SAG 2017: Finite Groups
1.2: # 2, 7, 8, 9, 15
1.3: # 1, 6, 13, 20
1.4: # 11
1.5: # 3
3.5: # 1, 11
Austin Alderete
Jun. 2nd, 2017
1.2.2) Use the generators and relations
D2n = hr, s|rn = s2 = 1, rs = sr−1 i
to show that if x is any element of D2n which is not a power of r, then rx = xr−1 .
Proof. Let n ∈ N, n ≥ 3 and let x ∈ D2n . As an element of D2n can be written uniquely in
the form sk ri for k = 0, 1 and 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Suppose that x is not a power of r. Then in
the above k 6= 0 and so
x = sri
which implies
rx = r(sri ) = (rs)ri = (sr−1 )ri = sri−1 = sri r−1 = xr−1 .
1.2.7) Show that ha, b|a2 = b2 = (ab)n = 1i gives a presentation for D2n in terms of the
two generators a = s and b = sr.
1
Proof. Let D = ha, b|a2 = b2 = (ab)n = 1i. Define s = a and r = a−1 b. Then observe that
s2 = a2 = 1 ; rn = (a−1 b)n = (ab)n = 1
as a2 = 1 implies a−1 = a. Finally
rs = a−1 ba = aba = a(b−1 a) = sr−1
as b is its own inverse as well.
Conversely, let us start with the presentation for D2n and then define a, b in terms of s
and r. Then
a2 = s2 = 1 ; b2 = (sr)2 = s(rs)r = s(sr−1 )r = s2 = 1
and also
(ab)n = (ssr)n = rn = 1.
1.2.8) Find the order of the cyclic subgroup of D2n generated by r. We have
hri = {r, r2 , ..., rn = 1} ; |hri| = n.
1.2.9) Let G be the group of rigid motions of a tetrahedron in R3 . Then |G| = 12.
There are exactly four spots a given face of the tetrahedron can be placed and three ways
to position it in each spot. Therefore, there are 12 elements of G.
1.2.15) Find a set of generators and relations for Z/nZ.
Z/nZ = ha|an = 1i.
1.3.1) Let σ be the permutation
1 7→ 3 2 7→ 4 3 7→ 5 4 7→ 2 5 7→ 1
and let τ be the permutation
1 7→ 5 2 7→ 3 3 7→ 2 4 7→ 4 5 7→ 1.
Find the cycle decomposition for:
2
• σ : (135)(24)
• τ : (15)(23)
• σ 2 : (153)
• στ : (2534)
• τ σ : (1243)
• τ 2 σ : (135)(24)
1.3.6) Write out the cycle decomposition of each element of order 4 in S4 .
We note that all elements of S4 have a cycle decomposition corresponding to a partition
of the number four: 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 2 + 1 + 1, 3 + 1, 4, 2 + 2. Of these, only the 4-cycle is of
order 4. The 4-cycles are:
(1234) (1243) (1324) (1342) (1423) (2432).
1.3.13) Show that an element has order 2 in Sn if and only if its cycle decomposition is
a product of transpositions.
Proof. Let n ∈ N and consider Sn . Let σ ∈ Sn be the product of disjoint (commuting)
2-cycles. Then clearly σ 2 = 1.
Conversely, if σ 2 = 1, then σ has a cycle decomposition into disjoint cycles. Moreover,
the order of σ is equal to the least common multiple of its cycle lengths. Thus, σ is formed
by the product of disjoint 2-cycles. As they are disjoint, they commute.
1.3.20) Find a set of generators and relations for S3 .
S3 = ha, b|a2 = b2 = (ab)3 = 1i.
We begin by looking at all 2-cycles, (12), (23), (13) and recalling that they generate the
group. Then observe that (13) = (23)(12). So (12), (23) generate the whole group. All the
remains are the relations, which can then be calculated by force.
3
1.4.11) Let
1 a b
H(F ) = 0 1 c a, b, c ∈ F
0 0 1
be called the Heisenberg group over F . Let
1 a b 1 d e
X= 0 1 c , Y =
0 1 f
0 0 1 0 0 1
be elements of H(F ).
(a) Compute the matrix product XY and deduce that H(F ) is closed under matrix mul-
tiplication. Exhibit explicit matrices which demonstrate that H(F ) is non-abelian.
1 a b 1 d e 1 (a + d) (e + af + b)
XY =
0 1 c 0 1 f = 0
1 (c + f ) .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
As 1 ∈ F , we can always consider
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 2
0 1 0 0 1 1 = 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
and
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 = 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
which shows that H(F ) is never abelian for a field F .
(b) Find an explicit formula for the matrix inverse X −1 . Given the above X, Y we have
1 a b 1 d e 1 (a + d) (e + af + b)
XY =
0 1 c 0 1 f = 0
1 (c + f ) .
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
4
And so if XX −1 = I,
a+d=0 ; e + af + b = 0 ; c + f = 0.
Therefore, d = −a, f = −c and e − ac + b = 0. That is, e = ac − b. So
1 a b 1 (−a) (ac − b)
=⇒ X −1 = 0
X= 0 1 c 1 (−c) .
0 0 1 0 0 1
(c) Prove the associative law for H(F ) and deduce that H(F ) is a group of order |F |3 .
Check that
X(Y Z) = (XY )Z.
(d) Find the order of each element in H(Z/2Z). We have that |H(Z/2Z)| = 8. Therefore
each of its elements must have order in {1, 2, 4, 8}. If H(Z/2Z) has an element of order
8, then said element generates the group and so H(Z/2Z) is a cyclic group. However,
it is known that H(F ) is never abelian and so this cannot happen. It is then a matter
of computing each in term. Note that if an element has order 4, its square has order
2. Alternatively, if we could recognize this group as Q8 or D8 we’d have our answer.
(e) Prove that every nonidentity element of the group H(R) has infinite order.
Proof. Let X ∈ H(R). Then
1 a b
X=
0 1 c
0 0 1
for a, b, c ∈ R. Suppose X 6= I. Then one of a, b, c is non-zero. We will consider each
case separately.
By the multiplication rules, for n ∈ N,
1 na fn (a, b, c)
Xn = 0 1 nc
0 0 1
5
where fn (0, b, 0) = nb. Clearly na = nc = 0 if and only if a = c = 0. But then for fn
to equal zero, b must also be zero, in which case X was the identity matrix to begin
with.
1.5.3) Find a set of generators and relations for Q8 . The presentation I came up with is
Q8 = hi, j|i4 = j 4 = 1, i2 = j 2 , ij = ji−1 = j −1 ii
but there are many. The most common one is probably
Q8 = ha, b, c, d|a2 = 1, b2 = c2 = d2 = bcd = ai.
3.5.1)
3.5.11) Prove that S4 has no subgroup isomorphic to Q8 .
Proof. Suppose that there exists H ≤ S4 isomorphic to Q8 . As Q8 has six elements of order
4, {i, j, k, −i, −j, −k}, H must also have six elements of order 4. In S4 , these are the 4-cycles:
(1234) (1243) (1324) (1342) (1423) (1432).
Thus, these must all be contained in H. Note that in Q8 , each of these elements squared
yields the same element, −1. However, in H,
(1234)(1234) = (13)(34) ; (1243)(1243) = (14)(23)
we find that squaring different elements of order 4 yields different elements of order 2.
Therefore, H ∼
6 = Q8 .
