EEE 201 Engineering Mathematics

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ertuğrul AKSOY

Introduction: Vector Algebra

This presentation is prepared by Prof. Dr. Saffet AYASUN

 Weekly Schedule
 Scalar and vector quantities, scalar and vector field concepts, vector arithmetic. Unit and
position vector
 Orthogonal coordinate systems; Cartesian, cylindrical coordinate systems and point and
vector transformations in these systems
 Spherical coordinate system, point and vector representation in this system and spherical-
cylindrical and spherical-cartesian point and vector transformations
 Exact differential and vector derivatives, nabla operator, gradient and Laplacian concepts
 Vector derivatives : Divergence of a vector fields
 Vector derivatives : Curl of a vector fields
 Line, surface and volume integrals for vector fields
 Line, surface and volume integrals for vector fields
 Divergence theorem
 Stokes’ Theorem
 Helmholtz Theorem and classification of vector fields
 Fourier series
 Reference Books

 M. N. O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics,Oxford

University Press, (First Three Chapters)

 M. D. Greenberg, Advanced Engineering Mathematics,

Pearson, 10th Edition, 2011
 E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics,
Wiley, 2006
 Office Hours

 Mondays: 10:30-12:30
 Office #: 356
 Email: ertugrulaksoy@gazi.edu.tr
Assesment Criteria
 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space
 In physics and geometry and its engineering
applications we use two kinds of quantities: scalars and
vectors. A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its
magnitude; this is the number of units measured on a
suitable scale. For instance, length, voltage, and
temperature are scalars.
 A vector is a quantity that is determined by both its
magnitude and its direction. Thus it is an arrow or
directed line segment. For instance, a force is a
vector, and so is a velocity, giving the speed and
direction of motion (see Fig. 1)

continued
Fig. 1. Force and velocity
 VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF
SPACE

 We will see that vectors

provide particularly simple
descriptions of lines
and planes in space.
 Representation of Vectors

 We denote vectors by lowercase boldface letters a, b, v, etc. In

handwriting you may use arrows, for instance
(in place of a), , etc.

A A
OA or
a
O O

 A vector (arrow) has a tail, called its initial point, and a tip, called its
terminal point. This is motivated in the translation (displacement
without rotation) of the triangle in Fig.2, where the initial point P of the
vector a is the original position of a point, and the terminal point Q is
the terminal position of that point, its position after the translation.
continued
Fig. 2. Translation
 VECTORS IN V3
 Three vectors in V3 play a special role.
 i = ‹1, 0, 0› j = ‹0, 1, 0› k = ‹0, 0, 1›
 Similarly, in two dimensions, we define: i = ‹1, 0› and
j = ‹0, 1›
 These vectors i, j, and k are called the standard basis
vectors.
 They have length 1 and point in the directions
of the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS
 STANDARD BASIS VECTORS
(ANOTHER NOTATION)
 If a = ‹a1, a2, a3›, then we can write:

a   a1 , a2 , a3 
  a1 , 0, 0  0, a2 , 0  0, 0, a3 
 a1 1, 0, 0  a2 0,1, 0  a3 0, 0,1

a  a1i  a2 j  a3k
a = ‹a1, a2› = a1i + a2j
STANDARD BASIS VECTORS
 STANDARD BASIS VECTORS
 Thus, any vector in V3 can be expressed in terms
of i, j, and k.
 For instance, ‹1, –2, 6› = i – 2j + 6k
 EXAMPLE
 If a = i + 2j – 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express the vector 2a +
3b in terms of i, j, and k.
 2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j – 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)
= 2i + 4j – 6k + 12i + 21k
= 14i + 4j + 15k
 EXAMPLE: FORCE

 A force is represented by a vector because it has both a

magnitude (measured in kg or newtons) and a direction.

 If several forces are acting on an object, the resultant

force experienced by the object is the vector sum of these
forces.
 EXAMPLE: FORCE
 A 100-kg weight hangs from two wires.
 Find the tensions (forces) T1 and T2 in both wires and
their magnitudes
 EXAMPLE: FORCE
 First, we express T1 and T2 in terms of their horizontal and
vertical components.
T1= –|T1| cos 50° i + |T1| sin 50° j

T2 = |T2| cos 32° i + |T2| sin 32° j

 EXAMPLE: FORCE
 The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalances
the weight w.
 So, we must have: T1 + T2 = –w = 100 j
 Thus,
(–|T1| cos 50° + |T2| cos 32°) i
+ (|T1| sin 50° + |T2| sin 32°) j
= 100 j
 Equating components, we get:
–|T1| cos 50° + |T2| cos 32° = 0
|T1| sin 50° + |T2| sin 32° = 100
 EXAMPLE: FORCE
 Solving the first of these equations for |T2|
and substituting into the second,
we get:
| T1 | cos50
| T1 | sin 50  sin 32  100
cos32
 So, the magnitudes of the tensions are:
100
| T1 |  85.64 kg
sin 50  tan 32 cos50
| T1 | cos50
| T2 |  64.91 kg
cos32
 EXAMPLE: FORCE

