NUTSHELL SERIES BOOK 2 BY CAPT. H. SUBRAMANIAM weet FRMLS, HRIN, FI FHM, Mi Th MUMS Prineipat LBS. College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Kesearch MARINE METEOROLOGY VIJAYA PUBLICATIONS 2 CHAITRA, 550 ELEVENTH ROAD. { ‘CHEMBUR, MUMBAI 400 071Clouds Classification of clouds; description and abbreviations of the ten basic lypes of ‘clouds, formation of clouds - turbulence, corographiclifing, convection currents and frontal iting Pressure gradient, wind and waves Isobars. pressure gradient. Coviols (geostrophic) force: prediction of wind ‘direction, prediction of wind speed, {geostrophic wind scale: sea, swell ust, squall, veering, backing, Buys Ballo's law, Beaufort wind scale and Beaufort weather rotation; descriptive terms to use to ‘describe sea and swell True and apparent wind ‘Meaning, difference, relationship, methods ‘of estimating direction and force of wind at s€8; problems involving true and apparent wind The seven basic isobaric patterns, Straight isobars; cyclone oF low. secondary low; anteyclone or high, co ridge or wedge; rough - non-frontal nd frontal. General pressure and wind distribution ‘The ideal condition; the actual season- wise situation. Prevailing winds Periodic and local winds: Land and sea breezes; the Monsoons of the Indian Ocean; Katabatic and Anabatic winds, 33 43 76 2 3 4 15 ‘Tropical revolving storms 89 Definition; danger to shipping, local names ‘and seasons, orign, movement and lifespan, structure; definitons: associated ‘weather storm surge: warning signs of an ‘approaching TRS: action to take when the presence of a TRS 1s confirmed: ideal Conaivons for the formation of a TRS. Weather reporting system 108 General idea, the voluntary observing fleet, synoptic hours, meteorological log books: classification of ships - selected ships, supplementary ships, auxiliary ships; equipment ang publications ‘supplied by the India Meteorological Department; Meteorological services & warnings as per SOLAS 74: obligation to report dangers. examples of safety ‘messages, weather bulletins, weather forecast areas around inci. Weather Codes 122 “The various types of weather reports ~ Ship reports: Land station reports: the SYNOP Code, the MAFOR Code; the IAC (Fleet; important points when coding a ships weather report; examples in coding ‘and decoding weather messages. Pressure measuring instruments. 133 ‘The principle, construction, corrections, ‘errors, maintenance and precautions when using the mercury barometer, the aneroid barometer, the precision aneroid barometer and the open scale barograph.16 1” 18, 19 20. a 22, Other meteorological instruments ‘The principle, construction, corrections, letors, maintenance and precautions when using the thermometer, the wet and dry ‘bulb hygrometer, the Stevenson screen, the whiring psychrometer Visual storm signals. General idea, descnption and pictorial ‘representation of vanous signals used in Indian ports. ‘Sea-surface currents in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal General idea of the three distinct phases ‘during the north-east monsoon, during the late north-east monsoon and during the south-west monsoon, Cyclostrophic force General idea; why winds in @ TRS move spirally inwards: why there is no wind at the eye of a TRS; why maximum wind speed occurs in the eye-wall: how Buy's Ballots law was derived. ‘Comparison between a tropical revolving storm and a temperate latitude depression, ‘Stability of air Absolute stably, absolute instability, ‘conditional stably; neutral equilbrum of Ice at sea General idea; sea.ico, ice-bergs - glacier origin and ice-shetf origin; their ‘description, diferences, movement 187 168 1 176 178 181 184 23 24, 25 26. ‘dimunition and visibility: probable indications of the proximity of an ioeberg, Classification of icabergs by the International Ice Patrol ice terms in ‘commen use: approximate ice-lmits, ‘The International Ice Patrol IMO reference, necessity, RMS Titanic ‘objective; area of coverage: contributors; ‘annual budget; headquarters: Ice Recon- hnaissance Unit, period of ice patrol. ai- ‘raft reconnaissance: source of ioe information, data processing; predictions; ‘roof of success: diminution of icebergs. tracking icebergs: other ice patrols, ‘Air-masses and fronts Definition of an sir-mass; factors affecting its properties, classification of ay-masses, dofiniton of a front, how a fronts detected by a meteorologist. warm and cold fronts Frontal depressions. Detailed description ofthe formation of a frontal depression, weather sequence on the passage ofa frontal depression ie. warm front warm sector and cold front, ‘occlusions, warm and cold occlusions. ‘Ocean currents ‘Causes of ocean currents — deft Lpweling, gradient; warm and cold ‘currents, examples of each type, general Circulation charts of each ocean, general ‘circulation in the Mediterranean Sea: effects of oceans currents an climate 194 202 ar2 28 29 30. 