core. The voice coil is constrained to move only in the x direction and is
attached to the speaker cone, which is not shown in the figure. A constant radial magnetic
field is produced in the air gap by a direct current in coil 1, il
= I1. An audio-frequency signal i2 = I2 cos(ωt) is then applied to the voice coil. Assume the
voice coil to be of negligible thickness and composed of N2 turns uniformly distributed over
its height h. Also assume that its displacement is such that
0 x l h
it remains in the air gap ( ).
(a) Calculate the force on the voice coil, using the Lorentz Force Law (Eq. 3.1).
(b) Calculate the self-inductance of each coil.
(c) Calculate the mutual inductance between the coils. (Hint: Assume that current is
applied to the voice
coil, and calculate the flux linkages of coil 1. Note that these flux linkages vary with the
displacement x.
W
(d) Calculate the force on the voice coil from the coenergy fld .
Solution

B H Ni
0 1
Ni1 H r ,1 g r ,1 0 r ,1

(a) Radial magnetic field intensity: g

Lorentz force (directed upward):
FN i l B
2 2 2 where l2 2 r 0 is the length of one turn of coil 2.
r ,1

F 2 r NiB 2 r 0 0 N 1 N2 i i
0 22 r ,1 12
g
(b) Self-inductances:
0
N2 A
1 g

L
11 g Ag 2 r0 l
To find the self-inductance of coil 2, apply Ampere’s law to coil 2 at height z:

H g z x N i = total current enclosed bypath C at height z

r,2 22
h

0 0 z x
B z x N i
r ,2
gh 0 2 2 x z x h
Ni
0 2 2
x h z l
g

(c) We can find the inductance of a section of coil 2 of length dz and then integrate with
respect to z. At a height z
l
2 (z)
L22 (z ) 2 ( z) N 2 Br ,2 (u ).2 r 0 du z x
I2 z

where N2 N 2 z is the number of turns of coil 2 in the section z.

NI NI
l B ( u ) du 0 2 2
l ( u x )du 0 2 2 1 u 2 ux l
r ,2
z gh z gh 2 z
2 r N2 1 1
L (z ) 0 0 2 l2 lx z2 zx z
22
gh 2 2
 2 r N2 x h 1 1 r N2
L 0 0 2
l2 lx z2 zx dz 0 0 2
( l x)2
22
gh x 2 2 g
 CHAPTER -4
DC GENERATORS
4.1Principles Of D.C. Machines
D.C. machines are the electro mechanical energy converters which work from a D.C.
source and generate mechanical power or convert mechanical power into a D.C. power.

4.2. Construction of d.c. Machines

A D.C. machine consists mainly of two part the stationary part called stator and
the rotating part called rotor. The stator consists of main poles used to produce
magnetic flux ,commutating poles or interpoles in between the main poles to avoid
sparking at the Commutator but in the case of small machines sometimes the
interpoles are avoided and finally the frame or yoke which forms the supporting
structure of the machine. The rotor consist of an armature a cylindrical metallic body
or core with slots in it to place armature windings or bars,aCommutator and brush
gears The magnetic flux path in a motor or generator is show below and it is called the
magnetic structure of generator or motor.
The major parts can be identified as,
1. Frame
2. Yoke
3. Poles Institute of Technology Madras
4. Armature
5. Commutator and brush gear
6. Commutating poles
7. Compensating winding
8. Other mechanical parts

Figure.5.1D.C Machines
4.2.1 Frame
Frame is the stationary part of a machine on which the main poles and Commutator
poles are bolted and it forms the supporting structure by connecting the frame to the bed
plate. The ring shaped body portion of the frame which makes the magnetic path for the
magnetic fluxes from the main poles and interspoles is called frames.

4.2.2 Yoke.
Yoke was made up of cast iron but now it is replaced by cast steel.This is because
cast iron is saturated by a flux density of 0.8 Web/sq.mwhere as saturation
with cast iron steel is about 1.5 Web/sq.m.So for the same magnetic flux density the cross
section area needed for cast steel is less than cast iron hence the weight of the machine too.If
we use cast iron there may be chances of blow holes in it while casting.so now rolled steels
are developed and these have consistent magnetic and mechanical properties.

4.2.3 End Shields or Bearings

If the armature diameter does not exceed 35 to 45 cm then in addition to poles end
shields or frame head with bearing are attached to the frame.If the armature diameter is
greater than 1m pedestral type bearings are mounted on the machine bed plate outside the
frame.These bearings could be ball or roller type but generally plain pedestral bearings are
employed.If the diameter of the armature is large a brush holder yoke is generally fixed to the
frame.
4.2.4 Main poles
Solid poles of fabricated steel with separate/integral pole shoes are fastened to the
frame by means of bolts. Pole shoes are generally laminated. Sometimes pole body and pole
shoe are formed from the same laminations. The pole shoes are shaped so as to have a
slightly increased air gap at the tips. Inter-poles are small additional poles located in between
the main poles. These can be solid, or laminated just as the main poles.

These are also fastened to the yoke by bolts. Sometimes the yoke may be slotted to
receive these poles. The inter poles could be of tapered section or of uniform cross section.
These are also called as commutating poles or com poles. The width of the tip of the com
pole can be about a rotor slot pitch.

Figure.5.2Parts of D.C Machine

4.2.5 Armature
The armature is where the moving conductors are located. The armature is
constructed by stacking laminated sheets of silicon steel. Thickness of this lamination
is kept low to reduce eddy current losses. As the laminations carry alternating flux the choice
of suitable material, insulation coating on the laminations, stacking it etc are to be done more
carefully. The core is divided into packets to facilitate ventilation. The winding cannot be
placed on the surface of the rotor due to the mechanical forces coming on the same. Open
parallel sided equally spaced slots are normally punched in the rotor laminations.

These slots house the armature winding. Large sized machines employ a spider on
which the laminations are stacked in segments. End plates are suitably shaped so as to serve
as ’Winding supporters’. Armature construction process must ensure provision of sufficient
axial and radial ducts to facilitate easy removal of heat from the armature winding. Field
windings: In the case of wound field machines (as against permanentmagnet excited
machines) the field winding takes the form of a concentric coil wound around the main poles.
These carry the excitation current and produce the main field in the machine. Thus the poles
are created electromagnetically.
Two types of windings are generally employed. In shunt winding large number of
turns of small section copper conductor isof Technology Madras used. The resistance of such
winding would be an order of magnitude larger than the armature winding resistance. In the
case of series winding a few turns of heavy cross section conductor is used. The resistance of
such windings is low and is comparable to armature resistance. Some machines may have
both the windings on the poles. The total ampere turns required to establish the necessary flux
under the poles is calculated from the magnetic circuit calculations.

The total mmf required is divided equally between north and south poles as the poles
are produced in pairs. The mmf required to be shared between shunt and series windings are
apportioned as per the design requirements. As these work on the same magnetic system they
are in the form of concentric coils. Mmf ’per pole’ is normally used in these calculations.
Armature winding as mentioned earlier, if the armature coils are wound on the surface of

The armature, such construction becomes mechanically weak.

The conductors may fly away when the armature starts rotating. Hence the armature
windings are in general pre-formed, taped and lowered into the open slots on the armature. In
the case of small machines, they can be hand wound. The coils are prevented from flying out
due to the centrifugal forces by means of bands of steel wire on the surface of the rotor in
small groves cut into it. In the case of large machines slot wedges are additionally used to
restrain the coils from flying away.
The end portion of the windings are taped at the free end andbound to the winding
carrier ring of the armature at the Commutator end. The armature must be dynamically
balanced to reduce the centrifugal forces at the operating speeds. Compensating winding One
may find a bar winding housed in the slots on the pole shoes. This is mostly found in D.C.
machines of very large rating. Such winding is called compensating winding. In smaller
machines, they may be absent.
4.2.6 Commutator
Commutator is the key element which made the D.C. machine of the present day
possible. It consists of copper segments tightly fastened together with mica/micanite
insulating separators on an insulated base. The whole Commutator forms a rigid and solid
assembly of insulated copper strips and can rotate at high speeds. Each Commutator segment
is provided with a ’riser’ where the ends of the armature coils get connected. The surface of
the Commutator is machined and surface is made concentric with the shaft and the current
collecting brushes rest on the same. Under-cutting the mica insulators that are between these
Commutator segments have
to be done periodically to avoid fouling of the surface of the Commutator by mica when the
Commutator gets worn out.
Some details of the construction of the Commutator. Brush and brush holders:
Brushes rest on the surface of the Commutator. Normally electro-graphite is used as brush
material. The actual composition of the brush depends on the peripheral speed of the
Commutator and the working voltage. The hardness of the graphite brush is selected to be
lower than that of the Commutator. When the brush wears out the graphite works as a solid
lubricant reducing frictional coefficient. More number of relatively smaller width brushes are
preferred in place of large broad brushes.
The brush holders provide slots for the brushes to be placed. The connection Brush
holder with a Brush and Positioning of the brush on the Commutator from the brush is taken
out by means of flexible pigtail. The brushes are kept pressed on the Commutator with the
help of springs. This is to ensure proper contact between the brushes and the Commutator
even under high speeds of operation. Jumping of brushes must be avoided to ensure arc free
current collection and to keep the brush contact drop low.

