CONTENTS Post Kinoo nnn wu IENEMATICS AND DYHAMICS OF MACHINERY the Gratol Condition unteges ot hare Than Four Soe Grosnotype Retail Cioia fo Higher Grd nkoges re ee tro ecroechonieal Siem Gli Tasted Conicerons tow ana bres {Ara jcouie Grinder. Chapter 3. Graphical Linkage Synthess aun Syne. oy Liming Condions Dimensones Synesis Two Pen St Ives Postion hese wit Avamese Moun Po! Ives Ponfon Syrmase win Section eed Pv Fasan yada Mor Than veo Posto ‘Quictetun achonsms Cognate Gaares rvenar Copnate fine Roba shghtune Machonens ‘Desaning Optimum Sragiine Four iniages. owelMechoniems Srojebwaturhogee Davo Guot Umages other Usetul unwages Cons Valo ton cn ape Angus ry Raton References. ya Seas ia 45 2 2 98 162 Chapter 4 Position Analysis. 12. Creuts and Branches in nko Chapter § Analytical Linkage Synthesis 52. Two-Poston Synthess for Rocker Oulput 83. reckson Pom. 58 _ Smutoneout Equation solvon, 57 Tivea-Poston Motion Generation by Ancivical Synthase 58. Comparson ot Anaiyiee and Graphical Thvae-Peston Synthase 59. Synmasitor a spaciiag Fired Pwot Location” Ve 196iE 515 Chapter chapter a 10 chapter at Provioms 6 Velocity Analysis: Velocity of ery Panton @ Usage ene 7. Acceleration Analysis ‘Accoltaion Anais af ne Geoied Fi 5 ag 8 Com Design BEER Ey 295 308 330 330 0 ‘chapter 9 Gear Trains The Ponce aw of Gearing sample Cour rains ae 454Fe - TONEMATES AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY _ CONTENTS comes - x Deson ot Revered Compote Fae 2 119 Unkage Force ancy by Energy Methods 28 Sete Sane concn Sate @ 110 Cosroing input raueryeneel o 99 epeyotec Pnay Coors = i Rittage ars eran ao oe S12 Reteronces ae Chaplet 12. Balancing sin eager 5 29° reduction Port ll Dynamics of Machinery. sir op cine nae Cchapter 10 Dynemlcs Fundamentals 513 24 oct Balancing ov olny ava Pn Facet a 28 Etec of Blancng on nt rue 121 Mewar Low of ion 513 et Eee goose ot Newer ow a 125 Macaig ond Coneing mostonce 3 Moss t 34 129 Booioms 28 Mam omen nd Covet of Sa 3 Ms ea er ne ee beet es hope 18 Engine Dynamic 13 Botemining Nose Moment of nets 130 ftoducton Seoieeitens 82 Sees 109 Modeling Rotating Links 13.4 EqUvaleRt MO8#@8 eo "Bie Baer’ reuse 135 nme Sod Grainy O11 mpodPorometer Dyas Hodes 136 Inria end anal egued tere co 132 Ttengre torn ‘Gomeinng bones # 180. Bolncing ine Snglec nde Ene embry sro =o oct er crannon salanang nF Foes ro camer es a 1311 besgh tade-fs ond Reo 1019. seldhon Mao 37 Ciredc co we 10.14. The Pinciple of d Alembar 538 Moroioe a IB18. Energy Metnoarvitoa Wo 5 1312 pologrepny “) toe sa 218 Pebime oo 10.17 Probes. = 13.14 Projects 664 ‘Chapter 11 Dynamic Force Analysis oe: Chapter 14 Multicylinder Engines 665 0 Introduction 4 140 Introduction 665, 4 Revi id us 141 Mumeyinger Eine Boss a 113 Force Anoiys# of ATrreebar Crank Side lrkoge. 5n 143_Shokng Porcen mre Engine. an 11d Fores ancy of ¢Fouroo unkage 3 3 ss 7 a i 5 gee 5 142 nero lorausininine Engine os 13. Fe Angas of Fours oa iogs 2 145 Shang cmentin ne erates os 117 Fores Anaiyss—Lnkoges with More Thon Fou Bars $67 ee teow icine rosie 118 Shoking foes ona Snake Moment eee o Feurstone Cyc engre raFE 147 Vee Engine Contiaurations '48 Spporsd Enpme Contgurcion 1410 References VAN Bblograph Chapter 15 Cam Dynamics 3 Knctesone Force Anciyse of he Forse closed Carvallower... 723 180 Probie. 3 ‘Appendix A Mateil Properties m1 ‘Appendix 8 Geometic ropertos 145 Appendix C sping Dato. mar ‘Appendix D Equations for Overbolanced Mutleyiner Engines... 749 ‘Appendix Answer to Selected Problems 183 Index 109 PREFACE When I hear, forget When see, remember When Ido, understand ANCIENT CHINESE PROVERB This text is intended forthe kinematics and dynamics of machinery topics. The usual peeequisits are fist courses in statics, dynamic, nd ealuls. Usually the fis sees {ror portion, is devoted to kinematics, and the secondo dynamics of machinery. TRese ‘Courses ae ideal vehicles for itodacing the mechanial engineering student tothe ‘es of design, ince mechaniams tend 1 bettie fr the typical mechanical engineer ing student o visualize and cea Wile his text attempts tobe thorough and complete on he topics of analysis, it aso Emphasizes the synthesis and design arpecis ofthe subject to = greater most texts in pion thse subjects. While the mathematical level ofthis ext is aimed taecond-of third-year university students, itis prevented de novo and shouldbe tderstandable othe technical school students well, ar ofthis text is suitable for one-semester or one-term course in kinematics. artis suitable fora one semere or one-term course in dynamics of machinery. Alte tively, both topic areas can be covered in one semester with ss emphasis on some of {he topics covered in he ox "The writing and style of presentation inthe text is designed ta be cles, nfrmal, and caso read. Many expe problems and sltion techniques represented and spl fut in dtl both verbally and graphically. Many suggested readings ae provided inthe tibtogrpty. Short problems, and where appropri, many longer unsirutured design projet assignments are provided a th ends of chapters. These projet provie an oP- unity forthe stodens do aed understan ‘The authors