3t ‘Thunderstorms General description: favourable conditions for formation: ightring. use of lightning ‘conductors: thunder. associated weather Nor'westers, Elephantas More local winds Tornado and waterspout; Bora, Gregale; Harmattan; Levanter: Mistral: Pampero Roaring forties: Scirocco: Shamal Southerly Buster, Sumatra Optical phenoma Corona: halo; rainbow: St. Elmo's tre mirage — infetioe and superior mirage ‘The facsimile recorder General description: advantages, ference between analysis and prognosis: types of charts available, facsimile coverage Routeing of ships IMO reference, defintion: advantages ‘influencing factors - distance, ocean Currents, wind and waves, \c2 109, very low temperatures, Climatological rousing and weather routing: now weather routeing became possible; areas where \weather routeing is not yet possible; ship's performance curves; weather routeing by shipmaster, sample calculation, shore- based routeing, limitations of weather routeing, advisabilly of weather routeing Masters choice to deviate, choice of weather routeing from ship or shore 228 233, 237 242 267 [n= THe ATMOSPHERE] CHAPTER 1 THE ATMOSPHERE General description The air around the earth is called the atmosphere ‘and extends to over 200 km” above the surface of the ‘earth Diferent layers of the atmosphere are called by diferent names. In ascending order, they are the lroposphere. stratosphere, mesosphere and. the ionosphere. The troposphere affects the weather while the jonosphere” affects navigation and ‘communications when using electro-magnetic waves. —— Over 200 km above $.L w IONOSPHERE BS bout g0km above SL & mesosPHERE 3 ————_ proursoim anove Si. 2 sTRATOSPHERE ——snoromuse—— 8 to 46 km above SL TROPOSPHERE — EARTHS SURFACE ‘The troposphere Nearly all of the weather changes occur, and nearly all the water vapour of the atmosphere is Contained, in the troposphere, which extends to a “in ths Book. af distances are expreseed in nautical miles and eights n lomettes. 7 Me 1882 km 81 hm= 0M11 THE ATMOSPHERS| height of about & km above the poles and about 15 kim above the equator In. the troposphere, atmospheric temperawwre normally falls steadily as height increases. In tne Stratosphere, the air temperature remains farly steady around minus 56 5°C (216.5°K), ‘Separation zones "The zone of separation between the troposphere ‘and the stratosphere is called the tropopause. This ‘= (of interest to mariners as itis the upper limt of ihe troposphere, within which weather changes occur The separation zone between the stratosphere ‘and the mesosphere is called the stratopause and that between the mesosphere and the ionosphere, the mesopause. However, these are of no direct interest to mariners Composition ‘The atmosphere consists mainly of ‘Nitrogen (about 78%) and Oxygen (about 21%). Water vapour ‘and rare gases including CO2 occupy about 1% ‘Temperature of the atmosphere SL Units of air temperature are degrees Celsius ‘and degrees Kelvin, Freezing temperature of water = °C oF 273°K. Boling temperature of water = 100°C or s73°K Variation of temperature with height Inthe troposphere, the temperature of air normally falls steadiy as height increases. Sometimes, local influences cause the temperature of air to 11~ THe ATMOSPHERE] (2) Increase with height instead of falling. This is called a temperature inversion OR (b) Remain constant with height, The air is then said tobe an isothermal layer However. both above conditions, (a) & (b), are temporary and wil return to normal subsequently, Adiabatic lapse rate ‘Adiabatic change of temperature of a parcel of air is the change in its temperature due to increase or decrease of its volume, without any exchange of heat from the surroundings. Ifthe volume was increased, the temperature of the parcel would decrease and vice-versa. This is due to a law in physics. @ parcel Of air is made to rise, its volume would increase in ‘accordance with the rarer air at that height. This ‘expansion causes the parcel of arto cool, though no. exchange of heat has taken place’ with the ‘surrounding air This cooling is hence adiabatic, Wot and dry air ‘Any parcel or sample of air that is fully saturated is called wet air or saturated ar ‘Any sample of air that is not fully saturated is called ory air DALR Ithas been observed thet the temperature of a dry parcel of air, which is made to rise, falls at a steady Fate of 10°C for every km of ascent ie., the adiabatic lapse rate of a dry parcel of air, or Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is 10°C per km11 = THE ATMOSPHERE] SALR The temperature of @ saturated parcel of air, which is made to rise, falls at a rate of approximately 5°C per km of ascent ie.. the adiabatic lapse rate of a Saturated parce! of ar, or Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR), is