Other mechanical parts End covers, fan and shaft bearings form other important
mechanical parts. End covers are completely solid or have opening for ventilation. They
support the bearings which are on the shaft. Proper machining is to be ensured for easy
assembly. Fans can be external or internal. In most machines the fan is on the non-
Commutator end sucking the air from the Commutator end and throwing the same out.
Adequate quantity of hot air removal has to be ensured.
Bearings Small machines employ ball bearings at both ends. For larger machines
roller bearings are used especially at the driving end. The bearings are mounted press-fit on
the shaft. They are housed inside the end shield in such a manner that it is not necessary to
remove the bearings from the shaft for dismantling.

4.3 Lap Winding :

This type of winding is used in dc generators designed for high-current applications.
The windings are connected to provide several parallel paths for current in the armature. For
this reason, lap-wound armatures used in dc generators require several pairs of poles and
brushes.
In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment
and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole an so on,till all the
coils have been connected.This type of winding derives its name from the fact it doubles or
laps back with its succeding coils.Following points regarding simplex lap winding should be
noted:

1. The back and front pitches are odd and of opposite sign.But they can't be equal. They
differ by 2 or some multiple thereof.
2. Both YB and YF shpuld be nearly equal to a pole pitch.
3. The average pitch YA = (YB + YF)/2.It equals pole pitch = Z/P.
4. Commutator pitch YC = ±1.
5. Resultant pitch YR is even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers i.e
YR = YB - YF.
6. The number of slots for a 2-layer winding is equal to the number of coils.The number
of commutator segments is also the same.
 7. The number of parallel paths in the armature = mP where 'm' is the multiplicity of the
winding and 'P' the number of poles.Taking the first condition, we have YB = YF ±
2m where m=1 fo simplex lap and m =2 for duplex winding etc.
8. If YB > YF i.e YB = YF + 2, then we get a progressive or right-handed winding i.e a
winding which progresses in the clockwise direction as seen from the comutator
end.In this case YC = +1.
9. If YB < size="1">F i.e YB = YF - 2,then we get a retrogressive or left-handed
winding i.e one which advances in the anti-clockwise direction when seen from the
commutator side.In this case YC = -1.
10. Hence, it is obvious that for

4.4 Wave Winding

This type of winding is used in dc generators employed in high-voltage applications.
Notice that the two ends of each coil are connected to commutator segments separated by the
distance between poles. This configuration allows the series addition of the voltages in all the
windings between brushes. This type of winding only requires one pair of brushes. In
practice, a practical generator may have several
pairs to improve commutation. When the end connections of the coils are spread apart as
shown in Figure a wave or series winding is formed. In a wave winding there are only two
paths regardless of the number of poles. Therefore, this type winding requires only two
brushes but can use as many brushes as poles. Because the winding progresses in one
direction round the armature in a series of 'waves' it is know as wave winding.If, after passing
once round the armature,the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting point then winding
is said to be retrogressive.If, however, it falls one slot to the right, then it is progressive.
 1. YF are odd and of the same sign.

2. Back and front pitches are nearly equal to the pole pitch and may be equal or differ by
2, in which case, they are respectively one more or one less than the average pitch.

3. Resultant pitch YR = YF + YB.

4. Commutator pitch, YC = YA (in lap winding YC = ±1 ). Also YC = (No.of

commutator bars ± 1 ) / No.of pair of poles.

5. The average pitch which must be an integer is given by YA = (Z ± 2)/P = (No.of

commutator bars ± 1)/No.of pair of poles.
6. The number of coils i.e NC can be found from the relation NC = (PYA ± 2)/2.

7. It is obvious from 5 that for a wave winding, the number of armature conductors with
2 either added or subtracted must be a multiple of the number of poles of the
generator.This restriction eliminates many even numbers which are unsuitable for this
winding.

8. The number of armature parallel paths = 2m where 'm' is the multiplicity of the
winding.

4.5 EMF Equation

Consider a D.C generator whose field coil is excited to produce a flux density
distribution along the air gap and the armature is driven by a prime mover at constant speed
as shown in figure
Let us assume a p polar d.c generator is driven (by a prime mover) at n rps. The
excitation of the stator field is such that it produces a φ Wb flux per pole. Also let z be
the total number of armature conductors and a be the number of parallel paths in the
armature circuit. In general, as discussed in the earlier section the magnitude of the
voltage from one conductor to another is likely to very since flux density distribution
is trapezoidal in nature. Therefore, total average voltage across the brushes is
calculated on the basis of average flux density Bav. If D and L are the rotor diameter
and the length of the machine in meters then area under each pole is . Hence average
flux density in the gap is given by

4.6 Armature reaction

In a unloaded d.c machine armature current is vanishingly small and the flux per pole
is decided by the field current alone. The uniform distribution of the lines of force get
upset when armature too carries current due to loading. In one half of the pole, flux
lines are concentrated and in the other half they are
 rarefied. Qualitatively one can argue that during loading condition flux per pole will
remain same as in no load operation because the increase of flux in one half will be
balanced by the decrease in the flux in the other half. Since it is the flux per pole
which decides the emf generated and the torque produced by the machine, seemingly
there will be no effect felt so far as the performance of the machine is concerned due
to armature reaction. This in fact is almost true when the machine is lightly or
moderately loaded

However at rated armature current the increase of flux in one half of the pole is rather
less than the decrease in the other half due to presence of saturation. In other words there will
be a net decrease in flux per pole during sufficient loading of the machine. This will have a
direct bearing on the emf as well as torque developed affecting the performance of the
machine.
Apart from this, due to distortion in the flux distribution, there will be some amount
of flux present along the q-axis (brush axis) of the machine. This causes commutation
difficult. In the following sections we try to explain armature reaction in somewhat detail
considering motor and generator mode separately.
4.7 Methods Of Excitation
Various methods of excitation of the field windings are
Separately-excited generators
Self-excited generators: series generators, shunt generators, compound generators

With self-excited generators, residual magnetism must be present in the machine

iron to get the self-excitation process started.
The relation between the steady-state generated emfEa and the armature terminal
voltageVaisVa=Ea−IaRa
 Figure.5.3 Methods of Excitation

Figure.5.4 Load Curve

Typical steady-state dc-motor speed-torque characteristics are shown in Figure.1.4, in

which it is assumed that the motor terminals are supplied from a constant-voltage source.

In a motor the relation between the emfEagenerated in the armature and the armature
terminal voltage VaisVa=Ea+IaRa. The application of dc machines lie in the variety of
performance characteristics offered by the possibilities of shunt, series, and compound
excitation.
4.8 Commutation And Interpoles
I n larger machines the commutation process would involve too much sparking, which
causes brush wear, noxious gases (ozone) that promote corrosion, etc. In these cases it is
common to use separate commutation interpoles. These are separate, usually narrow or
seemingly vestigal pole pieces which carry armature current. They are arranged in such a way
that the flux from the interpole drives current in the commutated coil in the proper direction
 Remember that the coil being commutated is located physically between the active
poles and the interpole is therefore in the right spot to influence commutation. The interpole
is wound with armature current (it is in series with the main brushes). It is easy to see that the
interpole must have a flux density proportional to the current to be commutated. Since the
speed with which the coil must be commutated is proportional to rotational velocity and so is
the voltage induced by the interpole, if the right numbers of turns are put around the
interpole, commutation can be made to be quite accurate.

