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Bryan Earl
Doug Wilford
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Cambridge O Level

Chemistry

Bryan Earl
Doug Wilford
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Contents
How to use this book
Scientific Enquiry

1 States of matter
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
3 Bonding and structure
4 Stoichiometry
5 Electricity and chemistry
6 Chemical energetics
7 Chemical reactions
8 Acids, bases and salts
9 The periodic table
10 Metals
11 Chemistry of the environment 
12 Carbon dioxide
13 Organic chemistry 1
14 Organic chemistry 2
15 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis
Theory exam-style questions 
Practical exam-style questions 
Alternative to practical exam-style questions 
Periodic table
Glossary
Index
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
FOCUS POINTS
★ How are elements, molecules, ions, compounds and mixtures different from each other?
★ How do the properties of the particles in an atom lead to an atom’s structure?
★ What do oxidation and reduction mean?
★ What is an isotope?

In Chapter 1 you saw that all matter is made up of should be able to write a simple word or symbol
particles. In this chapter you will look closely at equation to represent a reaction.
these particles and see that they are made up of
You will see that although atoms are the smallest
atoms. Atoms are the smallest part of elements.
part of an element that shares the chemical
An element is made up of one type of atom and
properties of that element, they are made from
can be either a metal or a non-metal. Metals and
even smaller particles. By learning about the
non-metals have different properties.
properties and behaviour of these smaller
You will look at how atoms of different elements particles (electrons, protons and neutrons) you
can combine to form substances called will be able to see how they affect the chemical
compounds, and how this combining occurs in a properties of elements and compounds.
chemical reaction. By the end of the chapter you

The universe is made up of a very large number of In 1803, John Dalton suggested that each
substances (Figure 2.1), and our own part of the element was composed of its own kind of particles,
universe is no exception. When we examine this vast which he called atoms. Atoms are much too small to
array of substances more closely, we find that they be seen. We now know that about 20 × 106 of them
are made up of some basic substances which were would stretch over a length of only 1 cm.
given the name elements in 1661 by Robert Boyle.
Elements
As well as not being able to be broken down into a
chemically simpler substance, each element is made
up of only one kind of atom. The word atom comes
from the Greek word atomos meaning ‘unsplittable’. For
example, aluminium is an element which is made up
of only aluminium atoms. It is not possible to obtain
a chemically simpler substance from the aluminium
atoms. You can only combine it with other elements
to make more complex substances, such as aluminium
oxide, aluminium nitrate or aluminium sulfate.
So far, 118 elements have been identified, of
which 114 have been given proper names. Twenty-
seven of these do not occur in nature and have
▲ Figure 2.1 Structures in the universe, such as stars, been made artificially by scientists. They include
planets and meteorites, are made of millions of
elements such as curium and flerovium. Ninety-one
substances. These substances are mostly made from just
91 elements, all of which occur naturally on Earth of the elements occur naturally and range from some

4
 Elements

very reactive gases, such as fluorine and chlorine, to The elements have different properties that we can
gold and platinum, which are unreactive elements. measure, and we can classify elements according to
A physical property is any characteristic of a their properties. A simple way to do this is to classify
substance that we can measure. them as metals or non-metals (Figures 2.2 and 2.3).

a A premature baby needs oxygen

a Gold is very decorative

b Artists often use charcoal (carbon) to produce an initial

sketch

b Aluminium has many uses in the aerospace industry

c These coins contain nickel c Neon is used in advertising signs

▲ Figure 2.2 Some metals ▲ Figure 2.3 Some non-metals

5
2 Atoms, elements and compounds

Table 2.1 shows the physical property data The elements also have chemical properties,
for some common metallic and non-metallic which are characteristics or behaviours that
elements. You will notice that many metals have may be observed when the substance undergoes
high densities, high melting points and high a chemical change or reaction. The chemical
boiling points, and that most non-metals have low properties of some metals and non-metals are
densities, low melting points and low boiling points. discussed in Chapters 9 and 10.