about 5 per km. SALR is less than DALR because, 95 the saturated air is cooled, its capacity to hold water vapour decreases and the excess moisture ‘condenses into water droplets. This condensation releases latent heal that warms up the parcel of a ‘The temperature of the rising parcel of saturated air, theretore, falls only by about 5°C per km instead of 10°C. SALR is sightly variable — less at the equator ‘and more atthe poles. When we require an average value of the ‘adiabatic lapse rate of any parce! of rising air, and we do not Know its exact moisture content, an average value of 65°C per km height would give a reasonably approximate resuit Diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature thas been observed that atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at about 1400 hours local time and reaches its minimum at about haithour after sunrise. Since this happens once per day this is called diumal variation of atmospheric temperature, Diurnal range of atmospheric temperature The difference between the maximum and minimum values in @ day is called the diurnal range of atmospheric temperature for that day. [1 THe ATMOSPHERE) Diurnal range of air temperature over land is large (as much as 20°C) whereas over sea, itis very small {less than 1"6), for the folowing reasons: Over tand Over sea 1 Land. being @ solid, Sea, being a liquid, has a hhas a low value of higher value of speci specific heat and so heat and so heats up or hheats up or cools very cools slowly. uichly 2 Heat received from Heat received trom the the sun is retained by sun is distnbuted over a the top layer of land large mass of water by (only "a Tew centi- convection currents, ‘metres deep) as land is @ poor conductor of heat 3. Negligible evaporation Evaporation of water ‘during day causes adiabatic cooling which balances some. of the hheat received trom the ‘The temperature of the land surface, therefore, varies greatly between day and night. Consequently the air in contact with it has a large diumal range Since the temperature of the sea surface does ot vary much between day and night, the air in contact with it has a practically negigible diurnal range.[1— THe ATMOSPHERE] However, one interesting point to note is that whereas the minimum ground temperature may be Only a couple of degrees below the air temperature, the maximum ground temperature may be as high as 40 dagrees higher than the air temperature ‘Atmospheric pressure ‘Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted. per unit ‘area, by ar. Itis thus the weight of the column of air ‘above a unit area, 'S.LUnits of atmospheric pressure: hectopascals or mihbars ‘ nectopascal = ‘milibar 1 bar =750,1 mm of mercury (02 kg per em? or 10.2 t perm: ‘The average atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface is about 1013 mb. Lapse rate of atmospheric pressure "Amospheric pressure always decreases as height increases. The graph of the lapse rate of atmospheric pressure against height above sea level is @ cue ‘The average lapse rate is about 115 mb per km height in the lower levels of the atmosphere (upto 5 km height), Ai higher levels, the lapse rate is higher ‘Semi-diural variation of atmospheric pressure ‘Owing to many causes, which are not fully understood by man, atmospheric pressure changes withthe time of the day. It has been observed that tis. ‘maximum at about 10 & 22 hours and minimum at ‘about 04 & 16 hours Local Mean Time. Since this happens twice a day, itis called semi-diumal variation, of simospheric pressure, [1 THe ATMOSPHERE] Semi-diurnal range of atmospheric pressure The diference between the maximum and num values is called the semi-diurnal range of spheric pressure. The average semi-diurnal range 's more in the topics than in middle latitudes, In vopseal regions it is about 3 mb (.e., upto +1.5 m> from normal) and in UK (Ist 51°N) it i about 0.8 m> (ve. upto = 0.4 mb from normal). In high latitudes, iis negligible and frequently masked by fronts and frontal apressions Sarometric tendency arometric tendency is the itference between the ‘tmosgheric pressure at the time of cbservation anc ine atmospheric pressure three hours earlier i is expressed in milibars and up 10 one decmal of 2 rmilisar Barometric tendency gives tne forecaster @ good dea ofthe rate of change of pressure, which is useful for predicting the movement of pressure systems (also called isobaric patterns) it is for easy Comparison by the forecaster that barogrephs and arometer readings should be in accordance with 200m | tong * The state number is not generally used in badge logbooks oF weather logbooks on Indian ships. 