approach to these courses and this tex is based on over 45 yeas experince in mechinical engineering design, both in industry and asa consultant He has taught these subjects since 1967, bot i evening School to practicing eng neers and in day schoo o younger students. His approach othe course has evelved 1 peat ea ia tha tine, from a traditional approach, emphasizing graphical aalyis ofPART KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMSChapter INTRODUCTION spiration most often sr those who are hard at work ANONYMOUS 1.0 PURPOSE In this text we will explore the tpis of kinematics and dynamics of machinery in ‘analysis of mechanisms ino thei rigibody dynamic pics ae fundamental othe broader subject of machine design. On mise that we cannot analyze anything un thas been synthesized ino existence, tne will fist explore the topic of synthesis of mechanisms, ‘Then we will investi! Techniques of analysis of mechanisms allthis wll be directed 1.1 KINEMATICS AND KINETICS KaveMATics The study of motion without regard to ores KINErics The study of forces on system a “These two concepts are relly no physically separable, We itary separate the for incructional reasons in engineering edcation It x also valid in engineering design practice to first consider the desired kinematic motions and ther consequences, and then ubsequendy investigate the Kinetic forces associated with those motions The s Should elie thatthe division becween Kinematics and kinetics i gute abitary and done largely fr convenience. One cannot design most dynamic mechanical systems without taking both tpi int thorough consideration It is quite logical o consider (emi the ode ited since, rom Newton's second law F= ma, oe piel needsiow the accelerations (a in oder to compute the dynamic forces (F) de tothe mo fon ofthe system's mass (), Thera aso man station in which he apple ores ane known and the resulant accelerations ae to be ound (One principal sim of kinematics isto create (Ssig) the desired motions f thes ject mechanical parts and then mathemailly compute the postion, velocities, and ae leratons that hose tions wl reat on te pars, Since, for mot eantbound me ‘hinial systems, the mass remains essentially constant with ime, defining the acceler ttions ass funtion of time then also defies the dynamic forces a8 a fnction of time, Strestes, in tum, wl bea function ofboth spplied and inertial (a) forces. Since en ering design i charged with creating systems tht wil no fil rng their expected Service lif, the goal isto Keep sresses within accepabl lis for the matevals chosen andthe environmental conditions encountered. This obviously requires that al system forces be defined and Kept within desired limits. In machinery that moves he nl teresting kind). the largest frees encountered ar fen those duet the dynamics othe ache self: These dymamic fore: ae proportional o aceleration, which brings us tack to kinematics, the foundation of mechanical design. Very basic and early decisions inthe design proces involving Kinematic principles ean be eral tothe succes of any mechanical design. A design tat has por kinematics wil prove toublesome and per form bay 1.2. MECHANISMS AND MACHINES A mechanism device tat ransfors mation o some desirable pater and rypicaly develope very low frces an tans litle power. Hunt" defines a mechanism as" telly contains mechanisms tat are designed to provide significa forces and transmit Significant power! Some examples of commen mechs area penll harpener, Camera shutter an analog clock, aoldng cai, an adjustable des lamp, and an ube! la. Some examples of machines that possess motions sila to th mechanisms listed shove at food blender, «bank vault doo, an suomobile transmission, a blldorer robot and an amusement park ride, Thee no clearcut dividing line between mecha sms and machines. They differ in degre rater than in kind. If the forces or enecey levels within the device are significant, ts considered machine; Ino, is considered AAmechanism. Aseful working definition of mechanism sA stem of elements a ranged fo trananit motion ina predetermined fashion. This ca be converted oa def inion of machine by edding the words and energy aftr motion. Mechanisms, if lightly loaded and run at slow speds, can sometimes be treated suicly as Kinematic devices; that, they can be analyzed Kinematialywithot regard toforees, Machines and mechanisms running athighrspeds) onthe other hand, must fist rested as mechanisms kinematic analysis of thei velocities and aeceleratons rust dene, and then they must be subsequent analyad as dynamic systems in Which theirstatc and dynamic forces de to those seeleration reanalyzed sng the prin ples of kinetics, Part Hof this text deals with Kinematies of Mechanisms, nd Part ‘sith Dynamics of Machinery. The techniques of mechanism synthesis presented in Part Tare plicable wo the design ofboth mechanisms and machines since ineach case some collection of movable members mist be ces to provide and corral the dsied so tons and gener. 