▼ Table 2.1 Physical data for some metallic and non-

metallic elements at room temperature and pressure Test yourself
Metal or Density/ Melting Boiling 1 Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in
Element non-metal g cm−3 point/°C point/°C the following group and explain why it is different
from the others.
Aluminium Metal 2.70 660 2580 zinc copper oxygen lead
Copper Metal 8.92 1083 2567 2 Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in
the following group and explain why it is different
Gold Metal 19.29 1065 2807
from the others.
Iron Metal 7.87 1535 2750 carbon nitrogen iron sulfur
Lead Metal 11.34 328 1740 3 Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2 pick the ‘odd one out’ in
the following group of properties of metals and
Magnesium Metal 1.74 649 1107 explain why it is different from the others.
Nickel Metal 8.90 1453 2732 – high melting points
Silver Metal 10.50 962 2212 – high density
– soft or brittle
Zinc Metal 7.14 420 907 – good electrical conductivity
Carbon Non-metal 2.25 Sublimes at 3642
Hydrogen Non-metal 0.07 a −259 −253
Nitrogen Non-metal 0.88 b −210 −196 Atoms – the smallest particles
Oxygen Non-metal 1.15c −218 −183 Everything is made up of billions of extremely
Sulfur Non-metal 2.07 113 445
small atoms. The smallest atom is hydrogen, and
we represent each hydrogen atom as a sphere with
Source: Earl B., Wilford L.D.R. Chemistry data book. Nelson a diameter of 0.000 000 07 mm (or 7 × 10−8 mm)
Blackie, 1991 a: at −254 °C; b: at −197 °C; c: at −184 °C. (Table 2.3). Atoms of different elements have
Table 2.2 summarises the different properties of different diameters as well as different masses.
metals and non-metals. ▼ Table 2.3 Sizes of atoms
▼ Table 2.2 How the properties of metals and non-metals
Atom Diameter of atom/mm Masses/g
compare
Hydrogen 7 × 10 −8 1.67 × 10 −24
Property Metal Non-metal
Oxygen 12 × 10 −8 1.66 × 10 −24
Physical state at Usually solid Solid, liquid or gas
Sulfur 20.8 × 10 −8 5.32 × 10 −23
room temperature (occasionally
liquid) Chemists use shorthand symbols to label the
Malleability Good Poor – usually elements and their atoms. The symbol consists
Ductility Good
soft or brittle of one, two or three letters, the first of which is
always a capital. The initial letter of the element’s
Appearance Shiny (lustrous) Dull
(solids) name is often used, and where several elements
have the same initial letter, another letter from the
Melting point Usually high Usually low
name is added. For example, C is used for carbon,
Boiling point Usually high Usually low Ca for calcium and Cl for chlorine. Some symbols
Density Usually high Usually low seem to have no relationship to the name of the
Conductivity Good Very poor element, for example, Na for sodium and Pb for
(thermal and lead. These symbols come from the Latin names,
electrical)

6
 Elements

natrium for sodium and plumbum for lead. A list of The complete list of the elements with their
some common elements and their symbols is given corresponding symbols is shown in the Periodic
in Table 2.4. Table on p.350.
▼ Table 2.4 Some common elements and their symbols. Molecules
The Latin names of some of the elements are given in
brackets
The atoms of some elements are joined together
in small groups. These small groups of atoms are
Physical state at room called molecules. The atoms of some elements
Element Symbol temperature and pressure are always joined in pairs, for example, hydrogen,
Aluminium Al Solid oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and
Argon Ar Gas iodine. They are known as diatomic molecules. In
chemical shorthand, the molecule of chlorine shown
Barium Ba Solid
in Figure 2.4 is written as Cl 2. The atoms of some
Boron B Solid other elements, such as phosphorus and sulfur, join
Bromine Br Liquid in larger numbers, four and eight respectively, which
Calcium Ca Solid we write as P4 and S8.
The gaseous elements helium, neon, argon,
Carbon C Solid
krypton, xenon and radon (which are all gases at
Chlorine Cl Gas 0 °C at sea-level and atmospheric pressure) are
Chromium Cr Solid composed of separate, individual atoms. When an
Copper (Cuprum) Cu Solid element exists as separate atoms, the molecules are
Fluorine F Gas
said to be monatomic. In chemical shorthand these
monatomic molecules are written as He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
Germanium Ge Solid
Xe and Rn respectively.
Gold (Aurum) Au Solid
Helium He Gas Cl Cl

