Nguyễn Trường Duy

INTRODUCTION
 A major advantage of digital over analog systems is the ability to store
easily large quantities of digital information and data for short or long
periods.
 This memory capability is what makes digital systems so versatile and
adaptable to many situations.
 For example, in a digital computer, the internal main memory stores
instructions that tell the computer what to do under all possible
circumstances so that the computer will do its job with a minimum
amount of human intervention.

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INTRODUCTION
 We have already become very familiar with the flip-flop, which is an
electronic memory device.We have also seen how groups of FFs called
registers can be used to store information and how this information can
be transferred to other locations.
 Digital data can also be stored as charges on capacitors, and a very
important type of semiconductor memory uses this principle to obtain
highdensity storage at low power-requirement levels.
 Semiconductor memories are used as the main memory of a computer
where fast operation is important. A computer’s main memory—also
called its working memory—is in constant communication with the
central processing unit (CPU) as a program of instructions is
beingexecuted.

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INTRODUCTION
 Another form of storage in a computer is performed by auxiliary
memory, which is separate from the main working memory.
 Auxiliary memory—also called mass storage—has the capacity to store
massive amounts of data without the need for electrical power.
 Auxiliary memory operates at a much slower speed than main memory,
and it stores programs and data that are not currently being used by the
CPU.

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INTRODUCTION
 A computer system normally uses highspeed main memory and slower
external auxiliary memory.

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BASIC TERMS
 Memory Cell. A device or an electrical circuit used to store a single
bit (0 or 1). Examples of memory cells include a flip-flop, a charged
capacitor, and a single spot on magnetic tape or disk.
 Memory Word. A group of bits (cells) in a memory that represents
instructions or data of some type.
 For example, a register consisting of eight FFs can be considered to be a
memory that is storing an eight-bit word.
 Word sizes in modern computers typically range from 8 to 64 bits,
depending on the size of the computer.

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BASIC TERMS
 Byte. A special term used for a group of eight bits. A byte always
consists of eight bits. Word sizes can be expressed in bytes as well as in
bits.
 For example, a word size of eight bits is also a word size of one byte, a
word size of 16 bits is two bytes.
 Capacity. A way of specifying how many bits can be stored in a
particular memory device or complete memory system.
 To illustrate, suppose that we have a memory that can store 4096 20-bit
words. This represents a total capacity of 81,920 bits.
 We could also express this memory’s capacity as 4096 * 20. When
expressed this way, the first number (4096) is the number of words, and
the second number (20) is the number of bits per word (word size). 7
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BASIC TERMS
 The number of words in a memory is often a multiple of 1024. It is
common to use the designation “1K” to represent 1024 = 210 when
referring to memory capacity.
 Thus, a memory that has a storage capacity of 4K * 20 is actually a 4096 *
20 memory.
 “1M” to represent 220 = 1,048,576
 Thus, a memory that has a capacity of 2M * 8 is actually one with a
capacity of 2,097,152 * 8
 The designation “giga” refers to 230 = 1,073,741,824.

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EXAMPLE
 A certain semiconductor memory chip is specified as 2K * 8. How many
words can be stored on this chip? What is the word size? How many total
bits can this chip store?
 Solution
2K = 2 * 1024 = 2048 words
 Each word is eight bits (one byte). The total number of bits is therefore
2048 * 8 = 16,384 bits

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EXAMPLE
 Which memory stores the most bits: a 5M * 8 memory or a memory that
stores 1M words at a word size of 16 bits?
 Solution
5M * 8 = 5 * 1,048,576 * 8 = 41,943,040 bits
1M * 16 = 1,048,576 * 16 = 16,777,216 bits
 The 5M * 8 memory stores more bits.

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BASIC TERMS
 Address. A number that identifies the location of a
word in memory. Each word stored in a memory
device or system has a unique address.
 Addresses always exist in a digital system as a
binary number, although octal, hexadecimal, and
decimal numbers are often used to represent the
address for convenience.
 Figure illustrates a small memory consisting of eight
words. Each of these eight words has a specific
address represented as a three-bit number ranging
from 000 to 111.
 Whenever we refer to a specific word location in
memory, we use its address code to identify it.

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BASIC TERMS
 Read Operation. The operation whereby the binary word stored in a
specific memory location (address) is sensed and then transferred to
another device.
 Write Operation. The operation whereby a new word is placed into a
particular memory location. It is also referred to as a store operation.
Whenever a new word is written into a memory location, it replaces the
word that was previously stored there.
 Access Time. A measure of a memory device’s operating speed. It is
the amount of time required to perform a read operation.