4.9 Generator Characteristics

The three most important characteristics or curves of a D.C generator are:
4.9.1.OpenCircuitCharacteristic(O.C.C.)
This curve shows the relation between the generated emf. at no-load (E0) and the field
current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation
curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited.
The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load
and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.
4.9.2. Internal or Total characteristic (E/Ia)
This curve shows the relation between the generated emf. On load (E) and the
armature current (Ia). The emfE is less than E0 due to the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction. Therefore, this curve will lie below the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.)It cannot
be obtained directly by experiment. It is because a voltmeter cannot read the emf. Generated
on load due to the voltage drop in armature resistance. The internal characteristic can be
obtained from external characteristic if winding resistances are known because armature
reaction effect is included in both characteristics.
4.9.3. External Characteristic (V/IL)
This curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (IL).
The terminal voltage V will be less than E due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, this curve will lie below the internal characteristic. This characteristic is very
important in determining the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. It can be obtained
by making simultaneous.
 4.9.4. No-load Saturation Characteristic (E0/If)
It is also known as magnetic characteristic or open circuit Characteristic (O.C.C).It
shows the relation between the no-load generated emf in armature, E0 and the field or
exciting current Ifat a given fixed speed. It is just demagnetization curve for the material of
the electromagnets.Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately-
excited or self-excited.

Figure 5.5 Field Vs Armature Curve

A typical no load saturation curve is shown in Figure.It has generator output voltage
plotted against field current. The lower straight line portion of the curve represents the air gap
because the magnetic parts are not saturated. When the magnetic parts start to saturate, the
curve bends over until complete saturation is reached. Then the curve becomes a straight line
again.
4.9.5.Separately-Excited Generator
The No-load saturation curve of a separately excited generator will be as shown in the
above Figure. It is obvious that when it is increased from its initial small value, the flux and
hence generated emf .E.g. increase directly as current so long as the poles are unsaturated.
This is represented by straight portion in Figure. But as the flux density increases, the poles
become saturated, so a greater increase If is required to produce a given increase in voltage
than on the lower part of the curve. That is why the upper portion of the curve bends.

Figure 5.6 Open Circuit Characteristics

The O.C.C curve for self-excited generators whether shunt or series wound is shown
in above Figure.Due to the residual magnetism in the poles, some emf (=OA) is generated
even when If =0.Hence, the curve starts a little way up. The slight curvature at the lower end
is due to magnetic inertia.It is seen that the first part of the curve is practically straight.This is
due to fact that at low flux densities reluctance of iron path being negligible,total reluctance
is given by the air gap reluctance which is constant.Hence,the flux and consequently, the
generated emfis directly proportional to the exciting current.However, at high flux densities,
where is small,iron path reluctance becomes appreciable and straight relation between E
and If no longer holds good.In other words,after point B, saturation of pole starts.However,
the initial slope
of the curve is determined by air-gap width.O.C.C for higher speed would lie above this
curve and for lower speed,would lie below it.
Separately-excited Generator Let we consider a separately-excited generator giving its
rated no-load voltage of E0 for a certain constant field current.If there were no armature
reaction and armature voltage drop,then this voltage would have remained constant as shown
in Figure by the horizontal line 1. But when the generator is loaded, the voltage falls due to
these two causes, therebygiving slightly dropping characteristics.If we subtract from E0 the
values of voltage drops due to armature reaction for different loads, then we get the value of
E-the emf actually induced in the armature under load conditions.Curve 2 is plotted in this
way and is known as the internal characteristic.

Figure.5.7Current Vs Voltage
In this generator, because field windings are in series with the armature, they carry
full armature current Ia. As Ia is increased, flux and hence generated emf is also increased as
shown by the curve. Curve Oais the O.C.C. The extra exciting current necessary to neutralize
the weakening effect of armature reaction at full load is given by the horizontal distance ab.
Hence, point b is on the internal characteristic.
4.9.6. External Characteristic (V/I)
It is also referred to as performance characteristic or sometimes voltage-regulating
curve. It gives relation between the terminal voltage V and the load current I.This curve lies
below the internal characteristic because it takes in to account the voltage drop over the
armature circuit resistance.The values of V are obtained by subtracting IaRa from
corresponding values of E.This characteristic is of great importance in judging the suitability
of a generator for a particular purpose.It may be obtained in two ways

By making simultaneous measurements with a suitable voltmeter and an ammeter on

a loaded generator or
Graphically from the O.C.C provided the armature and field resistances are known
and also if the demagnetizing effect or the armature reaction is known.
 Figure 5.8Armature Current Vs Terminal Voltage
Figure above shows the external characteristic curves for generators with various
types of excitation. If a generator, which is separately excited, is driven at constant speed and
has a fixed field current, the output voltage will decrease with increased load current as
shown. This decrease is due to the armature resistance and armature reaction effects. If the
field flux remained constant, the generated voltage would tend to remain constant and the
output voltage would be equal to the generated voltage minus the IR drop of the armature
circuit. However, the demagnetizing component of armature reactions tends to decrease the
flux, thus adding an additional factor, which decreases the output voltage.
 CHAPTER 5
DC MOTORS

5.1 D.C. Motor Principle

A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c.motor.
Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force is
given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by;

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c.generator. The
same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.
5.2 Working of D.C. Motor
When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d.c.
supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry currents.

All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors
under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction. Suppose the conductors under N-pole
carry currents into the plane of the paper and those under S-pole carry currents out of the
plane of the paper as shown in Fig. Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is
placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it.

Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending
to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce a
driving torque which sets the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of
a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes
under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the direction of
force on the conductor remains the same.
5.3 Types of D.C. Motors
Like generators, there are three types of d.c. motors characterized by the connections of field
winding in relation to the armature viz.:
(i) Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.
The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current. Shunt
field windings are designed to produce the necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large

number of turns of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt field current is relatively
small compared with the armature current.
(ii) Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the armature
Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current. Since the current passing through
a series field winding is the same as the armature current, series field windings must be
designed with much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f. Therefore, a
series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will
possess a low resistance.
(iii) Compound-wound motor which has two field windings; one connected in parallel with
the armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor
connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is directly connected across the
armature terminals it is called short-shunt connection. When the
shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the series combination of armature and
series field it is called long- shunt connection.
5.4 Motor Characteristics
5.4.1 Torque/Speed Curves
In order to effectively design with D.C. motors, it is necessary to understand their
characteristic curves. For every motor, there is a specific Torque/Speed curve and Power
curve.

Figure 5.13 Speed Vs Torque Curve

The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a typical D.C. motor. Note that torque is
inversely proportional to the speed of the output shaft. In other words, there is a tradeoff
between how much torque a motor delivers, and how fast the output shaft spins. Motor
characteristics are frequently given as two points on this graph:
The stall torque represents the point on the graph at which the torque is a
maximum, but the shaft is not rotating.
The no load speed, is the maximum output speed of the motor (when no torque is
applied to the output shaft).
The linear model of a D.C. motor torque/speed curve is a very good approximation.
The torque/speed curves shown below are actual curves for the green maxon motor
(pictured at right) used by students in 2.007. One is a plot of empirical data, and the
other was plotted mechanically using a device developed at MIT.

Figure 5.14Maxon Motor

 Note that the characteristic torque/speed curve for this motor is quite linear. This is
generally true as long as the curve represents the direct output of the motor, or a simple gear
reduced output. If the specifications are given as two points, it is safe to assume a linear
curve.

Figure 5.15Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

Recall that earlier we defined power as the product of torque and angular velocity.
This corresponds to the area of a rectangle under the torque/speed curve with one corner
attheorigin and another corner at a point on the curve. Due to the linear inverse relationship
between torque and speed, the maximum power occurs at the point where Recall that earlier
we defined power as the product of torque and angular velocity.

Figure 5.16Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

 Figure 5.17Speed Vs Torque Characteristics
This corresponds to the area of a rectangle under the torque/speed curve with one
corner at the origin and another corner at a point on , and = ½ .

Figure 5.18Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

5.4.2 Power/Torque And Power/Speed Curves

Figure5.19Power Vs Torque Curve

5.5 Speed Control Of Dc Shunt Motor
We know that the speed of shunt motor is given by:

Where,Va is the voltage applied across the armature,

N is the rotor speed and φ is the flux perpole and is proportional to the field current If.
As explained earlier, armature current Iaisdecided by the mechanical load present on the
shaft. Therefore, by varying Va and If we canvary n. For fixed supply voltage and the motor
connected as shunt we can vary Vabycontrolling an external resistance connected in series
with the armature. If of course can bevaried by controlling external field resistance
Rfconnected with the field circuit. Thus for.shunt motor we have essentially two methods for
controlling speed, namely by:
1. Varying Armature Resistance
2. Varying Field Resistance
5.5.1Speed Control by Varying Armature Resistance
The inherent armature resistance Ra being small, speed n versus armature current (Ia)
characteristic will be a straight line with a small negative slope as shown in figure.