Hydrogen H Gas a Represented by a letter-and-stick model

Iodine I Solid
Iron (Ferrum) Fe Solid
Lead (Plumbum) Pb Solid
Magnesium Mg Solid
Mercury Hg Liquid
(Hydragyrum)
Neon Ne Gas
Nitrogen N Gas
Oxygen O Gas
Phosphorus P Solid
Potassium K Solid b Represented by a space-filling model
(Kalium)
▲ Figure 2.4 A chlorine molecule
Silicon Si Solid
Silver (Argentum) Ag Solid Molecules are not always formed by atoms of the
Sodium (Natrium) Na Solid same type joining together as elemental molecules.
Sulfur S Solid
Most molecules are a mix of atoms of different
elements, for example, water exists as molecules
Tin (Stannum) Sn Solid
containing oxygen and hydrogen atoms. We will
Zinc Zn Solid learn more about these in the next section.

7
2 Atoms, elements and compounds

powder magnesium oxide (Figure 2.6). This reaction

Test yourself is accompanied by a release of energy as new
4 How many atoms of hydrogen would have to be chemical bonds are formed.
placed side by side along the edge of your ruler to
fill just one of the 1 mm divisions?
5 How would you use chemical shorthand to write
a representation of the molecules of iodine and
fluorine?
6 Using the Periodic Table, write down the symbols
for each of these elements and give their physical
state at room temperature.
a chromium
b krypton
c osmium

Compounds
Compounds are pure substances which are formed
when two or more elements chemically combine
together. A pure substance is a material that has
a constant composition (is homogeneous) and has
consistent properties throughout. Water is a simple
compound formed from the elements hydrogen and ▲ Figure 2.6 Magnesium burns brightly in oxygen to
oxygen (Figure 2.5). This combining of the elements produce magnesium oxide
can be represented by a word equation:
When a new substance is formed during a chemical
hydrogen + oxygen → water reaction, a chemical change has taken place.
O
H
O magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
H
H O O H When substances such as hydrogen and magnesium
H H O
O H H combine with oxygen in this way they are said to have
H
 been oxidised. This process is known as oxidation.
H
H
O H H
O
H Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. In this
H
H
O O process, oxygen is removed rather than added.
H
H
H O H
H O
H
H
H
Key definitions
Oxidation is gain of oxygen.
Hydrogen: Oxygen: Hydrogen and Water: Reduction is loss of oxygen.
a pure a pure oxygen mixed a pure
element element together compound
formed from
hydrogen Any chemical process that involves reduction and
burning in
oxygen
oxidation is known as a redox reaction.
For example, to extract iron from iron(iii) oxide
▲ Figure 2.5 The element hydrogen reacts with the element the oxygen has to be removed. The reduction of
oxygen to produce the compound water
iron(iii) oxide, can be done in a blast furnace
Each water molecules contains two atoms of using carbon monoxide. The iron(iii) oxide loses
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, and water has oxygen to the carbon monoxide and is reduced to
the chemical formula H2O. Elements other than iron. Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent.
hydrogen will also react with oxygen to form In the reaction, carbon monoxide is oxidised to
compounds called oxides. For example, magnesium carbon dioxide by the iron(iii) oxide. In this process,
reacts violently with oxygen gas to form the white the iron(iii) oxide is the oxidising agent.

8
 Compounds

We can write the redox reaction as:

Key definitions
iron(iii)   carbon   carbon Redox reactions involve simultaneous oxidation and
+ monoxide→
  oxide    iron +   dioxide
     reduction.
A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another
Test yourself substance and is itself oxidised.
7 Write the word and balanced chemical equations An oxidising agent is a substance that oxidises another
for the reactions which take place between: substance and is itself reduced.
a calcium and oxygen
b copper and oxygen.

For a further discussion of oxidation and reduction

see Chapter 3 and Chapter 5.