 Substituting these values we obtain the tension vectors

T1 ≈ –55.05 i + 65.60 j
T2 ≈ 55.05 i + 34.40 j
 Length of a Vector

 The length of the arrow equals the distance between P and

Q. This is called the length (or magnitude) of the vector a
and is denoted by |a|. Another name for length is norm (or
Euclidean norm).
 A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector.
Unit Vector
 EXAMPLE: UNIT VECTORS
 Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i – j – 2k.
 The given vector has length

| 2i  j  2k | 2  (1)  (2)
2 2 2

 9 3
 The unit vector with the same direction is:

1
3 (2i  j  2k )  i  j  k
2
3
1
3
2
3
 Equality of Vectors

DEFINTION

Two vectors a and b are equal, written a = b, if

they have the same length and the same
direction [as explained in Fig. 3; in particular,
note (B)]. Hence a vector can be arbitrarily
translated; that is, its initial point can be chosen
arbitrarily.

continued
Fig. 3. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors
 Components of a Vector

 We choose an xyz Cartesian coordinate system in

space (Fig. 4), that is, a usual rectangular coordinate
system with the same scale of measurement on the
three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes. Let a be
a given vector with initial point P: (x1, y1, z1) and
terminal point Q: (x2, y2, z2). Then the three coordinate
differences
(1)

continued
 Components of a Vector

are called the components of the vector a with respect

to that coordinate system, and we write simply a = [a1,
a2, a3]. See Fig. 5.
 The length |a| of a can now readily be expressed in
terms of components because from (1) and the
Pythagorean theorem we have
(2)

continued
Fig. 4. Cartesian coordinate system

• Perpendicular to each other

• In the positive directions
Unit vectors , ,
of the axes
• have magnitude (length) 1
Fig.5. Components of a vector
E XAM P LE 1 Components and Length of a Vector

 The vector a with initial point P: (4, 0, 2) and terminal

point Q: (6, –1, 2) has the components
a1 = 6 – 4 = 2 a2 = –1 – 0 = –1 a3 = 2 – 2 = 0
Hence a = [2, –1, 0]. (Can you sketch a, as in Fig. 5?)
Equation (2) gives the length

 If we choose (–1, 5, 8) as the initial point of a, the

corresponding terminal point is (1, 4, 8).

continued
 If we choose the origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point of a,
the corresponding terminal point is (2, –1, 0); its
coordinates equal the components of a. This suggests
that we can determine each point in space by a vector,
called the position vector of the point, as follows.
 Position Vector

 A Cartesian coordinate system being given, the

position vector r of a point A: (x, y, z) is the vector
with the origin (0, 0, 0) as the initial point and A as the
terminal point.

 The position vector of point A

is useful in defining its position
in space

Fig. 6. Position vector r of a point A: (x, y, z) continued

 Distance Vector

 The distance vector is the displacement from one point

to another.
 If the points, P and Q are given by (xP,yP,zP) and
(xQ,yQ,zQ), the distance vector or seperation vector is
the displacement from P to Q is

continued
 Example
(Will be solved on the board)
 The vectors of A and B are given as follows:

 Find:
 The component of A along ay
 The magnitude of 3A – B
 A unit vector along A+2B

continued
 Example
(Will be solved on the board)
 Points P and Q are located at P(0,2,4) and Q(-3,1,5).
Calculate the followings
 The position vector P

 The distance vector from P to Q.

 The distance betwen P and Q.

 A vector parallel to PQ with a magnitude of 10.

continued
Vectors as Ordered Triples of Real Numbers
THEOREM 1
Vectors as Ordered Triples of Real Numbers
A fixed Cartesian coordinate system being given, each
vector is uniquely determined by its ordered triple of
corresponding components. Conversely, to each
ordered triple of real numbers (a1, a2, a3) there
corresponds precisely one vector a = [a1, a2, a3], with (0,
0, 0) corresponding to the zero vector 0, which has
length 0 and no direction.
Hence a vector equation a = b is equivalent to the three
equations a1 = b1, a2 = b2, a3 = b3 for the components.
 Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

DEFINITION
Addition of Vectors
The sum a + b of two vectors a = [a1, a2, a3] and b
= [b1, b2, b3] is obtained by adding the
corresponding components,
(3) a + b = [a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3].
Geometrically, place the vectors as in Fig. 7 (the
initial point of b at the terminal point of a); then a +
b is the vector drawn from the initial point of a to
the terminal point of b.