Figure 5.20(i) Speed Vs Armature Current. (ii) Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

Note that for shunt motor voltage applied to the field and armature circuit are sameand equal
to the supply voltage V. However, as the motor is loaded, IaRa drop increasesmaking speed a
little less than the no load speed n0. For a well designed shunt motor thisdrop in speed is
small and about 3 to 5% with respect to no load speed. This drop in speedfrom no load to full
load condition expressed as a percentage of no load speed is called theinherent speed
regulation of the motor. It is for this reason, a d.c shunt motor is said to be practically a
constant speed motorsince speed drops by a small amount fromno load to full load condition.

Figure 5.21Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristics

 Figure 5.22Speed Vs Torque Characteristics
From these characteristic it can be explained how speed control is achieved. Let
usassume that the load torque TL is constant and field current is also kept constant.
Therefore,since steady state operation demands Te = TL, Te= kIaφ too will remain constant;
which meansIa will not change. Suppose Rest = 0, then at rated load torque, operating point
will be at C andmotor speed will be n. If additional resistance rext1 is introduced in the
armature circuit, newsteady state operating speed will be n1 corresponding to the operating
point D.
This same load torque is supplied at various speed. Variation of thespeed is smooth
and speed will decrease smoothly if Rest is increased. Obviously, this methodis suitable for
controlling speed below the base speed and for supplying constant rated loadtorque which
ensures rated armature current always. Although, this method provides smoothwide range
speed control (from base speed down to zero speed), has a serious draw backsince energy
loss takes place in the external resistance Rest reducing the efficiency of themotor.

5.5.2 Speed Control by Varying Field Current

In this method field circuit resistance is varied to control the speed of a
d.cshuntmotor. Let us rewrite .the basic equation to understand the method.

If flux φ will change, hence speed will vary. To change If an external resistance is
connected in series with the field windings. The field coil produces rated flux when no
external resistance is connected and rated voltage is applied across field coil. It should be
understood that we can only decrease flux from its rated value by adding external resistance.
Thus the speed of the motor will rise as we decrease the field current and speed control above
the base speed will be achieved. Speed versus armature current characteristic is shown in
figure for two flux valu es φ and φ1. Since φ1<φ, the no load speed no' for flux value φ1 is
more than the no load speed no corresponding to φ.

However, this method will not be suitable for constant load torque .To make this point
clear, let us assume that the load torque is constant at rated value. So from the initial steady
condition, we have TL rated=Ta1= k=Ia rated .If load torque remains constant and flux is
reduced to φ1, new armature current in the steady state is obtained from kI a1=TL rated .
Therefore new armature current is but this fraction is less than 1. Hence new armature current
will be greater than the rated armature current and the motor will be overloaded. This method
therefore, will be suitable for a load whose torque demand decreases with the rise in speed
keeping the output power constant as shown in figure. Obviously this method is based on flux
weakening of the main field.
 Figure 5.23 Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristics

Figure 5.24 Constant Torque and Power Operation 5.6

Starting Of Dc Motors
The speed of the machine has to be increased from zero and brought to the operating
speed. This is called starting of the motor. The operating speed itself should be varied as per
the requirements of the load. This is called speed control. Finally, the running machine has to
be brought to rest, by decelerating the same. This is called braking.

At the instant of starting, rotor speed n = 0, hence starting armature current is

Ist=V/ra. Since, armature resistance is quite small, starting current may be quite high (many
times larger than the rated current). A large machine, characterized by large rotor inertia (J),
will pick up speed rather slowly. Thus the level of high starting current may be maintained
for quite some time so as to cause serious damage to the brush/commutator and to the
armature winding. Also the source should be capable of supplying this burst of large current.
The other loads already connected to the same source, would experience a dip in the terminal
voltage, every time a D.C motor is attempted to start with full voltage. This dip in supply
voltage is caused due to sudden rise in voltage drop in the source's internal resistance. The
duration for which this drop in voltage will persist once again depends on inertia of the
motor. Hence, for small D.C motors extra precaution may not be necessary during starting as
large starting current will very quickly die down because of fast rise in the back emf.
However, for large motor, a starter is to be used during starting.

A simple starter to limit the starting current, a suitable external resistance R is

connected in series, as shown in the figure, with the armature so that Ist=V/(R+ra) At the
time of starting, to have sufficient starting torque, field current is maximized by keeping
external field resistance Rf to zero value. As the motor picks up speed, the value of R is
gradually decreased to zero so that during running no external resistance remains in the
armature circuit. But each time one has to restart the motor, the external armature resistance
must be set to maximum value by moving the jockey manually. Now if the supply goes off,
motor will come to a stop. All on a sudden, let us imagine, supply is restored. This is then
nothing but full voltage starting. In other words, one should be constantly alert to set the
resistance to maximum value
whenever the motor comes to a stop. This is one major limitation of a simple rheostatic
starter.

Figure 1.25 Starting Using External Resistance 5.7

Three Point Starter
A “3-point starter” is extensively used to start a D.C shunt motor. It not only
overcomes the difficulty of a plain resistance starter, but also provides additional protective
features such as over load protection and no volt protection. The diagram of a 3-point starter
connected to a shunt motor is shown in figure. Although, the circuit looks a bit clumsy at a
first glance, the basic working principle is same as that of plain resistance starter. The starter
is shown enclosed within the dotted rectangular box having three terminals marked as A, L
and F for external connections. Terminal A is connected to one armature terminal Al of the
motor. Terminal F is connected to one field terminal F1 of the motor and terminal L is
connected to one supply terminal as shown. F2 terminal of field coil is connected to A2
through an external variable field resistance and the common point connected to supply (-ve).
The external armatures resistances consist of several resistances connected in series and are
shown in the form of an arc. The junctions of the resistances are brought out as terminals and
marked. Just beneath the resistances, a continuous copper strip also in the form of an arc is
present.
 Figure 5.26Three Point Starter

There is a handle which can be moved in the clockwise direction against the spring
tension. The spring tension keeps the handle in the OFF position when no one attempts to
move it. Now let us trace the circuit from terminal L (supply + ve). The wire from L passes
through a small electro magnet called OLRC, (the function of which we shall discuss a little
later) and enters through the handle shown by dashed lines. Near the end of the handle two
copper strips are firmly connected with the wire.

The furthest strip is shown circular shaped and the other strip is shown to be
rectangular. When the handle is moved to the right, the circular strip of the handle will make
contacts with resistance terminals 1, 2 etc. Progressively. On the other hand, the rectangular
strip will make contact with the continuous arc copper strip. The other end of this strip is
brought as terminal F after going through an electromagnet coil (called NVRC). Terminal F is
finally connected to motor field terminal Fl.

Working principle
In the operation of the starter, initially the handle is in the OFF position. Neither
armature nor the field of the motor gets supply. Now the handle is moved to stud number 1.
In this position armature and all the resistances in series gets connected to the supply. Field
coil gets full supply as the rectangular strip makes contact with arc copper strip. As the
machine picks up speed handle is moved further to stud number 2. In this position the
external resistance in the armature circuit is less as the first resistance is left out. Field
however, continues to get full voltage by virtue of the continuous arc strip. Continuing in this
way, all resistances will be left out when stud number 12 (ON) is reached. In this position, the
electromagnet (NVRC) will attract the soft iron piece attached to the handle. Even if the
operator removes his hand from the handle, it will still remain in the ON position as spring
restoring force will be balanced by the force of attraction between NVRC and the soft iron
piece of the handle. The no volt release coil (NVRC) carries same current as that of the field
coil. In case supply voltage goes off, field coil current will decrease to zero. Hence NVRC
will be de-energized and will not be able to exert any force on the soft iron piece of the
handle. Restoring force of the spring will bring the handle back in the OFF position.