1.3. ABRIEF HISTORY OF KINEMATICS Machines and mechanisms have been devised by people since the dawn of history, The scent Egyptians devised peimiive machines fo accomplish the building ofthe pa ‘ms and otter monuments. Thowgh the wheel and plley (on an ale were not known, tothe OM Kingdom Egyptian, they made use of te lver, the inclined plane (or weds) ‘nd probably the log ole. The origin of te wheel and axe is aot definitively known Is first appearance seems to have been in Mesopotamia about 3000 to 4000 B Agreatdeal of design effort was spent fom carly times onthe problem of timekeep ing as more sophisticated clockworks were devised. Much early machine design wa dUrected toward military applications (catapults, wall scaling apparatus, et). The term tiv enginering wa Inter coined diferent iii rom military applications of technology. Mechanical engineering had its beginnings in machine design a th in ‘enon ofthe indus revolution requied more complicated and sophisticated soi tions to motion control problems. James Watt (1736-1819) probably deserves the tile of fist Kiematctan for his synthesis ofa straight-line linkage (see Figure 3-29 on . 137) 0 guide the very lng suoke pistons in the then new steam engines. Since the Planer ws yet be invented in 1817} no means then existed machine «long, saiht ude serve asa crosshead in he scam engine. Walt Was certainly the first on record to recognize the vale of he motions of the coupler ink nthe fourbr linkage. Olver Evans (1755-1819), anesly American inventor also designed ssight-line linkage for ‘seam engine, Evie (1707-1783) was «contemporary of Wat, though they apparent Iy never mex. Euler presented an analytical weatnent of mechanisms in his Mechanica Sive Motus Siena Analtice Esposite (1736-1742), which neladed the concep that pl na mati is composed of to independent componeat. amel) traslton of pi ‘nd rotation ofthe bay about that pont. Euler aso suggested he separation othe prob lem of d)namic analysis into the "eomewical” and the "mechanical onde to simp fy the determination ofthe system's dynamics, Two of his contemporaries, d'Alembert tad Kant also propored sinilr ideas. This isthe eign of ou division of the opine Eemitics and kines as desribed on 3 Inthe early 1800s, L'Ecole Polytechnic in Pts, France, waste repository of eng neering experts, Lagrange and Fourier were among its faculty. One of it founders ‘vas Gaspard Monge (1746-1818), inventor of descriptive geometry (which ncdental Iy was Rep as miliacy secret bythe French government for 30 years because of is ‘ae in planning frifications)._Monge created coute in elements of machine and {et about the ask of classifying al meckansms and machines nown to mankind? His Collesgue, Hachette, completed the work in 1806 and published tas what was probably the first mechanism text in 1811. Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), azo «profesor ‘ut LEsole Polytecnc, et abot the formidable ask of claselfying “all human know! tiie” In is Esl sur la Philosophie des Sciences, he was the ist ous he term ce fmatique, from the Greek word for motion” to describe the stay of motion without ‘egardto forces, and suggested that "his sience ought wo incl all hat can be said with respect to motion ins diferent kinds, independenly ofthe forces by which tis pro ced." His tenn was later anglicied to inematcs and germanized 1 kinemat, Robert Wil (1800-1875) wrote he ex Principles of Mechanvn in 1841 while professor of natural philosophy atthe University of Cambridge, England, He attempted to systematize the tsk of mechanism symhess, He counted five ways of obtainingrelative motion betwoen inp nd utp links roling contact. sing con, inka ‘wrapping connetors (belts, chains), and tackle (ope or cain hosts). Franz Reuleaux (1829-1905), published Theoretische Kinemarikin F875. Many of hisieas are stil cu rent and useful. Alexander Kennedy (1847-1928) translated Reuleaux into English in 1876. This text became the foundation of modem kinematics andi stil in eit! (See iography at end ofchaper) He provided us withthe concept of a kieratic pair (Goin), whose shape and interaction define the typeof motion transmitted between ele ments in the mechanism, Reuleaux defined six bsic mechanical components: the lik te wheel, the eam, the screw, he ratchet, snd the belt He also defined "higher" and ower pais higher having line o point contac (asin arolle or ball bearing nd low cer having surface contact (sin init). Relea is generally considered the father ‘of modem kinematies and is responsible for the symbole notation of skeletal, gener linkages used in all modern Kinematics fet, Inthe 20 entry: prior to Work War I, most theoreicalw done in Europe, expecially in Germany, Few research resus were avalable in English In the United Sates, Kinematics was largely ignored unl the 1940s when A. E.R. dedonge wrote" Whats Wrong with Kinematics and Mechanisms," which ealled ‘ponte US. mechanical engineering edoaton establishment to pay utenti othe Eu ropean accomplishment inthis il. Since the, moch new work has been done, espe Cillin Kinematic synthesis, by American and Europea engineers and researcher such asJ.Denavit. A. Erdman, Freudenstcin, A, Hal, R.Hartenberg, R. Kaufman, B. Roth, G. Sandor, an A. Son allo the