continued
Fig.7. Vector addition
 ADDING VECTORS
 The figure shows that, if a = ‹a1, a2› and b = ‹b1, b2›,
then the sum is
a + b = ‹a1 + b1, a2 + b2›

at least for the case

where the components
are positive.
 Resultant of Two Forces

For forces, this addition is the parallelogram law by

which we obtain the resultant of two forces in
mechanics. The “algebraic” way and the “geometric
way” of vector addition give the same vector.

continued
 Basic Properties of Vector Addition

 Familiar laws for real numbers give immediately (see

also Figs. 8 and 9)

(4)

continued
Fig. 7. Cummutativity of vector addition

Fig. 8. Associativity of vector

addition
 Scalar Multiplication

DEFINITION

Scalar Multiplication (Multiplication by a Number)

The product ca of any vector a = [a1, a2, a3] and any
scalar c (real number c) is the vector obtained by
multiplying each component of a by c,
(5) ca = [ca1, ca2, ca3]
Geometrically, if a ≠ 0, then ca with c > 0 has the
direction of a and with c < 0 the direction opposite to a.
In any case, the length of ca is |ca| = |c||a|, and ca = 0 if
a = 0 or c = 0 (or both). (See Fig.9.)

continued
Fig. 9. Scalar multiplication [multiplication of vectors
by scalars (numbers)]
 Basic Properties of Scalar Multiplication

 From the definitions we obtain directly

(6)
 Difference of Vectors
 Instead of b + (–a) we simply write b – a.
E XAM P LE 2 Vector Addition. Multiplication by Scalars

With respect to a given coordinate system, let

a = [4, 0, 1] and b = [2, –5, 1/3]
Then –a = [–4, 0, –1], 7a = [28, 0, 7], a＋b = [6, –5,
4/3], and
 COMPONENTS
 Let’s place the initial point of a vector a at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system.
 Then, the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form
(a1, a2) or (a1, a2, a3).
 This depends on whether our coordinate system is two-
or three-dimensional.
 COMPONENTS
 These coordinates are called the components of a and we
write:
a = ‹a1, a2› or a = ‹a1, a2, a3›

 We use the notation ‹a1, a2› for the ordered pair that
refers to a vector so as not to confuse it with the ordered
pair (a1, a2) that refers to
a point in the plane.
 COMPONENTS
 For instance, the vectors shown here are all equivalent to
the vector OP  3, 2 whose terminal point is P(3, 2).
 What they have in common is that the terminal point is
reached from the initial point by a displacement of three
units to the right and two upward.
 Unit Vectors

 Unit Vectors i, j, k. Besides a = [a1, a2, a3] another

popular way of writing vectors is
(8)
In this representation, i, j, k are the unit vectors in the
positive directions of the axes of a Cartesian
coordinate system (Fig. 10). Hence, in components,
(9)
and the right side of (8) is a sum of three vectors
parallel to the three axes.

continued
Fig. 10. The unit vectors i, j, k and the representation (8)
E XAM P LE 3 i j k Notation for Vectors

 In Example 2 we have a = 4i + k, b = 2i – 5j + 1/3k,

and so on.
 Inner Product (Dot Product)
DEFINITION

Inner Product (Dot Product) of Vectors

The inner product or dot product a • b (read “a dot b”)
of two vectors a and b is the product of their lengths
times the cosine of their angle (see Fig. 11),

The angle , 0 ≤  ≤ π between a and b is measured

when the initial points of the vectors coincide, as in Fig.
11. In components, a = [a1, a2, a3], b = [b1, b2, b3], and

continued
Fig.11. Angle between vectors and value of inner product
 EXAMPLE: DOT PRODUCT
 ‹2, 4› ∙ ‹3, – 1› = 2(3) + 4(–1) = 2

 ‹–1, 7, 4› ∙ ‹6, 2, –½› = (–1)(6) + 7(2) + 4(–½)

=6

 (i + 2j – 3k) ∙ (2j – k) = 1(0) + 2(2) + (–3)(–1)

= 7
 PROPERTIES OF DOT PRODUCT
 If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and c is a scalar, then

1. a  a=|a| 2

2. a  b  b  a
3. a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
4. (ca)  b  c(a  b)  a  (cb)
5. 0  a  0
 GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION
 The dot product a • b can be given a geometric
interpretation in terms of the angle θ between a and b.
 This is defined to be the angle between the
representations of a and b that start at the origin,
where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
 DOT PRODUCT
 The formula in the following theorem is used by physicists
as the definition of the dot product.