The starter also provides over load protection for the motor. The other electromagnet,
OLRC overload release coil along with a soft iron piece kept under it, is used to achieve this.
The current flowing through OLRC is the line current IL drawn by the motor. As the motor is
loaded, Ia hence IL increases. Therefore, IL is a measure of loading of the motor. Suppose we
want that the motor should not be over loaded beyond rated current. Now gap between the
electromagnet and the soft iron piece is so adjusted that for IL≤Irated the iron piece will not
be pulled up. However, if IL≤Irated force of attraction will be sufficient to pull up iron piece.
This upward movement of the iron piece of OLRC is utilized to de-energize NVRC. To the
iron a copper strip is attached. During over loading condition, this copper strip will also move
up and put a short circuit between two terminals B and C. Carefully note that B and C are
nothing but the two ends of the NVRC. In other words, when over load occurs a short circuit
path is created across the NVRC. Hence NVRC will not carry any current now and gets
deenergized. The moment it gets deenergised, spring action will bring the handle in the OFF
position thereby disconnecting the motor from the supply. Three point starter has one
disadvantage. If we want to run the machine at higher speed (above rated speed) by field
weakening (i.e., by reducing field current), the strength of NVRC magnet may become so
weak that it will fail to hold the handle in the ON position and the spring action will bring it
back in the OFF position. Thus we find that a false disconnection of the motor takes place
even when there is neither over load nor any sudden disruption of supply.
5.8 Four-Point Starter

Figure 5.27 Four point starter

The four-point starter eliminates the drawback of the three-point starter. In addition to the
same three points that were in use with the three-point starter, the other side of the line, L1, is
the fourth point brought to the starter when the arm is moved from the "Off" position. The
coil of the holding magnet is connected across the line. The holding magnet and starting
resistors function identical as in the three - point starter.

The possibility of accidentally opening the field circuit is quite remote. The four - point
starter provides the no-voltage protection to the motor. If the power fails, the motor is
disconnected from the line.
5.9 Swinburne’s Test
For a d.c shunt motor change of speed from no load to full load is quite small.
Therefore, mechanical loss can be assumed to remain same from no load to full load.
Also if field current is held constant during loading, the core loss too can be assumed
to remain same.
In this test, the motor is run at rated speed under no load condition at rated voltage.
The current drawn from the supply IL0 and the field current If are recorded (figure
40.3). Now we note that:

106
SCE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

Since the motor is operating under no load condition, net mechanical output power is
zero. Hence the gross power developed by the armature must supply the core loss and
friction & windage losses of the motor. Therefore,

Since, both P core and P friction for a shunt motor remains practically constant from no
load to full load, the sum of these losses is called constant rotational loss i.e.,
In the Swinburne's test, the constant rotational loss comprising of core and friction
loss is estimated from the above equation.
After knowing the value of P rot from the Swinburne's test, we can fairly estimate the
efficiency of the motor at any loading condition. Let the motor be loaded such that
new current drawn from the supply is IL and the new armature current is Ia as shown
in figure 40.4. To estimate the efficiency of the loaded motor we proceed as follows:

The estimated value of P rot obtained from Swinburne’s test can also be used to
estimate the efficiency of the shunt machine operating as a generator. In figure 40.5 is
shown to deliver a
load current IL to a load resistor RL. In this case output power being known, it is
easier to add the losses to estimate the input mechanical power.
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

The biggest advantage of Swinburne's test is that the shunt machine is to be run as
motor under no load condition requiring little power to be drawn from the supply;
based on the no load reading, efficiency can be predicted for any load current.
However, this test is not sufficient if we want to know more about its performance
(effect of armature reaction, temperature rise, commutation etc.) when it is actually
loaded. Obviously the solution is to load the machine by connecting mechanical load
directly on the shaft for motor or by connecting loading rheostat across the terminals
for generator operation. This although sounds simple but difficult to implement in the
laboratory for high rating machines (say above 20 kW), Thus the laboratory must
have proper supply to deliver such a large power corresponding to the rating of the
machine. Secondly, one should have loads to absorb this power.

5.10 Hopkinson’s test

This as an elegant method of testing d.c machines. Here it will be shown that while
power drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses of the machines, the
armature physically carries any amount of current (which can be controlled with
ease). Such a scenario can be created using two similar mechanically coupled shunt
machines. Electrically these two machines are eventually connected in parallel and
controlled in such a way that one machine acts as a generator and the other as motor.
In other words two similar machines are required to carry out this testing which is not
a bad proposition for manufacturer as large numbers of similar machines are
manufactured.
 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

Procedure
Connect the two similar (same rating) coupled machines as shown in figure 40.6.
With switch S opened, the first machine is run as a shunt motor at rated speed. It may
be noted that the second machine is operating as a separately excited generator
because its field winding is excited and it is driven by the first machine. Now the
question is what will be the reading of the voltmeter connected across the opened
switch S? The reading may be (i) either close to twice supply voltage or (ii) small
voltage. In fact the voltmeter practically reads the difference of the induced voltages
in the armature of the machines. The upper armature terminal of the generator may
have either + ve or negative polarity. If it happens to be +ve, then voltmeter reading
will be small otherwise it will be almost double the supply voltage

Since the goal is to connect the two machines in parallel, we must first ensure
voltmeter reading is small. In case we find voltmeter reading is high, we should
switch off the supply, reverse the armature connection of the generator and start
afresh. Now voltmeter is found to read small although time is still not ripe enough to
close S for paralleling the machines. Any attempt to close the switch may result into
large circulating current as the armature resistances are small. Now by adjusting the
field current Ifg of the generator the voltmeter reading may be adjusted to zero (Eg ≈
Eb) and S is now closed. Both the machines are now connected in parallel

Loading the machines

After the machines are successfully connected in parallel, we go for loading the machines
i.e., increasing the armature currents. Just after paralleling the ammeter reading A will be
close to zero as Eg ≈ Eb. Now if Ifg is increased (by decreasing
Rfg), then Eg becomes greater than Eb and both Iag and Iam increase, Thus by
increasing field current of generator (alternatively decreasing field current of motor) one
can make Eg > Eb so as to make the second machine act as generator
and first machine as motor. In practice, it is also required to control the field current of
the motor Ifm to maintain speed constant at rated value. The interesting
point to be noted here is that Iag and Iam do not reflect in the supply side line. Thus
current drawn from supply remains small (corresponding to losses of both the machines).
The loading is sustained by the output power of the generator running
 the motor and vice versa. The machines can be loaded to full load current without the
need of any loading arrangement

Calculation of efficiency
Let field currents of the machines be are so adjusted that the second machine is acting as
generator with armature current Iag and the first machine is acting as
motor with armature current Iam as shown in figure 40.7. Also let us assume the current
drawn from the supply be I1. Total power drawn from supply is VI1 which
goes to supply all the losses (namely Cu losses in armature & field and rotational losses)
of both the machines

Since speed of both the machines are same, it is reasonable to assume the rotational
losses of both the machines are equal; which is strictly not correct as the field current
of the generator will be a bit more than the field current of the motor, Thus, Once P rot
is estimated for each machine we can proceed to calculate the efficiency of the
machines as follows,

Efficiency of the motor

As pointed out earlier, for efficiency calculation of motor, first calculate the input
power and then subtract the losses to get the output mechanical power as shown
below,
 EFFICIENCY OF GENERATOR

Advantages of Hopkinson's Test

The merits of this test are…
1. This test requires very small power compared to full-load power of the motor-
generator coupled system. That is why it is economical.
2. Temperature rise and commutation can be observed and maintained in the limit
because this test is done under full load condition.
3. Change in iron loss due to flux distortion can be taken into account due to the
advantage of its full load condition

Disadvantages of Hopkinson's Test

The demerits of this test are
1. It is difficult to find two identical machines needed for Hopkinson's test.
2. Both machines cannot be loaded equally all the time.
3. It is not possible to get separate iron losses for the two machines though they are
different because of their excitations.
4. It is difficult to operate the machines at rated speed because field currents vary
widely.
39.8 Braking of d.c shunt motor: basic idea
It is often necessary in many applications to stop a running motor rather quickly. We
know that any moving or rotating object acquires kinetic energy. Therefore, how fast
we can bring the object to rest will depend essentially upon how quickly we can
extract its kinetic energy and make arrangement to dissipate that energy somewhere
else. If you stop pedaling your bicycle, it will eventually come to a stop eventually
after moving quite some distance. The initial kinetic energy stored, in this case
dissipates as heat in the friction of the road. However, to make the stopping faster,
brake is applied with the help of rubber brake shoes on the rim of the wheels. Thus
stored K.E now gets two ways of getting dissipated, one at the wheel-brake shoe
interface (where most of the energy is dissipated) and the other at the road-tier
interface. This is a good method no doubt, but regular maintenance of brake shoes due
to wear and tear is necessary.