Practical work

Heating copper 1 Draw a labelled diagram of the experimental

A student wanted to find out what happens when set-up used in this experiment.
copper is heated in air. To do this, they carried 2 What safety precautions should the student
out the following experiment and recorded their take to carry out the experiment?
results. 3 Calculate the change in mass that has taken
place during the heating.
l First, they found the mass of an empty crucible. 4 Explain what has caused the change in mass.
l They added a piece of copper to the crucible 5 What is the black substance left on the copper
and found the mass again. after heating?
l They then heated the crucible strongly for 6 Write a word and balanced chemical equation
approximately two minutes. to show the process that has taken place.
l They allowed it to cool, then found the mass 7 How could you modify the experiment to
after heating. ensure there was no loss of substance during
the heating process.
Mass of crucible = 12.90 g 8 Predict what would happen, in terms of
Mass of crucible + copper = 14.18 g mass change and colour change, if calcium
was heated in air in the same way as the
Mass of copper = ________ g
copper was.
Mass of crucible + contents after heating = 14.30 g
Colour of contents after heating = black

Formulae Worked example

The formula of a compound is made up from the
Write the ratio of atoms in sodium sulfate, Na 2 SO 4
symbols of the elements that make up the compound
and numbers that show the ratio of the different Substance Formula Ratio of atoms
atoms from which the compound is made. Carbon Sodium sulfate Na2SO 4 Na : S : O
dioxide has the formula CO2, which tells you that
2 : 1 : 4
it contains one carbon atom for every two oxygen
atoms. The 2 in the formula shows that there are two
oxygen atoms in each molecule of carbon dioxide.

9
2 Atoms, elements and compounds

When we replace the words with symbols for

Now put this into practice
the reactants and the products, and include their
1 Write down the ratio of the atoms present in each of
the compounds shown in Table 2.5.
physical state symbols, we get:
heat
▼ Table 2.5 Names and formulae of some common
Fe(s) + S(s) 



 →
 FeS(s)
compounds Since there is the same number of each type of atom
on both sides of the equation, this is a balanced
Compound Formula
chemical equation.
Ammonia NH 3
When magnesium reacts with oxygen, the word
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 equation is:
Carbon dioxide CO 2 heat
magnesium + oxygen  



 →
 magnesium oxide
Copper sulfate CuSO 4
When we replace the words with symbols for the
Ethanol (alcohol) C2 H 5 OH
reactants and the products and include their
Glucose C 6 H12 O 6
physical state symbols, it is important to remember
Hydrochloric acid HCl that oxygen is a diatomic molecule:
Nitric acid HNO 3 Mg(s) + O 2 (g) 

heat


 →
 MgO(s)
Sodium carbonate Na 2 CO 3
In this equation there are two oxygen atoms on the
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
left-hand side (O2) but only one on the right (MgO).
Sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4 We cannot change the formula of magnesium oxide, so
to have two oxygen atoms on the right-hand side we
will need 2MgO – this means 2 × MgO molecules. The
The ratio of atoms within a chemical compound equation now becomes:
is usually constant. Compounds are made up of Mg(s) + O 2 (g) 


heat

 →
 2MgO(s)
fixed proportions of elements: they have a fixed
composition. Chemists call this the law of constant There are now two atoms of magnesium on the right-
composition. hand side and only one on the left. To balance the
equation, we place a 2 in front of the magnesium to
Balancing chemical equations give the following balanced chemical equation:
heat
Word equations are a useful way of representing 2Mg(s) + O 2 (g) 



 →
 2MgO(s)
chemical reactions, but a better and more useful This balanced chemical equation shows us that two
way of seeing what happens during a chemical atoms of magnesium react with one molecule of
reaction is to produce a balanced chemical oxygen gas when heated to produce two molecules
equation. This type of equation gives the formulae of magnesium oxide.
of the reacting substances (the reactants) and the
new substances formed during the chemical reaction
(the products) as well as showing the relative
Test yourself
numbers of particles involved. 8 Zinc is extracted from its ore, zinc blende, in a
Balanced equations often include symbols furnace by a redox reaction. What does the term
‘redox reaction’ mean?
that show the physical state of the reactants and 9 Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in each
products: (s) = solid, (l) = liquid, (g) = gas, of the following reactions:
(aq) = aqueous(water) solution. a copper(II) oxide + hydrogen → copper + water
We can use the reaction between iron and sulfur b tin(II) oxide + carbon → tin + carbon dioxide
as an example. The word equation to represent this c PbO(s) + H 2 (g) → Pb(s) + H 2 O(l)
reaction is:
iron + sulfur 



heat

 →  (ii) sulfide
 iron(II)