U.S.) and K. Hain (of Germany). Since he fal of he “iron curtain” much original work done by Soviet Rssan kinematics has become available inthe United States, sch stat by Artobolevsky ©) Many US. ‘lyse and synthesis, making practical se of many of the theories of their predeces ors) This ext wil make mich se ofthe availablity of computers to allow more ef: ficient analysis and synthesis of soltions to machine design problems 1.4 APPLICATIONS OF KINEMATICS (One ofthe first asks in solving any machine design problem sto determin the kine ‘matic cnfiguration(s) needed to provide the desired seions. Force apd stress analyses ‘ppiily cannot be done unt the Kinemsticesbes have been resolved. This text adress the design of kincmatic devices such asikages, cams, and gears. Each ofthese ers Wil be fully defined in succeeding chapters, but itmay be welt show some exam Piesof Kinematic applications inthis inroductory chapter. You probaly have ured many ‘ofthese systems without giving any thought to their kinetics. Yirally any machin or deve that moves contain one or more kinematic el rents such slink, came, gears belt, chins Your bcyoe is a simple example of a Kinematic system tht contains a chain dive to provide torgue mliplication and ip cable-pesaed linkage for braking. An astomobile entins many mare examples of Kinematic devices, Is steering system, wheel suspensions, an pston-engine all contin linkages; the engine’ valves are opened by cams andthe uansmisson fl of gears. Even he windshield wipers ar ikage-ven, Figure I-Ie shows spat inkage us to onto the rar wheel movement over humps ofa modem autmebile Ww loURE 1-1 Construction equipment sch as tratos, cranes, nd backhoes al ute linkages ox tensively in thei design Figure I-1b shows a smal backhoe thats linkage driven by hydaule cylinders. Another pplication using linkages is that of exerise equipment shown in FigreI-1c, The examples in Figure I-l ae all af consumer goods that you ray encounter in our daly travels, Many oter Kinematic examples occur the ela of frodeer goods—macioes aed Wo nos tre my Consumer pratt we we ‘You ae les likely w encounter these outside ofa futory environment. Once you be onme falar with he ems and principles of Kinematics, you wil a longer be able © Took at any machine or product without seeing its Kinematic aspects 1.8. THE DESIGN PROCESS Design, Invention, Creativity ‘These az ll familar ems but may mean diferent things to different people, These terms can encompass a wide rane of site from sling the newest ook in clothing, ‘o creating impressive architecture, to engineering a machine for the manufactre of ‘lal tissues. Engineering design, which we are concered with here, embodies al thee ‘of these activites aswell st many oters. The word design ie derived fromthe Latin dlesignare, which means “to designate, or mark ow.” Webster's gives several dein tions the most applicable being “to utine, plot, o plan as action or work... 19 con ‘ceive, invent ~ contrive.” Engineering design has been defined asthe process of ‘applying the various techniques and scientific principles forthe purpose of dein ‘device processor a system in sficiet detail to permits realization -. Design ay be simple or enormously comples easy or dificult, mathematical or nonmathe it may involve atrial problem or one of seat importance.” Design is unveral stituet of engineering practice, But te complexity of engineering subjects usuallyrr TUE requis ha the stunt be served with calleston of structured. set-piece problems These textbook problems typically take the form of "given A, B, C, and D, find E.” Un fortunately, el life enginesting problems ae sliost never o strtued. Real design ems moe often take the form of "What we need ia framus osu th neering graduate wil perch in vin arog his er textbooks for much guidance 1 Ive sucha problem, This uistructured problem stsiement usualy leads to wha cnaonly clled"blank paper syndrome Engincers often find themselves staring at a bank shes of paper pondering how o begin solving such an il-efined problem cer must kaow how to analyze systems of various fypes, mel thermal, or ui. Analysis requires a thorough understanding of both the appropra mathematical techniques snd te fundamental physics ofthe system’ function. But before any sytem canbe analyzed, mst exis, anda blank shot of paper provides li substance for analysis. Tus the Fist step in design excreie i that ‘of symthesis, which means puting foeti he design engineer, in practic, regress of discipline, continously faces the challenge of suturing the untructured problem, Inevitably, the peoblem a posed to the cnginerisilldefined snd incomplete, Before any atempt canbe made o anal the station be orshe mast fist carefully define the problem, using an engineering ap proech, tense that any proposed solution wil solve the ight problem. Many exam Des exe of excellent luton that were ultimately ejected because they Mach research has been devoted 1 the definition of Various “design processes" intended to provide means to structure the unstactored problem and lead toa viable Solution. Some of these proceses present dozens of