a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ
 DOT PRODUCT—PROOF
 If we apply the Law of Cosines to triangle OAB here,
we get:

|AB|2 = |OA|2 + |OB|2 – 2|OA||OB| cos θ

 Observe that
the Law of Cosines
still applies in
the limiting cases
when θ = 0 or π, or
a = 0 or b = 0
 DOT PRODUCT—PROOF
 However,
|OA| = |a| , |OB| = |b| , |AB| = |a – b|
 Substituting into the Law of Cosine
|a – b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 – 2|a||b| cos θ
Using Properties 1, 2, and 3 of the dot product, we
can rewrite the left side of the equation as follows:
|a – b|2 = (a – b) ∙ (a – b)
=a∙a–a∙b–b∙a+b∙b
= |a|2 – 2a ∙ b + |b|2
 DOT PRODUCT—PROOF
 Therefore,

|a|2 – 2a ∙ b + |b|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 – 2|a||b| cos θ

 Thus,
–2a ∙ b = –2|a||b| cos θ

or
a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ
 Orthogonality

THEOREM 1

Orthogonality
The inner product of two nonzero vectors is 0 if and
only if these vectors are perpendicular.
EXAMPLE: ORTHOGONAL VECTORS
 Show that 2i + 2j – k is perpendicular to 5i – 4j + 2k.

 (2i + 2j – k) ∙ (5i – 4j + 2k)

= 2(5) + 2(–4) + (–1)(2)
=0
 Length and Angle

 Length and Angle: If b = a gives

a • a = |a|2. Hence
 the angle γ between two nonzero vectors
 DOT PRODUCT
 As cos θ > 0 if 0 ≤ θ < π/2 and cos θ < 0 if π/2 < θ ≤ π,
we see that a ∙ b is positive for θ < π/2 and negative
for θ > π/2.

 We can think of a ∙ b as measuring the extent

to which a and b point in the same direction.
 DOT PRODUCT
 The dot product a ∙ b is:

 Positive, if a and b point in the same general direction

 Zero, if they are

perpendicular

 Negative, if they point

in generally opposite
directions
E XAM P LE 1 Inner Product. Angle Between Vectors
 Find the inner product and the lengths of a = [1, 2, 0]
and b = [3, –2, 1] as well as the angle between these
vectors.
 Solution
, and (4) gives the angle
 Example
(Will be solved on the board)
 The vectors of A and B are given as follows:

 Find the angle between A and B using dot product.

continued
 Applications of Inner Products
E XAM P LE 2 Work Done by a Force Expressed as an
Inner Product
 This is a major application. It concerns a body on
which a constant force p acts. Let the body be given a
displacement d. Then the work done by p in the
displacement is defined as

continued
 E X A M P L E 2: Work Done by a Force
Expressed as an Inner Product
that is, magnitude |p| of the force times length |d| of the
displacement times the cosine of the angle between p
and d (Fig. 12). If α < 90°, as in Fig. 12, then W > 0. If
p and d are orthogonal, then the work is zero (why?). If
α > 90°, then W < 0, which means that in the
displacement one has to do work against the force.
(Think of swimming across a river at some angle
against the current.)

continued
Fig.12. Work done by a force
E XAM P LE 3 Component of a Force in a Given Direction

 What force in the rope in Fig. 13 will hold a car of 5000

lb in equilibrium if the ramp makes an angle of 25° with
the horizontal?
 Solution. Introducing coordinates as shown, the
weight is a = [0, –5000] because this force points
downward, in the negative y-direction. We have to
represent a as a sum (resultant) of two forces, a = c +
p, where c is the force the car exerts on the ramp,
which is of no interest to us, and p is parallel to the
rope, of magnitude (see Fig. 13)

continued
Fig.13. Example 3
and direction of the unit vector u opposite to the
direction of the rope; here γ = 90° – 25° = 65° is the
angle between a and p. Now a vector in the direction
of the rope is

so that

continued
Since |u| = 1 and γ > 0, we see that we can also write our
result as

Answer : About 2100 lb.