10
 Mixtures

Going further
Instrumental techniques Infrared spectroscopy is used in the pharmaceutical
industry to identify and discriminate between drugs
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified
that are similar in structure, for example penicillin-type
by a variety of instrumental methods. Scientists have
drugs. Used with both organic and inorganic molecules,
developed instrumental techniques that allow us to
this method assumes that each compound has a unique
probe and discover which elements are present in the
infrared spectrum. Samples can be solid, liquid or
substance as well as how the atoms are arranged within
gas and are usually tiny. However, Ne, He, O 2 , N 2 or H 2
the substance.
cannot be used.
Many of the instrumental methods that have been
This method is also used to monitor environmental
developed are quite sophisticated. Some methods are
pollution and has biological uses in monitoring tissue
suited to identifying elements. For example, atomic
physiology including oxygenation, respiratory status
absorption spectroscopy allows an element to be
and blood flow damage.
identified and also allows the quantity of the element
that is present to be found. Forensic scientists make use of both these techniques
because they are very accurate, but they only require
Some methods are particularly suited to the
tiny amounts of sample – often, only small amounts of
identification of compounds. For example, infrared
sample are found at crime scenes. Other techniques
spectroscopy is used to identify compounds by showing
used are nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and
the presence of particular groupings of atoms.
ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy.

Mixtures The difference between mixtures

Many everyday things are not pure substances, and compounds
they are mixtures. A mixture contains more than There are differences between compounds and
one substance, which could be elements and/or mixtures, which can be seen by looking at the
compounds. Examples of common mixtures are: reaction between iron filings and sulfur. A mixture
● sea water (Figure 2.7) of iron filings (powdered iron) and sulfur (Figure 2.8
● air, which is a mixture of elements such as bottom right) looks different from either of the
oxygen, nitrogen and neon and compounds such individual elements (Figure 2.8 top). This mixture
as carbon dioxide (see Chapter 11) has the properties of both iron and sulfur; for
● alloys such as brass, which is a mixture of copper example, a magnet can be used to separate the iron
and zinc (for a further discussion of alloys, see filings from the sulfur (Figure 2.9).
Chapter 10) Substances in a mixture have not undergone
a chemical reaction and it is possible to separate
them, provided there is a suitable difference in
their physical properties. If the mixture of iron and
sulfur is heated, however, a chemical reaction occurs
and a new substance is formed. The product of the
reaction is iron(II) sulfide (Figure 2.8 bottom left),
and the word equation for this reaction is:
heat
iron + sulfur 



 →
 iron(II) sulfide

▲ Figure 2.7 Sea water is a common mixture. It is a water

solution of substances such as sodium chloride as well as
gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide

11
2 Atoms, elements and compounds

▼ Table 2.12 Electronic structure of the first 20 elements You will notice from Table 2.12 that the elements
helium, neon and argon have completely full outer
Element Symbol Proton Number of Electron
number electrons structure
shells. In Chapter 9 we will see that the number
of outer shell electrons is related to an element’s
Hydrogen H  1  1 1
position in the Periodic Table and that elements
Helium He  2  2 2
with a full outer shell are known as noble or inert
Lithium Li  3  3 2,1
gases and are generally very stable and unreactive.
Beryllium Be  4  4 2,2
When elements react to form compounds, they do so
Boron B  5  5 2,3
to achieve full electron shells; this idea is the basis
Carbon C  6  6 2,4 of the electronic theory of chemical bonding, which
Nitrogen N  7  7 2,5 we will discuss further in the next chapter.
Oxygen O  8  8 2,6
Fluorine F  9  9 2,7
Neon Ne 10 10 2,8 Test yourself
Sodium Na 11 11 2,8,1
17 How many electrons may be accommodated in
Magnesium Mg 12 12 2,8,2 each of the first three energy levels?
Aluminium Al 13 13 2,8,3 18 What is the same about the electron structures of:
Silicon Si 14 14 2,8,4 a lithium, sodium and potassium?
Phosphorus P 15 15 2,8,5 b beryllium, magnesium and calcium?
Sulfur S 16 16 2,8,6
Chlorine Cl 17 17 2,8,7
Argon Ar 18 18 2,8,8
Potassium K 19 19 2,8,8,1
Calcium Ca 20 20 2,8,8,2

Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 2 you should be able to: ✔ Calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of an
✔ Describe the differences between elements, element from given data of the relative masses
compounds and mixtures. and abundance of the different isotopes.
✔ Describe the structure of the atom as a central ✔ Interpret and use symbols for given atoms.
nucleus containing neutrons and protons ✔ State the formulae of the elements and
surrounded by electrons in shells. compounds you have dealt with.
✔ State the relative charges and relative masses of a ✔ Define the molecular formula of a compound as the
proton, a neutron and an electron. number and type of different atoms in one molecule.
✔ Define proton number and atomic number as well ✔ Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the
as mass number and nucleon number. relative numbers of atoms present in a model or a
✔ Determine the electronic configuration of elements diagrammatic representation of the compound.
with proton number 1 to 20. ✔ Construct word equations and symbol equations to
✔ State that noble gas electronic configurations have show how reactants form products, including state
a stable outer shell. symbols.
✔ Describe the formation of positive ions, known as ✔ Define redox reactions as involving both oxidation
cations, and negative ions, known as anions. and reduction.
✔ State what isotopes are. ✔ Define oxidation as oxygen gain and reduction as
✔ State that isotopes of the same element have the oxygen loss.
same electronic configuration and so have the ✔ Identify redox reactions as reactions involving gain
same chemical properties. and loss of oxygen.
✔ Define an oxidising agent and a reducing agent.

12
 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions 5 State, at room temperature and pressure (rtp),

which of the substances listed below is/are:
1 a Define the terms: a a solid element
i proton [3] b a liquid element
ii neutron [2] c a gaseous mixture
iii electron.[3] d a solid mixture
b An atom X has a proton number of 19 and e a liquid compound
relative atomic mass of 39. f a solid compound.
i How many electrons, protons and neutrons bromine, carbon dioxide, helium, steel, air,
are there in atom X? [3] oil, marble, copper, water, sand, tin, bronze,
ii How many electrons will there be in the mercury, salt [11]
outer energy level (shell) of atom X?[1] 6 a How many atoms of the different elements are
iii What is the electronic configuration of there in the formulae of these compounds?
atom X?[1] i nitric acid, HNO3[3]
ii methane, CH4[2]
2 a 69
Ga and 71
31 31
Ga are isotopes of gallium. Use iii copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2[3]
this example to explain what you understand iv ethanoic acid, CH3COOH[3]
by the term isotope. [3] v sugar, C12H22O11[3]
69
b A sample of gallium is 60% 31 Ga atoms and vi phenol, C6H5OH[3]
40% 71 Ga atoms. Calculate the relative vii ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4[4]
31
b Balance the following equations:
atomic mass of this sample of gallium. [2] i Zn(s) + O2(g) → ZnO(s) [2]
3 Define the following terms using specific ii Fe(s) + Cl 2(g)→ FeCl 3(s)[3]
examples to help with your explanation: iii Li(s) + O2(g) → Li2O(s)[2]
a element [2] iv H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g)[2]
b metal [3] v Mg(s) + CO2(g) → MgO(s) + C(s) [2]
c non-metal [2]
d compound [2]
e molecule [2]
f mixture. [2]
4 State which of the substances listed below are:
a metallic elements
b non-metallic elements
c compounds
d mixtures.
silicon, sea water, calcium, argon, water,
air, carbon monoxide, iron, sodium chloride,
diamond, brass, copper, dilute sulfuric acid,
sulfur, oil, nitrogen, ammonia [17]

13
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