If a motor is simply disconnected from supply it will eventually come to stop no

doubt, but will take longer time particularly for large motors having high rotational
inertia. Because here the stored energy has to dissipate mainly through bearing
friction and wind friction. The situation can be improved, by forcing the motor to
operate as a generator during braking. The idea can be understood remembering that
in motor mode electromagnetic torque acts along the direction of rotation while in
generator the electromagnetic torque acts in
 the opposite direction of rotation. Thus by forcing the machine to operate as generator
during the braking period, a torque opposite to the direction of rotation will be imposed
on the shaft, thereby helping the machine to come to stop quickly. During braking
action, the initial K.E stored in the rotor is either dissipated in an external resistance or
fed back to the supply or both.

39.8.1 Rheostatic braking

Consider a d.c shunt motor operating from a d.c supply with the switch S connected to
position 1 as shown in figure 39.23. S is a single pole double throw switch and can be
connected either to position 1 or to position 2. One end of an external resistance Rb is
connected to position 2 of the switch S as shown.

Let with S in position 1, motor runs at n rpm, drawing an armature current Ia and the
back emf is Eb = kφ n. Note the polarity of Eb which, as usual for motor mode in
opposition with the supply voltage. Also note Te and n have same clock wise direction.
Now if S is suddenly thrown to position 2 at t = 0, the armature gets disconnected from
the supply and terminated by Rb with field coil remains energized from the supply.
Since speed of the rotor can not change instantaneously, the back emf value Eb is still
maintained with same polarity prevailing at t = 0-. Thus at t = 0+, armature current will
be Ia = Eb/(r a + Rb) and with reversed direction compared to direction prevailing
during motor mode at t
= 0-.
Obviously for t > 0, the machine is operating as generator dissipating power to Rb and now the
electromagnetic torque Te must act in the opposite direction to that of n since Ia has changed direction
but φ has not (recall Te ∝ φ Ia ). As time passes after switching, n decreases reducing K.E and as a
consequence both Eb and Ia decrease. In other words value of braking torque will be highest at t = 0+,
and it decreases progressively and becoming zero when the machine finally come to a stop.

39.8.2 Plugging or dynamic braking

This method of braking can be understood by referring to figures 39.25 and 39.26.
Here S is a double pole double throw switch. For usual motoring mode, S is connected
to positions 1 and 1'. Across terminals 2 and 2', a series combination of an external
resistance Rb and supply voltage with polarity as indicated is connected. However,
during motor mode this part of the circuit remains inactive. To initiate braking, the
switch is thrown to position 2 and 2' at
 t = 0, thereby disconnecting the armature from the left hand supply. Here at t = 0+, the
armature current will be Ia = (Eb + V)/(r a + Rb) as Eb and the right hand supply voltage
have additive polarities by virtue

of the connection. Here also Ia reverses direction producing Te in opposite direction to

n. Ia decreases as Eb decreases with time as speed decreases. However, Ia can not
become zero at any time due to presence of supply V. So unlike rheostatic braking,
substantial magnitude of braking torque prevails. Hence stopping of the motor is
expected to be much faster then rheostatic breaking. But what happens, if S continuous
to be in position 1' and 2' even after zero speed has been attained? The answer is rather
simple, the machine will start picking up speed in the reverse direction operating as a
motor. So care should be taken to disconnect the right hand supply, the moment
armature speed becomes zero.

39.8.3 Regenerative braking

A machine operating as motor may go into regenerative braking mode if its speed
becomes sufficiently high so as to make back emf greater than the supply voltage i.e.,
Eb > V. Obviously under this condition the direction of Ia will reverse imposing torque
which is opposite to the direction of rotation. The situation is explained in figures
39.27 and 39.28. The normal motor operation is shown in figure 39.27 where armature
motoring current Ia is drawn from the supply and as usual Eb < V. Since Eb = kφ n1.
The question is how speed on its own become large enough to make Eb < V causing
regenerative braking. Such a situation may occur in practice when the mechanical load
itself becomes active. Imagine the d.c motor is coupled to the wheel of locomotive
which is moving along a plain track without any gradient as shown in figure 39.27.
Machine is running as a motor at a speed of n1 rpm. However, when the track has a
downward gradient, component of gravitational force along the track also
appears which will try to accelerate the motor and may increase its speed to n2 such
that Eb = kφ n2 > V. In such a scenario, direction of Ia reverses, feeding power back to
supply. Regenerative braking here will not stop the motor but will help to arrest rise of
dangerously high speed.
5.11 SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A 10KW,240V dc shunt motor draws a line current of 5.2 amps while running at no
load of 1200rpm from a 240V dc supply. It has an armature resistance of 0.25 ohms
and field resistance of 160 ohms . Estimate the efficiency of motor when it delivers
rated load.
GIVEN DATA:
Output power = 10KW Supply Voltage V = 240 V
No-Load current = 5.2A No- Load Speed N = 1200 rpm
Armature resistance= 0.2η ΩField resistance = 1θ0 Ω
TO FIND:
Efficiency of the motor at rated load.

SOLUTION:
No-load input power = V × W)
= 240× 5.2
=1248 W
This no-load input power to meet all kinds of no-load losses is armature copper
loss and constant loss
Shunt field current= =

= 1.5 A

No-load armature current = = 5.2 1.5 = 3.7A

Now no-load armature copper loss = = × 0.25

= 3.4 W
Constant loss = 1248 -3.4 = 1244.6W

Rated current (Load) I L = = 41.667 A

Full Load Armature Current Ia= I L = 41.667 -1.5

= 40.16A

Full Load Armature Copper loss = Ra × 0.25

= 403.3W
Motor Output = -Total Loss
= 10000 - (1244.6 + 403.3)
= 8352W

% Efficiency = = ×100

= 83.52%

Ans: = λ8.40%
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
2. In a brake test the efficiency load on the branch pulley was 40Kg, the effective
diameter of the pulley 73.5 cm and speed 15 rps. The motor takes 60A at 230V.
Calculate the output power and efficiency at this load.

3. A 480 V, 20kW, shunt motor of rows 2.5A, when running at with light load
.Taking the armature resistance to be 0.θΩ,field resistance to be 800 Ω and brush
drops at 2V and find full load efficiency.
Ans μ = λ4.83%
GLOSSARY
1. Magnetic Circuit: The circuit which produces the magnetic field is known as
magnetic circuit.

2. Stacking Factor: It is the ratio between the net cross sectional areas of the core to
the cross section occupied by the magnetic material.

3. MMF:MMF is the work done in moving a unit magnetic pole once around the
magnetic circuit.

4. Magnetic field intensity: It is the MMF per unit length.

5. Self Inductance: The e.m.f induced in a coil due to change of flux in the same coil is
known as self inductance

6. Mutual Inductance: When two coils are kept closed together, due to the change in
flux in one coil , an emf is induced in the another coil

7. Coupling Coefficient: The ratio of mutual inductance to the square root of the
product of two self inductances.

8. Multiply excited magnetic field system: If the electromechanical devices have

more than one set of exciting system it is called multiply excited magnetic field
system.

9. Electromechanical energy conversion: It occurs through the medium of the

magnetic stored energy

10. Critical field resistance: the resistance of the field circuit which will cause the shunt
generator just to build up its emf at a specified field.

11. Geometric neutral axis (GNA): GNA is the axis which is situated geometrically or
physically in the mid way between adjacent main poles.

12. Magnetic neutral axis (MNA):MNA is the axis which passes through the zero
crossing of the resultant magnetic field waveform in the air gap.

13. Conservativesystem:It is defined as the combination of the ideal coil magnetic

circuit and energy is interchanged between themselves.

14. Chorded coils: The coil span is less than full pitched winding by an angle 180
degree.

15. Slot angle:It is defined as the ratio of the 180degree to the pole pitch.
16. Slot pitch: It is the distance between the two coil sides of the same commutator
segments

17. Pole pitch: It is the ratio of the total no. of armature coils to the total no of poles.

18. Distributed windings: Windings which are spread over a number of slots around the
air gap periphery.

19. Back pitch: It is defined as the distance between two sides of the same coil is
expressed in term so coils sides and denoted by Yb.