000:CHAPTER 8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND. The direction and force of wind experienced on a ‘moving ship is the apparent wind, Ths isthe resuitant of true wind and ship's reversed movement (correct speed but opposite course). This is ilustrated in the following simple examples Imagine a vessel steaming 00° (7) at 20 knots. If there was no true wind at all (calm), the observer 1 the vessel would feel the apparent wind coming from North at 20 knots. Actualy, the air is stil but the ship's movement causes this apparent wind to be experienced 2. the true wind was coming from North at 10 knots, the apparent wind, to an observer on the ‘vessel, would be from North at 30 knots 3. the true wind was coming from South at 12 knots, the apparent wind, to an observer on the vessel, would be from North at 8 knots. 4. Ifthe tue wind was coming from South at 20 knots, the apparent wind, to an observer on the: vessel, would be nil (calm) 5. If the true wind was coming from South at 24 knots, the apparent wind, 10 an observer on the vessel, would be from South at 4 knots, In the foregoing examples, results were easily cobiained directly. In other cases, a simple triangle of TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} [8~ TRUE AND APPARENT Wino} loices would have to be drawn to obtain the results Tvs method is illustrated later, in this chapter. For making log entries and weather reports, i is true wind that is required, not apparent wind Methods of estimating true wind at sea Out in open sea, the direction and force of true wind can be judged easily. The direction of true wind ‘would be at right angles to the line of waves. This is, however, dificult to Judge if both sea and swell are thom different directions. The force of true wind is judged by the appearance of the sea and comparison with a ‘State of sea card’ or a meteorological book thal gives photographs of the sea surface for various values of wind force The force is expressed in hhumbers of the Beaufort wind scale, described in the previous chapter. Tn restricted waters (harbours, estuaries etc.) the wind force estimated by the appearance of the sea ‘would be less than the true wind force because the ‘wind has restricted fetch (does not have an open and Hiee stretch to influence the sea surface as much as in the open sea) ‘Another important thing to bear in mind, when vostimating wind force, is the time lag between the increase of wind force and the corresponding increase of sea disturbance PROBLEMS ON TRUE & APPARENT WIND The solution of problems on true and apparent wind involves the application ofthe triangle of forces However, it is simplified by using the thumb rules ‘ven below: sr[8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} [8~ TRUE AND APPARENT Wino} Consider a triangle OAT where, [ATi the course and speed ofthe vesset OTs the direction and speed of true wind (OAs the direction & speed of apparent wind Knowing any two of the above, the third can be found by simple construction, somewhat similar to radar ploting, as illustrated in the folowing examples. Important note: Wind is named by the direction from which it comes. Worked example Course 045° speed 15 knots. Apparent wind 100° at 20 knots, Find the direction and speed of true wind. Draw a line representing North-South and take any point A on it ALA, draw an angle equal to the course (045° in this case) and cut off AT equal to ship's speed (15. knots in this case), using any Convenient scale, AT now represents the course and speed of the vessel ‘AL A, draw an angle equal to the apparent wind (100° in this case) and cut off AO equal to the ‘apparent wind speed (20 knots in this case), using the same scale, OA now represents the apparent wind Worked example 2: “Join OT and this represents the true wind, Using Course 200° speed 14 knots. True wind 200° al 18 the same Scale as before, convert distance OT into nots. Find the direction and speed of apparent wind, free To cblan the detion of tue wind. tow NothSouh ine tough T and ead of the angle Hear annals eee eae xe between it and OT i Taken) caingeny sawenen scale, “The tue wind int cabe is 147 17 kts. i T-craw a NorSoutnne and inser the we wo OT 00" a 8 knot) using th same sal Son OA wfich now rpressti he apperet wie Using samo scala conven slance OA ito Kao Draw a North-South line and take any point A on Note: North-South lines are to be drawn through A and T, never through ©. se °(8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} (8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} “The angle that OA makes with the North-South line at Draw AT = Course & speed = 160" at 10 knots. At Ais the direction ofthe apparent wind, |. draw a North-South line and insert direction of true ‘Roparent ind mths case ie 258 9" at 20.8 knots ‘wind, 270°, Centre A, radius = apparent wind speed of 17 knots, cutoff the arc AO. OA now represents the apparent wind and OT, the true wind, Distance OT converted ito knots is the speed of true wind 110g entry for wind in