step, oters oly afew. The one presented in Tele I-1 contains 10 steps and asi th author's experience, proven s ofl in Over 40 years of practice in engineering design. ofthese steps in detail itis necessary to point ot proces in which one proceeds from step ane through tn i. near fashion. Rather itis by its nature, an erative process n Which progres is made halt ingly, twosteps forward andone stepback. Ii inberenlyc oleate ments 70 pea to return oa previous sate for example, YOu pparetly grea idea, upon Says ums out o Silat the second law of themnodynarics, you can runt the ideation step and ge beter idea! Or, if necessary, you can rer oan eae tp in the understanding that th atl execution of he proces involves tation ity, we wll now discuss each step in the ore sted in Table L Identification of Need This fis stp is often done for you by someone, bos or lien, saying, “What we need i=" Typically this statement wl be rif and lacking in etal. tw al fr shor of viding you with tracted problem statement. Fr example, the prob might be "We needa beter awn mower Background Research outed cients mining concoction in test tes. Rather this researc of a mere ‘mundane sor. gathering backround infrmaton on the relevant physics, chemist other aspects ofthe problem, Also itis desirable ond out this osm problem, enough to finda ready-made solution onthe market, i will no doubt be more e:0n0 ‘ale purchase it than wo bud your own. Most key this wil not be the ese. but y tay learn a great deal cite with iia he problem tobe solved by iavestzating the existing “a nologies and press. Many companies purchase, disse bie and analyze tee competitors products «process sometimes fered tas "bench marking ‘The patent litcrature aod technical publications inthe subject area ae obvious information andar accesible Via the World Wide Web. The US. Patent a Extn patents inci ‘icaon section of patent is equted odeseribethe invention in sock detail that any re Soke inthe a ould make the invention. In eta for this fll disclosure he overament grants the inventor 4 20earmonapay on he claimed invention. After that teem enpites, anyone cause Clty you find thatthe soltion exists and is co hose ised in European countries, The die ‘sed ya patent sl n force, you have only 2 ew ethical choices: buy the patentee’ ex je Technical publications n engineering are numerovs and varied and are proved by numberof professional organizations. For the subject mater ofthis text, he rican Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME), which offers inexpensive student memberships, andthe International Federation for he Theory of Machines and M rams (IFToMM) both publish relevant journals, the ASME Journal of Mech fechanism and Machine Theory, respectively. Your schoo bry may sb jou can purchase copies of ticles ffom their web sites scribe oslo and wo sleviercomfacalpublisatons, respectively he World Wide Web provides an incredibly usefil resource fr the engineer os eat looking for information on any subject, The maay Search en liver a weal of infomation n response o selected Keywords, The web makes teary tofind sources for purchased hardware such as gers, bearings and motors, fr You m ‘hie designs, In ation, mich machine design infomation s available from the web. A numberof useful estes ae catalogued in the bibliography ofthis chapter tis very important that sufficient energy andtme be expended oni esearch nd preparation phase of the process in onder fo avoid the embarassment of concocting {reat saaton to the wrong problem, Most inexperienced (apd some experienced) en ers ve too litle tention this phase and jump too quik nto the ation andi ation stage ofthe process, This mat be avoided! You mst dsiline youself ono try to solve the problem before thoroughly preparing yourself odo soi — TTT —_ ll ly TAME? inlining confor. Ths is peape necessary ovoid anarchy but probably dceskave TABLET Favomence ect Once te background ofthe pblem ae srg ste i ly derstood you the efoto edcing the indviduns biy to tink creatively. Some cai hater D#CTOVE OCA wil be ready to recat ht problem ito amore coherent gal stsement. This new prob J GevesTorawiar lemsatement shoud ve tee characterists. I shuld be concise, be general and be Device tonovez sacolred by ay ten hat predict soliton It shouldbe couched in tems of fune- acer tional visualization, meaning fo via sfucton rater tan any pares embod Saattite. iment. For example, ifthe original statement of need was "Design a eter Lawn Mow ei eon, eraler research nto the myriad of ways cut grass that have been devised 0 ‘ges, the wise desighe ight estate the goal a "Design a Means to Shorten Gi The original problem sstement asa uil-in rap inthe fom of the colored word “Ian owes” For most peopl, thi phrase wll conjure up a vision of something With Whit- ‘tthe design proces and to exis within. The Seaton and vention step ca thus be 4 Dpicetaemit<89 ing blades anda noisy engin, For the Maton pase tobe most sucess it snes ‘broken down into these four subsp chem sary 1 avoid sch images and to stat the problem generally, clery, and oaciely. AS DEA GENERATION isthe most dificul of these steps. Even