20. DC Generator: DC Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

21. Commutator: The Commutator converts the alternating emf into unidirectional or
direct emf.

22. DC Motor: D.C motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

23. Torque: Torque is nothing but turning or twisting force about the axis.

24. Yoke: Protecting cover for the whole machine

25. Interpoles: To improve Commutation

26. Brushes: Collect current from the Commutator

27. Self Excited: Field winding supplied from the armature itself.

28. Separately Excited: Field winding supplied from the separate supply

29. EMF: Electro Motive force

30. Back emf: In dc motor as the armature rotates inside magnetic flux an emf is induced
in the armature conductor. This emf acts opposite to applied voltage known as back
emf.
 TWO MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER

CHAPTER I
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND MAGNETIC MATERIAL 1.
Mention the types of electrical machines.
There are three basic rotating machines types, namely a.
The dc machines
b. the poly phase synchronous machine (ac), and
c. Poly and single phase induction machine (ac)and a stationary machine,
namely Transformer
2. State Ohm’s law for magnetic circuit.
It states that the magneto motive force across the magnetic element is equal to the
product of the magnetic flux through the magnetic element and the reluctance of the
magnetic material. It is given by
MMF = Flux X Reluctance
3. Define leakage flux
The flux setup in the air paths around the magnetic material is known as
leakage flux.

4. Define magnetic reluctance

The opposition offered by the magnetic circuit for the magnetic flux path is
known as magnetic reluctance. It is analogous to electric resistance.

5. Draw the typical normal magnetization curve of ferromagnetic material.

6. What is fringing?
In the air gap the magnetic flux fringes out into neighboring air paths due to the
reluctance of air gap which causes a non uniform flux density in the air gap of a machine.
This effect is called fringing effect.

7. State stacking factor.

The stacking factor is defined as the ratio of the net cross sectional area of a magnetic
core to the gross cross sectional area of the magnetic core. Due to lamination net cross
sectional are will be always less than gross cross sectional area. Therefore the value of
stacking factor is always less than unity.

8.Mention some magnetic materials

Alnicos, chromium steels, copper–nickel alloy, nickel, cobalt, tungsten and aluminium.

9. What is magnetostriction?
When ferromagnetic materials are subjected to magnetizing mmf, these may
undergo small changes in dimension; this phenomenon is known as magnetostriction.

10.Define statically induced emf.

The coil remains stationary with respect to flux, but the flux through it changes with
time. The emf induced is known as statically induced emf.

11. Define dynamically induced emf.

Flux density distribution remains constant and stationary but the coil move relative to
it.The emf induced is known as dynamically induced emf.
120
SCE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
12. State Fleming’s right hand rule.
Extend the thumb, fore and middle finger of the right hand so that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other. If the thumb represents the direction of movement of
conductor and the fore finger the direction of magnetic flux, then the middle finger
represents the direction of emf

13.State Fleming’s Left hand rule.

Extend the thumb, fore and middle finger of the right hand so that they aremutually
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger represents the direction of flux and the middle
finger the direction of current, then the middle finger represents the direction of movement of
conductor.

14. What are the losses called as core loss?

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
15.Define coercivity.
It is the measure of mmf which, when applied to the magnetic circuit would reduce its
flux density to zero, i.e., it demagnetizes the magnetic circuit.

UNIT II
TRANSFORMERS

1. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers.

In core type , the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the core
surround the winding.

2. What is the purpose of laminating the core in a transformers ? (April –98) To

reduce eddy current loss.

3. Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term (April –99) Emf
induced in primary coil E1 = 4.44 fΦ mN1 volt
Emf induced in secondary coil E2 = 4.44fΦ mN2 volt

Φ m is the maximum value of flux in the core

N1, N2 are the number of primary and secondary turns.

4. Does the transformer draw any current when secondary is open ? Why ?
Yes,it (primary) will draw the current from the main supply in order to magnetise the
core and to supply iron and copper losses on no load . There will not be any current in the
secondary since secondary is open.

5. Define voltage regulation of a transformer (April –98)

When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage , the secondary voltage decreases
for lagging power factor load, and increases for leading pf load because of its internal resistance
and leakage reactance . The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load
expressed as a percentage of no load or full load voltage is termed as regulation .

% regulation down = (0V2-V2) x 100/0V2

% regulation up = (0V2-V2) x 100/V2
6. Full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600 watts. What will be the loss at half load ?
 If x is the ratio of actual load to full load then copper loss = x2(full load copper
loss).Here Wc = (0.5)2 x 1600 = 400 watts

7. Define all day efficiency of a transformer .

It is the computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period , usually a day of 24
hrs.
all day = output in kWh /input in kWh for 24 hrs.

8. Why transformers are rated in kVA ? (May 03)

Copper loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage . Hence total
losses depend on Volt- Ampere and not on the power factor. That is why the rating of
transformers are in kVA and not in kW.

9. What are the typical uses of auto transformer ?

(i)To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop.
(ii)As induction motor starters.
(iii)As furnace transformers
(iv)As interconnecting transformers
(v)In control equipment for single phase and 3 phase elective locomotives.

10. What are the applications of step-up and step-down transformers?

Step-up transformers are used in generating stations. Normally the generated voltage will
be either 11 kV or 22 kV. This voltage is stepped up to 110 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV and
transmitted through transmission lines. (In short it may be called as sending end). Step-down
transformers are used in receiving stations. The voltage are again stepped down to 11 kV or 22
kV and transmitted through feeders. (In short it may be called as receiving end). Further these 11
kV or 22kV are stepped down to 3 phase 400 V by means of a distribution transformer and made
available at consumer premises. The transformers used at generating stations and receiving
stations are called power transformers.

11. How transformers are classified according to their construction?

Or
Mention the difference between “CORE” and “SHELL” type transformers. Or

What are the two types of cores used ? Compare them.

Transformers are classified according to their construction as,
(i)Core type (ii)Shell type (iii)Spirakore type.
Spirakore type is a latest transformer and is used in big transformers. In “core” type, the
windings(primary and secondary)surround the core and in “shell” type, the core surround the
windings.

12. Explain on the material used for core construction. (Oct 02)
The core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a
continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon
content sometimes heat-treated to produce a high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the
usual operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the
laminations being insulated from each other by light coat of core-plate vanish or by an oxide
layer on the surface .the thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 59 Hz
and 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz.

13. When will a Bucholz relay operate in a transformer?

 Bucholz rely is a protective device in a transformer. If the temperature of the coil
exceeds its limit, Bucholz relay operates and gives an alarm.

14. How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer?
With a change in frequency, iron loss, copper loss, regulation, efficiency and heating varies
and thereby the Operation of the transformer is affected

15. What is the angle by which no-load current will lag the ideal applied voltage?
In an ideal transformer, there are no copper loss and no core loss,(i.e. loss free core).The
no load current is only magnetizing current. Therefore the no-load current lags behind by an
angle of 90°. However the windings possess resistance and leakage reactance and therefore the
no-load current lags the applied voltage slightly less than 90°.

16. List the advantages of stepped core arrangement in a transformer.

(i) To reduce the space effectively.
(ii) To obtain reduced length of mean turn of the windings.
(iii)To reduce I2R loss.

17. Why are breathers used in transformers?

Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to pass
on to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and contract as its
temperature increases and decreases. Also to avoid sledging of oil i.e. decomposition of oil.
Addition of 8 parts of water in 1000000 reduces the insulations quantity of oil. Normally silica
gel is filled in the breather having pink colour. This colour will be changed to white due to
continuous use, which is an indication of bad silica gel, it is normally heated and reused.

18. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer?

Nowadays instead of natural mineral oil, synthetic oils known as ASKRELS (trade name)
are used. They are noninflammable; under an electric arc do not decompose to produce
inflammable gases. PYROCOLOR oil possesses high dielectric strength. Hence it can be said
that transformer oil provides, (i) good insulation and (ii) cooling.

19. A 1100/400 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 100 turns on the secondary
winding. Calculate the number of turns on its primary.
We know that V1 / V2 = k = N2 / N1
Substituting in above equation 400/1100 = 100/N1 N1
= 100/400 x 1100
= 275 turns.
20. What are the functions of no-load current in a transformer?
No-load current produces flux and supplies iron loss and copper loss on no-load.

21. How will you transfer the quantities from one circuit to another circuit in a
transformer?
1.Secondary to primary 2.Primary to secondary
Symbol Value Symbol Value
V2 V2/k VL kV1 I
2 kI2 IL I1 /k
R2 R2/k2 RL k2R1
X2 X2/k2 XL’ k2X1
ZL ZL/k2
22. Can the voltage regulation of a transformer go to negative? If so under what
condition?
Yes. If the load has leading power factor.

23. Distinguish between power transformer and distribution transformer.

 Power transformers have very high power ratings in the order of MVA. They are used in
generating and receiving stations. Sophisticated controls are required. Voltage ranges will be
very high. Distribution transformers are used in consumer side. Voltage levels will be
medium.Power ranging will be small in order of kVA. Complicated controls are not needed.

