Operational Amplifiers
or Op Amps for short
Op Amps Applications
• Audio amplifiers
– Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones,
computers, mpg players, boom boxes, etc.
• Instrumentation amplifiers
– Biomedical systems including heart monitors and
oxygen sensors.
• Power amplifiers
• Analog computers
– Combination of integrators, differentiators, summing
amplifiers, and multipliers
Introduction
• Operational Amplifiers are represented both
schematically and realistically below:
– Active component!
Symbols for Ideal and Real Op Amps
OpAmp uA741
LM111 LM324
Terminals on an Op Amp
Positive power supply
(Positive rail)
Non-inverting
Input terminal
Output terminal
Inverting input
terminal
Negative power supply
(Negative rail)
Op Amp Equivalent Circuit
vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage gain
v2
v1
Voltage controlled
voltage source
Amplifiers
Single-ended Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
– Amplifies difference
between inputs
Operational Amplifier
• Output gain high
– A ~= 106
• Tiny difference in the input
voltages result in a very
large output voltage
– Output limited by supply
voltages
• Comparator
– If V+>V-, Vout = HVS
– If V+<V-, Vout = LVS
– If V+=V-, Vout = 0V
Typical Op Amp Parameters
Parameter Variable Typical Ranges Ideal Values
Open-Loop A 105 to 108
Voltage Gain
∞
Input Ri 105 to 1013 W
Resistance
∞W
Output Ro 10 to 100 W 0W
Resistance
Supply Voltage Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A
-Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A
How to Find These Values
• Component Datasheets
– Many manufacturers have made these freely
available on the internet
• Example: LM 324 Operational Amplifier
dB
• Decibels
Since P = V2/R
10 log (P/Pref) or 20 log (V/Vref)
In this case:
20 log (Vo/Vin) = 20 log (A) = 100
A = 105 = 100,000
Large Signal Voltage Gain = A
• Typical
– A = 100 V/mV = 100V/0.001V = 100,000
• Minimum
– A = 25 V/mV = 25 V/0.001V = 25,000
Open Circuit Output Voltage
vo = A vd
Ideal Op Amp
vo = ∞ (vd)
Open Circuit Output Voltage
• Real Op Amp
Voltage Range Output Voltage
Positive Saturation A vd > V+ vo ~ V+
Linear Region V- < A vd < V+ vo = A vd
Negative Saturation A vd < V- vo ~ V-
The voltage produced by the dependent voltage source inside the op amp is
limited by the voltage applied to the positive and negative rails.
Because Ri is
equal to ∞W,
the voltage
Ideal Op Amp across Ri is 0V.
v1 = v2
vd = 0 V
i2 = 0
v2
i1 = 0
v1
Almost Ideal Op Amp
• Ri = ∞ W
– Therefore, i1 = i2 = 0A
• Ro = 0 W
• Usually, vd = 0V so v1 = v2
– The op amp forces the voltage at the inverting input terminal to
be equal to the voltage at the noninverting input terminal if
there is some component connecting the output terminal to the
inverting input terminal.
• Rarely is the op amp limited to V- < vo < V+.
– The output voltage is allowed to be as positive or as negative as
needed to force vd = 0V.
Example #1: Voltage Comparator
is = 0 i1 = 0
i2 = 0
Note that the inverting input and non-inverting input
terminals have rotated in this schematic.
Example #1 (con’t)
• The internal circuitry in the op amp tries to
force the voltage at the inverting input to be
equal to the non-inverting input.
– As we will see shortly, a number of op amp circuits
have a resistor between the output terminal and
the inverting input terminals to allow the output
voltage to influence the value of the voltage at the
inverting input terminal.
Example #1: Voltage Comparator
is = 0 i1 = 0
i2 = 0
When Vs is equal to 0V, Vo = 0V.
When Vs is smaller than 0V, Vo = V+.
When Vs is larger than 0V, Vo = V-.
Electronic Response
• Given how an op amp functions, what do you
expect Vo to be if v2 = 5V when:
1. Vs = 0V?
2. Vs = 5V?
3. Vs = 6V?
Example #2: Closed Loop Gain
if
is i1 = 0
v1
v2
i2 = 0
Example #2 (con’t)
if
is i1
io
i2
For an almost ideal op amp, Ri = ∞ W and Ro = 0 W.
The output voltage will never reach V+ or V-.
Example #2 (con’t)
if
Virtual ground
is i1
i2
The op amp outputs a
voltage Vo such that V1 = V2.
Example #2 (con’t)
is
i1 if
i
i2
Example #2: Closed Loop Gain
v1 0V
VS R1is
A B
vo R f i f
C
is i f i
vo / Vs R f / R1
AV R f / R1
This circuit is known as an inverting amplifier.
Types of Gain
if
is i1
io
i2
Types of Closed Loop Gain
Gain Variable Equation Units
Name
Voltage Gain AV vo/vs None or V/V
Current Gain AI io/is None or A/A
Transresistance Gain AR vo/is V/A or W
Transconductance AG io/vs A/V or W1
Gain
Example #3: Closed Loop Gain
with Real Op Amp
if
is i1
v1
v2
i2
Why are they useful?
• Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy
– Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
Why are they useful?
• Negative feedback leads to stable equilibrium
• Voltage follower (direct feedback)
– If Vout = V- , then Vout ~ V+
Closed Loop Transfer Function
H(s) = A / (1 + AF)
When AF >> 1…
H(s) = 1 / F
Where: A = Op Amp Open Loop Gain
F = Feedback Loop Gain
Ideal Op Amp
• Zin is infinite
• Zout is zero
• Amplification (Gain) Vout / Vin = ∞
• Unlimited bandwidth
• Vout = 0 when Voltage inputs = 0