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BASIC TERMS
 Volatile Memory. Any type of memory that requires the application of
electrical power in order to store information. If the electrical power is
removed, all information stored in the memory will be lost.
 Many semiconductor memories are volatile, while all magnetic
memories are nonvolatile, which means that they can store information
without electrical power.
 Random-Access Memory (RAM). Memory in which the actual
physical location of a memory word has no effect on how long it takes to
read from or write into that location.
 In other words, the access time is the same for any address in memory.
Most semiconductor memories are RAMs.

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BASIC TERMS
 Sequential-Access Memory (SAM). A type of memory in which the
access time is not constant but varies depending on the address
location.
 Read/Write Memory (RWM). Any memory that can be read from or
written into with equal ease (dễ dàng).
 Read-Only Memory (ROM). A broad class of semiconductor
memories designed for applications where the ratio of read operations
to write operations is very high.
 Static Memory Devices. Semiconductor memory devices in which the
stored data will remain permanently stored as long as power is applied,
without the need for periodically rewriting the data into memory.

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BASIC TERMS
 Dynamic Memory Devices. Semiconductor memory devices in which
the stored data will not remain permanently stored, even with power
applied, unless the data are periodically rewritten into memory. The
latter operation is called a refresh operation.
 Main Memory. Also referred to as the computer’s working memory. It
stores instructions and data the CPU is currently working on. It is the
highest-speed memory in the computer and is always a semiconductor
memory.
 Auxiliary Memory. Also referred to as mass storage because it stores
massive amounts of information external to the main memory. It is slower
in speed than main memory and is always nonvolatile. Magnetic disks
and CDs are common auxiliary memory devices.
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GENERAL MEMORY OPERATION
 Although each type of memory is different in its internal operation, certain
basic operating principles are the same for all memory systems.
 Every memory system requires several different types of input and output
lines to perform the following functions:
 1. Select the address in memory that is being accessed for a read or write
operation.
 2. Select either a read or a write operation to be performed.
 3. Supply the input data to be stored in memory during a write operation.
 4. Hold the output data coming from memory during a read operation.
 5. Enable (or disable) the memory so that it will (or will not) respond to the
address inputs and read/write command.
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GENERAL MEMORY OPERATION
 Diagram of a memory and virtual arrangement of 32 * 4 memory cells
into 32 four-bit words.

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GENERAL MEMORY OPERATION
 Simplified illustration of the read and write operations on the 32 * 4 memory:

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GENERAL MEMORY OPERATION
EXAMPLE
 A certain memory has a capacity of 4K * 8.
(a) How many data input and data output lines does it have?
(b) How many address lines does it have?
(c) What is its capacity in bytes?
 Solution
(a) Eight of each because the word size is eight.
(b) The memory stores 4K = 4 * 1024 = 4096 words. Thus, there are 4096 memory
addresses. Because 4096 = 212, it requires a 12-bit address code to specify one of 4096
addresses.
(c) A byte is eight bits. This memory has a capacity of 4096 bytes.

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CPU–MEMORY CONNECTIONS
 Three groups of lines (buses) connect the main memory ICs to the CPU

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CPU–MEMORY CONNECTIONS
 Write Operation
1. The CPU supplies the binary address of the memory location where the
data are to be stored. It places this address on the address bus lines.
2. The CPU places the data to be stored on the data bus lines.
3. The CPU activates the appropriate control signal lines for the memory
write operation.
4. The memory ICs decode the binary address to determine which
location is being selected for the store operation.
5. The data on the data bus are transferred to the selected memory
location.
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CPU–MEMORY CONNECTIONS
 Read Operation
1. The CPU supplies the binary address of the memory location from
which data are to be retrieved. It places this address on the address bus
lines.
2. The CPU activates the appropriate control signal lines for the memory
read operation.
3. The memory ICs decode the binary address to determine which
location is being selected for the read operation.
4. The memory ICs place data from the selected memory location onto
the data bus, from which they are transferred to the CPU.

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CPU–MEMORY CONNECTIONS
 Address Bus. This unidirectional bus carries the binary address outputs
from the CPU to the memory ICs to select one memory location.
 Data Bus. This bidirectional bus carries data between the CPU and the
memory ICs.
 Control Bus. This bus carries control signals (such as the signal) from
the CPU to the memory ICs.