 DIRECTION ANGLES
 The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the
angles α, β, and γ (in the interval [0, π]) that a makes
with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.
 DIRECTION COSINES
 The cosines of these direction angles—cos α, cos β,
and cos γ—are called the direction cosines of the
vector a.
DIRECTION ANGLES AND COSINES

ai a1
cos   
| a || i | | a |
a2 a3
cos   cos  
|a| |a|
DIRECTION ANGLES & COSINES
 By squaring the cosine expressions

cos   cos   cos   1

2 2 2
 EXAMPLE: DIRECTION ANGLES &
COSINES
 Find the direction angles of the vector a = ‹1, 2, 3›

| a | 12  22  32  14
1 2 3
cos   cos   cos  
14 14 14
 1  1  2 
  cos 
1
  74,   cos    58
 14   14 
1  3 
  cos    37
 14 
 PROJECTIONS
The figure shows representations PQ and PR
of two vectors a and b with the same initial point P.
 PROJECTIONS
Let S be the foot of the perpendicular
from R to the line containing PQ.
 VECTOR PROJECTION
 Then, the vector with representation PS
is called the
vector projection of b onto a and is denoted by proja b.
 You can think of it as a shadow of b.
 SCALAR PROJECTION
 The scalar projection of b onto a (also called the
component of b along a) is defined to be the signed
magnitude of the vector projection.
 PROJECTIONS
 This is the number |b| cos θ, where θ is the angle between
a and b.

 This is denoted
by compa b.

 Observe that
it is negative
if π/2 < θ ≤ π.
 PROJECTIONS
 The equation
a ∙ b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|(|b| cos θ)
 shows that:
 The dot product of a and b can be interpreted
as the length of a times the scalar projection of b onto a.
 Since
ab a
| b | cos    b
|a| |a|
the component of b along a can be computed by taking
the dot product of b with the unit vector in the direction of
a.

PROJECTIONS: SUMMARY
 Scalar projection of b onto a:
ab
compa b 
|a|
 Vector projection of b onto a:
 a b  a a b
proja b     2a
 |a| | a| |a|
 Notice that the vector projection is the scalar projection
times the unit vector in the direction of a.
EXAMPLE: PROJECTIONS
 Find the scalar and vector projections of:
b = ‹1, 1, 2› onto a = ‹–2 , 3, 1›
 Since
| a | (2)  3  1  14
2 2 2

the scalar projection of b onto a is:

a  b (2)(1)  3(1)  1(2)

compa b  
|a| 14
3

14
EXAMPLE: PROJECTIONS
 The vector projection is that scalar projection times the
unit vector in the direction of a:

3 a 3
proja b   a
14 | a | 14
3 9 3
  , ,
7 14 14
EAXMPLE: CALCULATING WORK
 We define the work done by a constant force F in
moving an object through a distance d as:
W = Fd
 This, however, applies only when the force is
directed along the line of motion of the object.
 However, suppose that the constant force
is a vector F  PR pointing in some other
direction, as shown.

 CALCULATING WORK
 If the force moves the object from P to Q, then the
displacement vector is .
D  PQ
CALCULATING WORK
 The work done by this force is defined to be the
product of the component of the force along D and the
distance moved:
W = (|F| cos θ)|D|
W = |F||D| cos θ = F ∙ D
EXAMPLE: CALCULATING WORK
 A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along
a horizontal path by a constant force of 70 N.
 The handle of the wagon is held at an angle
of 35° above the horizontal.

 Find the work

done by the force.
EXAMPLE: CALCULATING WORK
 Suppose F and D are the force and displacement vectors,
as shown.
EXAMPLE: CALCULATING WORK
 Then, the work done is:

W = F ∙ D = |F||D| cos 35°

= (70)(100) cos 35°
≈ 5734 N∙m
= 5734 J
EXAMPLE: CALCULATING WORK
 A force is given by a vector F = 3i + 4j + 5k and moves
a particle from the point P(2, 1, 0) to the point Q(4, 6,
2).
 Find the work done.

 The displacement vector is D  PQ  2,5, 2

 So, the work done is:
W = F ∙ D = ‹3, 4, 5› ∙ ‹2, 5, 2›= 6 + 20 + 10 = 36
 If the unit of length is meters and the magnitude
of the force is measured in newtons, then the work
done is 36 joules.
 Vector Product (Cross Product)
DEFINITION
Vector Product (Cross Product, Outer Product)
of Vectors(1)
The vector product (also called cross product or outer
product) a × b (read “a cross b”) of two vectors a and b
is the vector
v=a×b
as follows. If a and b have the same or opposite direction,
or if a = 0 or b = 0, then v = a × b = 0. In any other case v
= a × b has the length

continued
DEFINITION

Vector Product (Cross Product, Outer Product)

of Vectors(2)
This is the area of the blue parallelogram in Fig. 183.
γ is the angle between a and b (as in Sec. 9.2). The
direction of v = a × b is perpendicular to both a and b
and such that a, b, v, in this order, form a right-
handed triple as in Figs. 17 ~ 19 (explanation below).

continued
Fig.17. Vector product
Fig.18. Right-handed triple of vectors a, b, v
Fig.19. Right-handed screw
 THE CROSS PRODUCT
 The cross product a x b of two vectors a and b, unlike
the dot product, is a vector.

 For this reason, it is also called the vector product.