this case: West, Force 5. Worked example 3 Worked example 3: ‘Course 160" speed 10 knots. Direction of wind (obtained by observing line of waves) was 270° Wind ‘The angle that OA makes with the North-South speed by shipboard anemometer was 17 knots. What Ine at A is the direction of apparent wind but this is rection and force of wind is to be entered into the hot asked in this case, eae NOTE: To convert knots into Beaufort numbers and Note: (1) A shipboard anemometer measures speed vice versa, use the Beaufort wind seale given in the (of apparent wind. ‘hyp’s logbook or any meteorological publication. In (2) The direction of wind obtained by observing the examination hall use the “Ship's Code and the line of waves is the direction of true decode book’ supplied there, The Beaufort wind scale wind: 1s also givan in the previous chapter of this book. ot[f= TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} Worked example 4: ‘Course 320° speed 12 knots out in open sea Wind foree 4 (16 knots), estimated by appearance of the sea surface, Smoke from the funnel was observed to be blowing to 020". What entry is to be made in the "weather report regarding wind direction and speed? NOTE (1) Wind speediforce obtained by appearance ‘of the Sea is true wind speeditorce. (2) ff smoke from the funnel is blowing to 030°, ‘apparent wind is coming from 210° Worked example 4 [8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} Draw AT = course and speed (320° at 12 knots) ALA draw @ North-South line and then an angle of 10° to, {0 represent the direction of the apparent wind With centre T, radius equal to the true wind ‘p22 of 16 knots, cut off arc TO. OT now represents the tue wind and OA, the apparent wind ‘At-T, draw a North-South line and the angle Lotween itand OT is the direction of true wind ‘The angle between OA and the North-South line at 1.18 the direction of the apparent wind but this is not kod in this ease, [Frity in the weather log for wind is 165° at 16 knots Examples for exercise (On a vassal steaming 346° at 15 knots, the ‘apparent wind was observed to be NW at 22 knots. Find the direction and speed of the true wind (Answer 275° at 12 knots) 2. From a vessel on a course of 243° at 12 knots, the apparent wind was observed to be 120° at 15 knols, Find the direction and speed of the true wind (Answer 095° at 23 8 knots) 3. On the monkey island of a ship doing 117° at 16 knots, an’ anemometer and wind vane showed 18 knols and 036°. Find the direction land speed of wind required to be mentioned in the weather report. (Answer 344.5° - 20 knots), 4A vessel is steaming 267 at 14 knots through fa true wind blowing from SE at 11 knots. Find the direction and speed of the apparent wind experienced, (Answer 216" at 10.5 knots).[8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} A vessel s proceeding on a course of 053° at a speed of 18 knols. If the wind direction by observation ofthe line of waves was 175° and wind speed estimated by the appearance of the sea was 30 knots, state what would be the ‘apparent wind direction & speed. (Answer 138 5° at 28.6 knots) (On a course of North at 11 knots, find the apparent wind direction and speed if a tue Easterly wind of 14 knots was blowing (Answer 052" at 17.8 knots). Course 308° speed 14.6 knots. Direction of wind by observing line of waves - NE. Speed (of wind by shipborne anemometer - 18 knots. ‘State what direction and speed of wind is to be tentered inthe logbook. State also, the direction towards which the funnel smoke will blow, (Answer NNE - 7.5 knots, force 3. Funnel ‘smoke will Biow towards 151 5°). On a course of 154° at 13 knots, an ‘anemometer on the bridge showed a wind speed of 32 knots. The direction of true wind was observed to be WSW. What entry is to be made in the weather report with respect to wind direction and speed? If an observer on the vessel threw up a piece of paper, in which direction would it fy off? (True wind = WSW @ 286 knots. Weather logbook entry: dd = 25, f = 30 Piece of paper will biow towards 043 5°). [8 TRUE AND APPARENT WIND} 9 Out in open sea, a vessel estimated the wind to be the upper limit of force 7 (83 knots), by the appearance of the sea surface, Her course ‘was 076" and speed, 17 knots. The funnel ‘smoke was blowing towards 352°. State what tent is to be made in the logbook regarding wind (Answer 208 force 7 [33 knots). 