very creative people tivity canbe taught some that ison inberted. No hard evidence exit for either $5 ~igea Geneon Theory. Irs probbly ta tha ones lost or suppressed creativity canbe rekindled. Oth trates supgent tat most everyone undrulize is or her potential reatve aie. ‘You can enhance your erat through various techniques, (CREATIVE PROCESS Many techniques have been developed io enhance orinspse $8 EuoKo! creative problem solving. Infact, juste design processes have beea defined, so has the ‘Creative process shown in Table 1-3, Tis creative process canbe thought ofa subset am exercise, ist 10 ways to shorten grass. Mos of them Would not ocurto you had you tron asked for 10 beste awn tower design, You should vse functional visualization to void unnecessarily limiting your cea! Performance Specifications * ‘When the background is understood nd the goal leary stated, you are ready to formu: Inte a set of performance specifications alo elle task specication). These should ‘not be design specifications. The difference ist performance specifications define ‘what she system mus do, while design specification define how ir must doi At this “Eno een rosie te pny howe ase he tins is to carefully define and constrain te problem so that it both can be solved and ‘an be shown have Been solved after the fac. A.sample set of performance specifica ‘ions for our "grass sortener” is shown i Tale 1-2 Note that hese specitistions constrain the design without ovedy restricting the engineer's design feedom. Ik would be inappropriate to require a gasoline engine for Speciation 1, because other possiblities exist that will provide he desved mobi Likewise, to demand stsniess tel for ll components in specification 2 woul be un ‘wis, since coroson resistance can be obtained by other, les-expensive means. Ia shor, the perfomance specifications serve to define the problem nas complete nd as gene tla manner as possible, and they serve asa contractual definition of what sto be ac- complished. The finished design can be ested fr compliance wit he specifications. Ideation and Invention This step i ful ofboth fun and fasion. Tis phases potently the most satisfying to most designers, butt isle the most ifiul grat eal of reseachhas been done have dfficalty inventing on demand” Many techniques have ben suggested to in prove the yield of ideas, The most important technique is that of deferred ‘which means tha your etal shoul be temporally suspended. Do nt ty 0 judge the qualify of you ideas at this tage. That wil be taken care of later, in the analysis [hese The gal bere to obtain as larg a quantity of potential designs as possible Even soperficllysdculous suggestion shouldbe welcomed, athe may tigger m2 insights and suggest the more realistic and practical solution BRAINSTORMING is a technige for which some claim great sucess in generat ing creative solutions, This technique requires a group, preferably 6 to 15 people and tempt to ccumvent the largest Barve fo cesivity, which is far of ridicule. Most people, when ingroup, wll not sugges thei real thoughts on a subject, for fea of be Ing laughed st Brsnstorming's ues require hat no one be allowed to make Tun olor ‘rtcize anyone's sugestios, 0 mater how ridiculous. One pacipant acts as "scribe tds duty bound to recor ll suggestions, no matter how apparent silly. When done propel this fechnigue can be fen and ean sometimes result in a “feeding frenzy" of "eas that bald upon each ober. Large quantities of ideas canbe generated ina shor tine, Judgment on thei quality is deferred to ater time. ‘When youare working lone other techniques ar necessary, Analogies and inv. sion are often wel, Atterpt to draw anslogies between the problem at hand ad oer piyscal contexts, If itis a mechaaicl problem, conver iby analogy 10 uid o ele Friclone. Inversion tums the problem inside ot. For example consider what you want moved tobe stationary and vice versa. Insights often follow. Anoter useful ito cre {vty isthe se of synonyms, Define heaton vee inthe problem statement, and then is as many synonyins for that verb as posible. Fr example: Problem statement: Move this object from point Ato point B. The action verb "move." Some synonyms ae push pul lip, lide, shove, row ee, ju il ‘nies tmon _enploe the phenomenon of “reat.” Is most ape, a common human ait. ors imma 5 any exited very high degree by all Young chen. Therae and degree of hema” Gevlapmeat thao in he baa fom bh tough he fife years fie ce ‘ccs far nly gues some nate cretvity. Some have came hat our methods of Wes aeaeremeettg Education edt ste cides nal eet byencoraing conor ad Bsceaypchceone Sing indviualiy. From coloring within he lies a Kindergarten tang te By whatever means, the am in this ideation step iso generate a large number of| ideas witout partivulr gard oulity. But some point your "mental wel” il 0 fy. You will have ten reached the tp inthe creative proces aed frustration. tis time o leave the problem and do something else fr aie. While your concious mind js occupied with other concems, your subeonscion mind wil still be hard at werk on uote!eee otion ight selection process usvally