 Note that a x b is defined only when a and b

are three-dimensional (3-D) vectors.
 DEFINITION: THE CROSS PRODUCT

 In components, let a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3].

Then v = [v1, v2, v3] = a × b has the components

 If a = ‹a1, a2, a3› and b = ‹b1, b2, b3›, then

the cross product of a and b is the vector

a x b = ‹a2b3 - a3b2, a3b1 - a1b3, a1b2 - a2b1›

Right-Handed Triple. A triple of vectors a, b, v is right-
handed if the vectors in the given order assume the
same sort of orientation as the thumb, index finger, and
middle finger of the right hand when these are held as in
Fig. 17. We may also say that if a is rotated into the
direction of b through the angle γ(< π)then v advances in
the same direction as a right-handed screw would if
turned in the same way (Fig. 18).

continued
 Right-Handed Cartesian Coordinate System
 The system is called right-handed if the
corresponding unit vectors i, j, k in the positive
directions of the axes form a right-handed triple as in
Fig. 20a.
 The system is called left-handed if the sense of k is
reversed, as in Fig. 20b.
 In applications, we prefer right-handed systems.

continued
Fig.20a. The two types of Cartesian coordinate systems

(a) Right-handed (b) Left-handed

 CROSS PRODUCT
 This may seem like a strange way of defining a product.
 The reason for the particular form of Definition is that the
cross product defined in this way has many useful
properties, as we will soon see.
 In particular, we will show that the vector a x b
is perpendicular to both a and b.
 In order to make Definition 1 easier to remember, we use
the notation of determinants
 DETERMINANT OF ORDER 2
 A determinant of order 2 is defined by:

a b
 ad  bc
c d
 For example,

2 1
 2(4)  1(6)  14
6 4
 DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3
 Determinant of order 3 can be defined in terms of
second-order determinants as follows:
a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3  a1  a2  a3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

 Observe that:
 Each term on the right side involves a number ai in the first row of
the determinant.
 This is multiplied by the second-order determinant obtained from the
left side by deleting the row and column in which it appears.
 DETERMINANT OF ORDER 3
 For example,

1 2 1
0 1 3 1 3 0
3 0 1 1 2  (1)
4 2 5 2 5 4
5 4 2
 1(0  4)  2(6  5)  (1)(12  0)
 38
 CROSS PRODUCT
 Now, let’s rewrite Definition using second-order
determinants and the standard basis vectors i, j, and k.
 We see that the cross product of the vectors
a = a1i +a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k

is
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
ab  i j k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 CROSS PRODUCT

i j k
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
EXAMPLE: CROSS PRODUCT
 If a = <1, 3, 4> and b = <2, 7, –5>, then
i j k
ab  1 3 4
2 7 5
3 4 1 4 1 3
 i j k
7 5 2 5 2 7
 (15  28)i  (5  8) j  (7  6)k
 43i  13j  k
EXAMPLE: CROSS PRODUCT
 Show that a x a = 0 for any vector a in V3.

 If a = <a1, a2, a3>,

then
i j k
a  a  a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3
 (a2 a3  a3a2 ) i  (a1a3  a3a1 ) j
 (a1a2  a2 a1 ) k
 0i  0 j  0k  0
THEOREM: CROSS PRODUCT
 The vector a x b is orthogonal to both a and b.
 In order to show that a x b is orthogonal to a, we compute
their dot product as follows

(a  b)  a
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
 a1  a2  a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 a1 (a2b3  a3b2 )  a2 (a1b3  a3b1 )  a3 (a1b2  a2b1 )
 a1a2b3  a1b2 a3  a1a2b3  b1a2 a3  a1b2 a3  b1a2 a3
0
 PROOF: CROSS PRODUCT
 A similar computation shows that (a x b) · b = 0
 Therefore, a x b is orthogonal to both a and b.
 CROSS PRODUCT
 Let a and b be represented by
directed line segments with
the same initial point, as
shown.
 Then, the cross product
a x b points in a direction
perpendicular to the plane
through a and b.
 CROSS PRODUCT
 It turns out that the direction of a x b is given by the right-
hand rule, as follows.
 If the fingers of your right hand curl in the direction of a
rotation (through an angle less than 180°) from a to b, then
your thumb points in the direction of a x b.
 CROSS PRODUCT
 We know the direction of the vector a x b.
 The remaining thing we need to complete its geometric
description is its length |a x b|.
 This is given by the following theorem.
If θ is the angle between a and b (so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π),
then

|a x b| = |a||b| sin θ
 PROOF: CROSS PRODUCT
 From the definitions of the cross product
and length of a vector, we have:
|a x b|2= (a2b3 – a3b2)2 + (a3b1 – a1b3)2 + (a1b2 – a2b1)2