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READ-ONLY MEMORIES
 The read-only memory is a type of semiconductor memory designed to
hold data that either are permanent or will not change frequently.
 During normal operation, no new data can be written into a ROM, but
data can be read from ROM.
 For some ROMs, the data that are stored must be built-in during the
manufacturing process; for other ROMs, the data can be entered
electrically. The process of entering data is called programming or
burning-in the ROM.
 ROMs are used to store data and information that are not to change
during the normal operation of a system.
 ROMs are nonvolatile, these programs are not lost when electrical power
is turned off.
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READ-ONLY MEMORIES
 ROM Block Diagram

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READ-ONLY MEMORIES

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ROM
 ROM ARCHITECTURE

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TYPES OF ROMS
 Mask-Programmed
ROM

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TYPES OF ROMS
 Programmable ROMs (PROMs)

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TYPES OF ROMS
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)

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TYPES OF ROMS
 Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)

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SEMICONDUCTOR RAM
 Recall that the term RAM stands for random-access memory, meaning
that any memory address location is as easily accessible as any other.
 RAM is used in computers for the temporary storage of programs and
data. The contents of many RAM address locations will be read from and
written to as the computer executes a program. This requires fast read
and write cycle times for the RAM so as not to slow down the computer
operation.
 A major disadvantage of RAM is that it is volatile and will lose all stored
information if power is interrupted or turned off.

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RAM ARCHITECTURE

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EXAMPLE
 The 2147H is an NMOS RAM that is
organized as a 4K x 1 with separate
data input and output and a single
active-LOW chip select input.
 Draw the logic symbol for this chip,
showing all pin functions.

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EXAMPLE
 The MCM6206C is a CMOS RAM
with 32K x 8 capacity, common I/O
pins, an active-LOW chip enable,
and an active-LOW output enable.
 Draw the logic symbol.

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STATIC RAM (SRAM)
 Static-RAM memory cells are essentially flip-flops that will stay in a given state (store
a bit) indefinitely, provided that power to the circuit is not interrupted.
 In next Section, we will describe dynamic RAM, which stores data as charges on
capacitors. With dynamic RAMs, the stored data will gradually disappear because of
capacitor discharge, so it is necessary to refresh the data periodically (i.e., recharge
the capacitors).
 Symbol and mode table for the CMOS MCM6264C.

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DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
 Dynamic RAMs are fabricated using MOS technology and are noted for
their high capacity, low power requirement, and moderate operating
speed.
 As we stated earlier, unlike static RAMs, which store information in FFs,
dynamic RAMs store 1s and 0s as charges on a small MOS capacitor
(typically a few picofarads).
 Because of the tendency for these charges to leak off after a period of
time, dynamic RAMs require periodic recharging of the memory cells;
this is called refreshing the dynamic RAM.
 In modern DRAM chips, each memory cell must be refreshed typically
every 2, 4, or 8 ms, or its data will be lost.

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DYNAMIC RAM STRUCTURE AND OPERATION

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EXPANDING WORD SIZE AND CAPACITY
 Expanding Word Size

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EXPANDING WORD SIZE AND CAPACITY
 Expanding Capacity

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EXAMPLE
 We want to combine several 2K x 8 PROMs to produce a total capacity of
8K x 8. How many PROM chips are needed? How many address bus lines
are required?
 Solution
 Four PROM chips are required, with each one storing 2K of the 8K words.
Because 8K = 8 * 1024 = 8192 = 213, thirteen address lines are needed.

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EXAMPLE
 Memory map

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EXAMPLE
 Four 2K * 8 PROMs arranged to form a total capacity of 8K * 8.

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BÀI TẬP
Cho bộ nhớ 8K x 8
1. Tìm số lượng đường địa chỉ, dữ liệu.
2. Xác định địa chỉ cuối cùng của bộ nhớ.
3. Nếu cho A12 A11 = 01, xác định vùng địa chỉ truy xuất và tính dung lượng của vùng.
4. Cho 1 chương trình dung lượng 128 byte ghi vào địa chỉ bắt đầu 0100H, xác định địa chỉ cuối
của chương trình.
5. Cho 1 chương trình có dung lượng 32 byte ghi vào địa chỉ 0000H, hãy vẽ mạch truy xuất nội
dung chương trình.
6. Cho 2 chương trình có dung lượng 32 byte ghi vào địa chỉ 0000H và 0200H, hãy vẽ mạch truy
xuất 2 chương trình này theo 2 cách: chuyển chương trình bằng tay và tự động truy xuất từng
chương trình.
7. Nếu ngõ ra của bộ nhớ kết nối 8 led đơn. Hãy viết dữ liệu nạp cho bộ nhớ sao cho khi truy
xuất chương trình thì 8 led sẽ sáng dần và tắt dần.
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