involves a comparative analy th able design solu muration technical ideas, da the backs tener is ahown in Figure 1-2. Each design occ he matrix. Th sstothe selection and weighting of these categories. the mate the filled scious concer wih be particular problem ad that tb moment of insight frequent cee cas eens os 10. each Sppear i he midst of elanation or sleep. Soto enhance you cetvity, saturate you nat this is ulate ren fae it ee | sein the problem and related background material. Then relax and lt your subcon crt he deigns a dove on ae dint aenbapll cr cious do the hard work ighting factors (which are usual 10 sum toa convenient number such andthe product summed for each de ‘of designs Be cautious in applying hese reults. Remember the source and subj. ty of your scores andthe weighing factors! There is empsation to pat more ith inhese results hans justified. After al they lok impressive! They eam even be taken ro several dorimal pees! (But they shouldn't be.) The rae hati Oe cv nto more tractable piece bo the elative vale ofeach design ia many cat The weighted scores then give atk Analysis Once you ‘design be analyse pave ofthe des ode wll iscused in detain the following chapters) Further eration will be required Detailed Design - een This tp sual includes the ceation of complete st of assembly and detail ds ou 2 or computer-aided design (CAD) par fies, for y part wed inthe de re ee eee Each detail drawing must specify al the dimensions and the materi specifica Z 7 . sary to make that prt. From hese drawings (or CAD les) aprotrype test model (ot Sree eS Todi) most be contacted for pysial texting. Mos likely the tests wll discover a m4 Bred 3 nor la, ring fre eration Dei f a iio | Prototyping and Testing oF Ture ene a | [MODELS Ultimately, one cannot be sre ofthe comecinest or viability of any de 1 tt val is ll and tested. Ths usully involves the construction of «protlype pase gn Z ail model, A mathematical model, while very useful, can never be as compete and wee | mea fepresenttion ofthe atl physica system sa physical mode, doe to the ne fo make simplifying assumptions, Prototypes are often very expeasive but may bet ours 1-2 tow economical way to prove a design, shor of building the acta, fll-sle device Proteypes ca ake msn of the concepregard to proper sealing ofthe physical paametes. For example, volume of materia ‘aries the eobe of linear dimensions, but surface are Varies asthe square. Hea trans fer to the environment may be proportional o surface area, while hest generation may te roportonal to volume So near scaling of system, either up or down, may ado behavior different rom tha of the fall scale system. One must exercise cation in scal= ing physical models, You will ind a you begin to design linkage mechanisms that & simple cardboard model of your chosen link lengths, coupled together with humbacks for pivots, wil el you ret deal about the quality and character ofthe mechanism’s rotons, You should gt ito the habit of making soc simple articulated models fo all your linkage desins TESTING ofthe model or protatype may range fom simply actuating it and ob serving is function to attaching extensive instrumentation to accurately measure dis Pccments, yeloties,aecelrations forces, temperatures, and ober parameters. Tests nay needto be done under conrolled environmental conditions such a high or lw tem petue or humidity. ‘The microcomputer bas made it possible to measure many phe nomena more sccurtely and inexpensively than could be done before. Production Finally with enough ime, money nd perseverance, the design willbe ead fo pro Giction. "This might consist of the mansfactre of single final version of the desig, thot more likly will mean making thousands or even milion of your widget. The dan er expense, and embarrassment of finding flaws in your design after making large ‘uanties of defective devices should inspze you to use the greatest cre in the eres “The design proces is widely used in engineering. Enginceig is usually defines intemns of what on engineer does, but engineering ca als be defined in terms of how Theenginezr docs whet he or she does. Engineering iso much a meth, an approach, laprocess, ste of mind for problem sobing, at isan activity. Te engineering ap proach is that of thoroughnes, tention to deta, and consideration ofall he possibil fics, Whileitmay soem aconiadiction in terms o emphasize "attention to deal” while ‘extolling the vues of open-minded, freewheeling, creative thinking itis nt, The wo tetvites re not oly compatible they are ymbitc. Ieulimately des no good to have ‘eave, criginal des if you do nt, or cannot, carry out he execution of those ideas fd “reduce them to practice” Todo this you must discipline yourself to suffer the nity-grity,netlarome, tiresome details that are so necessary to te completion of any ‘ne pase ofthe creative design process, For example, odo a creditable job nthe de- sign of anything, you must conpletey define the problem. Ifyou leave out some detail of the problem definiion, you wl nd up slvig the wrong problem. Likewise, you rust thoroughly esearch he background information relevant othe problem. You ust Cchaustively pursue conceptual potential soltons to your problem. You must then fensvely analyze these conceps fr vali. And fall ail your chosen ‘design dow othe ast au and bolt to be confident i will work Ifyou wish oe a god tesigncr and engineer, you must eile youre odo things thoroughly andi og ical orderly manner even while thinking peat creative thoughts and iterating toa sla tion, Both atibates creativity and atention to deal, ae necessary for success in engl neering design. 