= a22b32 – 2a2a3b2b3 + a32b22 + a32b12 – 2a1a3b1b3 + a12b32 +

a12b22 – 2a1a2b1b2 + a22b12
= (a12 + a22 + a32)(b12 + b22 + b32) – (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3)2
= |a|2|b|2 – (a . b)2
= |a|2|b|2 – |a|2|b|2 cos2θ (dot product)
= |a|2|b|2 (1 – cos2θ)
= |a|2|b|2 sin2θ |a x b| = |a||b| sin θ
 CROSS PRODUCT
 A vector is completely determined by its magnitude
and direction.
 Thus, we can now say that a x b is the vector that is
perpendicular to both a and b, whose:

 Orientation is determined by the right-hand rule

 Length is |a||b| sin θ

 CROSS PRODUCT: PARALLEL VECTORS
 Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if

axb=0
 Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if θ = 0
or π.
 In either case, sin θ = 0.
 So, |a x b| = 0 and, therefore, a x b = 0.
 CROSS PRODUCT
 The geometric interpretation can be seen from this figure.
 If a and b are represented by directed line segments with
the same initial point, then they determine a parallelogram
with base |a|, altitude |b| sin θ, and area
A = |a|(|b| sin θ) = |a x b|
 The length of the cross product a x b is equal to the area of
the parallelogram determined by a and b.
 EXAMPLE: CROSS PRODUCT
 Find a vector perpendicular to the plane that passes
through the points
P(1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1), R(1, -1, 1)
 The vector PQ  PR is perpendicular to both PQ and PR .
 Therefore, it is perpendicular to the plane
through P, Q, and R.
PQ  (2  1) i  (5  4) j  (1  6) k
 3i  j  7k

PR  (1  1) i  (1  4) j  (1  6) k
 5 j  5k
 EXAMPLE: CROSS PRODUCT
 We compute the cross product of these vectors:
i j k
PQ  PR  3 1 7
0 5 5
 (5  35) i  (15  0) j  (15  0) k
 40i  15 j  15k

 Therefore, the vector ‹-40, -15, 15› is perpendicular to

the given plane.
 Any nonzero scalar multiple of this vector, such as ‹-8,
-3, 3›, is also perpendicular to the plane.
 EXAMPLE: CROSS PRODUCT
 Find the area of the triangle with vertices
P(1, 4, 6), Q(-2, 5, -1), R(1, -1, 1)
PQ  PR  40, 15,15
 The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides PQ
and PR is the length of this cross product:

PQ  PR  (40)2  (15)2  152  5 82

 The area A of the triangle PQR is half the area of this

parallelogram, that is:
5
2 82
 CROSS PRODUCT
 If we apply the cross product to i, j, and k using θ = π/2, we
obtain:
ixj=k jxk=i kxi=j

j x i = -k k x j = -i i x k = -j
 Observe that: ixj≠jxi
 Thus, the cross product is not commutative.
 Also, i x (i x j) = i x k = -j
 However, (i x i) x j = 0 x j = 0
 So, the associative law for multiplication does not usually
hold.
 That is, in general, (a x b) x c ≠ a x (b x c)
 Cross product using cyclic permutation

Moving clockwise moving counterclockwise

leads to positive leads to negative results
results
E XAM P LE 1 Vector Product

 For the vector product v = a × b of a = [1, 1, 0] and b

= [3, 0, 0] in right-handed coordinates we obtain from
(2)

We confirm this by (2**):

To check the result in this simple case, sketch a, b,

and v. Can you see that two vectors in the xy-plane
must always have their vector product parallel to the z-
axis (or equal to the zero vector)?
 General Properties of Vector Products

THEOREM 1

General Properties of Vector Products(1)

(a) For every scalar l,

(b) Cross multiplication is distributive with respect to

vector addition; that is,

continued
 General Properties of Vector Products

THEOREM 1

General Properties of Vector Products(2)

(c) Cross multiplication is not commutative but
anticommutative; that is,
b × a = –(a × b) (Fig. 21).
(d) Cross multiplication is not associative; that is, in
general,
a × (b × c) ≠ (a × b) × c
so that the parentheses cannot be omitted.

continued
Fig.21. Anticommutativity of cross multiplication
 Example
(Will be solved on the board)
 The vectors of A and B are given as follows:

 Find the angle between A and B using cross product.

continued
 Typical Applications of Vector Products
E XAM P LE 3 Moment of a Force
 In mechanics the moment m of a force p about a point
Q is defined as the product m = |p|d, where d is the
(perpendicular) distance between Q and the line of
action L of p (Fig. 22). If r is the vector from Q to any
point A on L, then d = |r| sin γ (Fig. 22) and
m = |r| |p| sin γ.