24. What is the purpose of providing ‘taps’ in transformer and where these are provided? In
order to attain the required voltage, ‘taps’ are provided. Normally it will be
provided at low voltage sides

25. Give the method of reducing iron loss in a Transformer (Oct –98)
The iron losses are minimized by using high-grade core material like silicon steel having
very low hysteresis loop and by manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.

26. State the condition for maximum efficiency (Oct – 97)

Copper losses = Iron lossess

UNIT III
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION AND CONCEPT IN
ROTATING MACHINES
28. What is an electromechanical system?
The system in which the electromechanical energy conversion takes palace via the
medium of a magnetic or electric field is called electromechanical system.

29. Describe multiply excited magnetic field system.

The specially designed transducers have the special requirement of producing an
electrical signal proportional to forces or velocities of producing force proportional to
electrical signal. Such transducers requires two or more excitation called as multiply excited
magnetic field system.

30. Define co energy.

Co energy is an energy used for a linear system computation keeping current as constant.
It will not be applied to the non linear systems.

31. How energy is stored?

Energy can be stored of retrieved from the magnetic system by means of an exciting coil
connected to an electric source.

32. Write the equation for mechanical force.

33. Write the equation that governs doubly excited magnetic field.
34. Define field energy.
The energy drawn by virtue of change in the distance moved by the rotor in
electrical machines in field configuration is known as field energy.

35. Draw the graphical relation between field energy and coenergy

36. Define the term pole pitch

The distance between the centres of two adjacent poles idcalled pole pitch, one pole
pitch is equal to 180 electrical degrees. It is also defined as the number of slots per pole.

37. Define pitch factor

It is defined as the ratio of resultant emf when coil is short pitch to the resultant emf when coil is
full pitched. It is always less than one.Pitch factor is always termed as coil span (K c) factor

kc = cos α/2 where α = angle of short pitch

38. Define the term breadth factor

 The breadth factor is also called distribution factor or winding factor. The factor by
which there is a reduction in the emf due to distribution of coil is called distribution factor
denoted as kd.

39. Write down the advantages of short pitched coil.

(i) The length required for the end connection of coils is less i.e., inactive length of
winding is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical.
(ii) Short pitching eliminated high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal
nature of emf. Hence waveform of an induced emf is motre sinusoidal due to short pitching.

(iii) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses
which depend on frequency also get minimized. This increases the efficiency.

40. What is distributed winding?

Id ‘x’ conductors per phase are distributed amongst the 3 slots per phase available under
pole, the winding is called distributed winding.

41. Explain the following terms with respect to rotating electrical machines.
a) Pole pitch
b) Chording angle.
Pole pitch: The distance between the centres of two adjacent poles is called pole
pitch.One pole pitch is equal to 180 electrical degrees. It is also defined as the number of slots
per pole.
Chording angle: It is defined as that angle by which the coil pitch departs from 180
electrical degrees.
UNIT IV
DC GENERATOR

41. Write the expressions for the synchronous speed.

The speed of rotating magnetic field is called synchronous speed.
43. Write the mmf equation of dc machine.
The fundamental component of mmf wave is given by
Where = electrical angle measured from the magnetic axis of the coil which coincides with
the positive peak of the fundamental wave.

44. What is meant by electromagnetic torque?

When the stator ad rotor windings of the machine both carry currents, they produce their
own magnetic fields along their respective axes which sinusoidally distributed along the air-gaps.
Torque results from the tendency of these two fields to align themselves.

45. State the torque equation for round rotor machine.

Where P = No. pole
D = Average diameter of air gap
l= Axial length if air gap
o = Permeability of free space = 4_ x 10-7 H/m g
= air gap length
F1 = Peak value of sinusoidal mmf stator wave F2
= peak value of sinusoidal mmf rotor wave
Α = Angle between F1 and F2 called torque angle

46. Define rotating magnetic field.

When a balanced three phase winding with phase distributed in space so that the
relative space angle is 120 is fed with balanced 3 phase current, resultant mmf rotates in air gap
at speed.

47. What is prime mover?

The basic source of mechanical power, which drives the armature of the generator, is
called prime mover.
48. Give the materials used in machine manufacturing Three
materials are used in machine manufacturing. (i)steel –
to conduct magnetic flux
(ii)copper – to conduct electric current
(iii)Insulation

49. How will you change the direction of rotation of a d.c motor?
Either the direction of the main field or the direction of current through the
armature conductors is to be reserved.

50. What is back emf in d.c motors ?

As the motor armature rotates , the system of conductor come across alternate North and
South pole magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors. The direction of the emf
induced in the conductors . The direction of the emf induced is in the direction opposite to the
current .As this emf always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is called back emf.

51. Under what condition the mechanical power developed in a dc motor will be
maximum?
Condition for mechanical power developed to be maximum is Eb
= Ua /2
or I a= Ua / 2Ra
52. What is the function of a no-voltage release coil provided in a dc motor starter? As long as
the supply voltage is on healthy condition the current through the NVR coil produce enough
magnetic force of attraction and retain the starter handle in the ON position against spring
force. When the supply voltage fails or becomes lower than a prescribed value the
electromagnet may not have enough force and the handle will come back to OFF position due
to spring force automatically. Thus a no-voltage or under voltage protections given to the
motor.

53. Name the two types of automatic starters used for dc motors.
Back emf type starter
Time delay type starter
54. Enumerate the factors on which the speed of a dc motor depends. N =
1/CE (Ua-IaRm)/ф
The speed of dc motor depends on three factors.
Flux in the air gap
Resistance of the armature circuit
Voltage applied to the armature

55. List the different methods of speed control employed for dc series motor(APR’04,AU) Field
diverter method
Regrouping of field coild\s
Tapped field control
Armature resistance control
Armature voltage control for single motor
Series parallel control for multiple identical motors

57. Name the different methods of electrical breaking of dc motors.

(i) Dynamic braking
(ii) Regenerating braking
(iii) Counter current braking or plugging

58. Under what circumstances does a dc shunt generator fail to build up?
Absence of residual flux.
Initial flux set up by the field winding may be in opposite direction to
residual flux
 Shunt filed circuit resistance may be higher than its critical field
Resistance
Load circuit resistance may be less than its critical load resistance.

UNIT V
DC MOTOR
59. To what polarity the interpoles excited in dc motors?
For motor operation the polarity of the interpoles must be that of the previous main pole
along the direction of rotation.

60. Name any four applications of DC series motor.

Electric traction
Mixies
Hoists
Drilling machines

61.Why DC motors are not operated to develop maximum power in practice?

The current obtained will be much higher than the rated current.The effiency of
operation will be below 50%.

62.Name the starters used for series motors.

Face plate type.
Drum type controller.

63. Name Different types of starters.

1. Three point starter
2. Four point starter.

64. Name the Protective devices in a starter. 1,

No volt release
2. Overload Release.
65. Draw torque characteristics of shunt motor.(NOV’03,AU
66. What are the modification in ward Leonard linger system?
1. Smaller motor and generator set
2. Addition of flywheel whose function is to reduce fluctuations in the power
demand from the supply circuit.

67. What type of DC motors are suitable for various torque operations?
1. DC series motor
2. DC cumulatively compound motor
24. Define speed regulation.
% Speed regulation= NL speed- FL speed x 100 FL
speed
68. What are the performance curves?
Output Vs torque
Output Vs current
Output Vs speed
Output Vs efficiency

69. To what polarity are the interpoles excited in dc generators?

The polarity of the interpoles must be that of the next main pole along the direction of
rotation in the case of generator.

70. Why are carbon brushes preferred for dc machines?

The high contact resistance carbon brushes help the current in the coil undergoing
commutation to attain its full value in the reverse direction at the end of commutation. The
carbon brushes also lubricate and give less wear and tear on commutator surface.

71. What are the various types of commutation?

Linear commutation
 Sinusoidal commutation

72. Name the two methods of improving commutation.

(i) Emf commutation.
(ii)Resistance commutation

73. What is reactance emf in dc machine?

The self-induced emf in the coil undergoing commutation which opposes the
reversal of current is known as reactance emf.

74. Define the term commutation in dc machines.

The changes that take place in winding elements during the period of short circuit by a
brush is called commutation.

75. How and why the compensating winding in dc machine excited?

As the compensation required is proportional to the armature current the
compensating winding is excited by the armature current.