1.6 OTHER APPROACHES TO DESIGN In recent yess, an increased effort has boen dircctod toward a better understanding of design methodology andthe design process. Design methodology isthe study ofthe ‘process of designing. One goal of tis esearch isto define the design process in suf ‘ent detail tallow it to be encoded in form amenable to execution in a compute, us ing “artificial ineligence™ (AD Dinool®l defines a design asa stat of information which may be in any of several forms wont, gmpicy electronic datas thers. maybe prio compete, Fen matt an ied pom, arg He goes onto describe several generalized state of information soc asthe reuiremente State hat is analogous to our performance speification, Information about he py concep is efered o asthe concep! stat of information and is analogous to ovr ideation phase. His feature configurdin td parametric tates of infomation ae st arin concep to our detalled design phase, Dixon then define a design process ‘Axiomatic Design 1N.P. Suh suggests an axiomatic approach to design a which thee are four domains: ‘astomer domi, functional domain, physical domain, andthe process domsin, These represent range fom what 10 "how." ie, fom astate of defining what the customer wants through determining the functions required and the neded physical embodiment, tohow a process will achieve the desired end. He defines two axioms tht need tobe Siisted wo accomplish this 1 Maintain the independence ofthe functional equsemens Minimize the information content, The first ofthese refer tothe need 1 crate a complete and nondependent set of perfor- mance specifetons, "The second indicates tha the best design solton il have the lowest information content (ie, the least complexity). Others have earlier refered © this second idea ae KISS, which stands, somewhat crudely, for“Heep i smple stupid” ‘The implementation of both Dixon's an Sub’ approaches othe design proces is Somennat complicated. Te interested reader i refered tothe erature cited inthe ib Tiogaphy to this chaper fr more complete information‘MULTIPLE SOLUTIONS finite element med HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING ‘hua. Human factors engineerin ‘with ands held in vatous posi the ears can stand without 1.9 THEENGINEERING REPORT rately thsi seldom ‘ on ws supp prvoncl an managers, Whea your desig s one, tis usally neces to preset the lien, pets, rele. Thea orm of presentation is formal eg us very important forthe engineering student pve You soe experience in this important oil te design projet assigaments graphy athe end of hs ils ape 1.10 UNM iar nteraloal SD. All ems ae ceed fete hice fe of he qua Variables canbe chosen and the oer stem tre chosen units ate called valve snot dep local gravity. The ST system requires ha lengths be measur inmeters (rm mass in ilograts (kg), and time in seconds (0). Fore is derived fe Newton's av, equation 1.18 andthe is “he only sytem of units used inthis textbook will be the SI sytem. Ta shows sme of the variables used inthis text and thei units. Note hat dynamic calcul fons mustbe dane in “pus” ants. Do not wse mi for length in dynamic ealulations The student iscastoned io always eck the units in any equation writen fr 3p Jem solation, whiter n schoo rn professional practice after araduton I ro Write, a equation should cance all uns acoss hee fan be absolely sure iis ncorect. Unfortunately ot guarantee tat ts cones, a many ober eoTable 14 Voviobies and Units 1.11 A DESIGN CASE STUDY Of althe myriad activites that the practicing engines engages i, the one that at once the mon challenging end potentially the most salisfying isha of design. Doing calcul tion to aalyzea clearly defined and sructured problem, no matter how complex. may Pedifical but the exeriseof creating something from cath, to sale a problem has ‘ken poorly defined, er fcuk. The seer pleasure andy at conceiving a vib ution wo such a design problem ison of ifs seat satisfactions fr anyone engineer Some yeas ago, «very crestve engineer ofthe author's scquinance, Geo ‘Wood Je, hear presentation by another creative engince of te authors acquaintance KKeivn Towfih,cbout one of his designs Year later, Mi. Wood himself wrote a shor paper about creative engineering design in which be reconstructed Mc. Towfigh’s pe fumed creative process when designing the orginal! invention. Both Mi. Wood and M "Towtigh have hal consented othe epraton of that paper he. Tt eres in his tutors opinion, as an excellent example ad mode! forthe student of engineering de Siento consider when parsing hik or her own design caec. Educating for Creativity in Engineering! by Geonae A. Wooo Jk, ete ntnomen