continued
Fig.22. Moment of a force p
 Since γ is the angle between r and p, we see that
m = |r × p|. The vector
m=r×p
is called the moment vector or vector moment of p
about Q. Its magnitude is m. If m ≠ 0, its direction is
that of the axis of the rotation about Q that p has the
tendency to produce. This axis is perpendicular to both
r and p.

continued
E XAM P LE 4 Moment of a Force

 Find the moment of the force p in Fig. 23 about the

center Q of the wheel.

continued
Fig.23. Moment of a force p
Solution. Introducing coordinates, we have

(Note that the center of the wheel is at y = –1.5 on the

y-axis.) Hence, we have

continued
 This moment vector is normal (perpendicular) to the
plane of the wheel; hence it has the direction of the
axis of rotation about the center of the wheel that the
force has the tendency to produce.
 m points in the negative z-direction, the direction in
which a right-handed screw would advance if turned
in that way.
E XAM P LE 5 Velocity of a Rotating Body

 A rotation of a rigid body B in space can be simply and

uniquely described by a vector w as follows. The
direction of w is that of the axis of rotation and such
that the rotation appears clockwise if one looks from
the initial point of w to its terminal point.
 The length of w is equal to the angular speed ω (> 0)
of the rotation, that is, the linear (or tangential) speed
of a point of B divided by its distance from the axis of
rotation.

continued
Fig.24. Rotation of a rigid body
 Let P be any point of B and d its distance from the
axis. Then P has the speed ωd. Let r be the position
vector of P referred to a coordinate system with origin
0 on the axis of rotation. Then d＝|r| sin γ, where γ is
the angle between w and r. Therefore,

continued
From this and the definition of vector product we see
that the velocity vector v of P can be represented in the
form (Fig. 24)
v=w×r
This simple formula is useful for determining v at any
point of B.

continued
 Scalar Triple Product

 The most important product of vectors with more than

two factors is the scalar triple product or mixed
triple product of three vectors a, b, c. It is denoted by
(a b c) and defined by
(a b c) = a • (b × c)

continued
 Scalar Triple Product

Because of the dot product it is a scalar. In terms of

components a = [a1, a2, a3], b = [b1, b2, b3], c = [c1, c2,
c3] we can write it as a third-order determinant. For this
we set b × c = v = [v1, v2, v3]. Then from the dot
product in components with b and c instead of a and b
we first obtain

continued
 Scalar Triple Product

The sum on the right is the expansion of a third-order

determinant by its first row. Thus
 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS
 The geometric significance of the scalar triple product
can be seen by considering the parallelpiped
determined by the vectors a, b, and c.
The area of the base parallelogram is: A = |b x c|
 If θ is the angle between a and b x c, then the height h
of the parallelepiped is:
 h = |a||cos θ|
 We must use |cos θ|
instead of cos θ
in case θ > π/2.
 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTS
 Hence, the volume of the parallelepiped is:

V = Ah = |b x c||a||cos θ| = |a · (b x c)|
 The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the
vectors a, b, and c is the magnitude of their scalar
triple product:
V = |a ·(b x c)|
 Example
(Will be solved on the board)
 The field quantities are given as follows:

 Determine the followings:

 (P+Q)x(P-Q)
 Q (R x P)
 P (Q x R)
 SinQR
 P x ( Q x R)
 The unity vector perpendicular to both Q and R.
 The component of P along Q.
continued
 Example
(Will be solved on the board)
 Derive the cosine and and the sine formulas using the
dot and cross products, respectively.

c A
b
B C
a

continued
 Properties and Applications of
Scalar Triple Products
THEOREM 2

Properties and Applications of

Scalar Triple Products
(a) the dot and cross can be interchanged:

(b) Geometric interpretation. The absolute value |(a

b c)| is the volume of the parallelepiped (oblique box)
with a, b, c as edge vectors.
(c) Linear independence. Three vectors in R3 are
linearly independent if and only if their scalar triple
product is not zero.

continued
 COPLANAR VECTORS
 If we use the volume formula and discover that
the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b,
and c is 0, then the vectors must lie in the same plane.
 That is, they are coplanar.
 EXAMPLE: COPLANAR VECTORS
 Use the scalar triple product to show that the vectors
a = <1, 4, -7>, b = <2, -1, 4>, c = <0, -9, 18>
are coplanar.

1 4 7
a  (b  c)  2 1 4
0 9 18
1 4 2 4 2 1
1 4 7
9 18 0 18 0 9
 1(18)  4(36)  7(18)  0
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
SUMMARY
HOMEWORK
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ANSWERS