10.A vessel steaming due East at 19 knots in ‘open sea, observes the sea surface and festimatas the wind force to be the lower limit of force 6 (22 knots). A handkerchief held up was observed to blow towards South. State what eniry is to be made in the weather report regarding wind direction and speed (Answer 300° at 22 knots) 200:[9 SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS) [9 SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS} CHAPTER 9 2. Cyclone or tow Gjelone or low i. an area of low pressure rounded by areas of figh pressure. The isobars THE SEVEN BASIC tmuraceewse nine nomen herisphere and ‘lackwise in the soutnom hemisphere. The pressure {nadent ts usually high, resulting In strong winds, ISOBARIC PATTERNS tis an area of Sonvergence of er On reaching the tine the ar moves up a8 a strong upward curent ‘sung in cumulus or cumulonimbus Clouds of vary 4. Straight isobars. gh vertical extent and heavy precipitation. Over the ‘Straight Isobars are said to exist when the isobers tuctual cent of the low, @ thin downward stream of air run straight and nearly parallel for a few hundred ‘onsts, where a patch of blue sky may be seen miles. The pressure gradient is usually low, resulting in low wind speeds, Wind direction and force remain ‘constant so long as the isobars remain unchanged. ‘The weather associated with straight isobars cannot bbe defined as it depends on the properties of the air ‘mass in which these isobars exist NORTHERN HEMISPHERE 06 eo[9~ SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS] Sourteny misma A cycionic pattern of isobars is called a low or epression if the wind speed is 33 knots oF less, a eyclonic storm if the wind speed is from 34 to 47 ko!s and a severe cyclonic storm if the wind speed is 48 knots or over. For further details, see Chapter titled "Tropical Revolving Storms! [9 SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS] As mentioned above, a low is a sign of bad weather - strong winds, clouds, precipitation, etc 3. Secondary cyclone or secondary low Sometimes. a low is closely followed by another, within its pattern of isobars (see accompanying ‘iqure). The fest one is called the primary and the ‘second one, the secondary, The latter is so named ‘only because it formed later but it possesses all the ‘qualities of the primary and may either fil up and ‘disappear or it may intensify and swallow up the pamary, 4. Anticyclone or high Anticyclone or high is an area of high pressure uurtounded by areas of low pressure. The isobars orm closed shapes. The winds blow spirally utwards, clockwise in the northem hemisphere and vnticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. The essure gradient is usually low resulting in low wind ypeeds. An anticycione is an area of divergence of air 1 sea level, This outflow of air is balanced by 2 owrward current of air at the centre, This escending column of air warms up adiabatically and ‘vecomes relatively dier and drier as it descends (see under the heading of ‘Relative humidity’ in chapter 3) Iver is a total absence of any cloud or precipitation ‘vor the antieycione. An antcycione is, therefore, a ‘gn of good weather - light winds, no clouds (blue ky}, No precipitation, good visibly, tc. However, as the subsiding dry sir reaches sea level and blows ‘prally outwards, quick evaporation takes place and, \Tihe temperature of the sea surface is quite low, mist[9 SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS) for fog may form on the outer fringes of the fantieyeione. Even in such cases, visibility at the centre will be good, ee Warm and cold anticyclone: If the descending air originally came from a very cold source, it would 'be colder than the surrounding air, level for level, and. ‘algo at sea level - itis then called & cold anticyclone, 70 [9 SEVEN ISOBARIC PATTERNS) (One example of @ cold anticycione is the high over ‘siberia during northern winter (see map in chapter llled "General pressure and wind distribution’) If the descending air orginally came from @ warm source, it would be warmer than the surounding air, ‘oval fo level, and also at sea evel itis then called & ‘warm anticyclone, Exampies of warm anticyciones wwe the permanent highs of 30°N and 30°S at the Ccontres of large oceans (see map in chapter tiled ‘General pressure and wind distribution’. 5. Col Col is an area between two highs and two lows ‘stuated alternately (see accompanying figure). Light vanable winds afe experienced but not for long, ‘Sudden change of weather is likely. Relative humidity “fay high and lightning may be seen. A Col may be stuated between a primary low and secondary low as -hawn in the figure under ‘Secondary Low oF it may tvs situated at the boundary between two different air masses. In the latter case, the change of weather, ‘pecially temperature, will be even more drastic. No ‘isfnte pattern of weather is associated with a Col 110g may be experienced in autumn. In summer over ling, thunderstorms are frequently experienced. 6. Ridge or wedge ‘A ridge or wedge is an area of high pressure rutting into areas of low pressure. The isobars are waved, with the high pressure inside, and. are enerally far apart. They donot necessarily form ‘closed shapes. A ridge may form by itself or it may be tie outer fringes of an antcyctone far away, n