ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Rheological, baking, and sensory properties of composite

bread dough with breadfruit (Artocarpus communis Forst)
and wheat flours
Adegoke H. Bakare1, Oluwatooyin F. Osundahunsi2 & Joseph O. Olusanya3
1Department of Hospitality and Tourism, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
2Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
3Department of Home Economics and Hotel Management, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu Ode, Nigeria

Keywords Abstract
Bread, production, rheology, sensory
attributes qualities The rheological (Pasting, farinograph, and alveograph) properties of wheat flour
(WF) replaced with breadfruit four (05–40%) was analyzed. Baking and sensory
Correspondence qualities of the resulting bread were evaluated. Differences in baking properties
Adegoke H. Bakare, Department of of loaves produced under laboratory and industrial conditions were analyzed
Hospitality and Tourism Federal University of
with t-­test, whereas ANOVA was used for other analyses. Peak and final viscosi-
Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.
Tel: 08052678026;
ties in the composite blends (CB) ranged from 109.20 to 114.06 RVU and
E-mail: [email protected] 111.86 to 134.40 RVU, respectively. Dough stability decreased from 9.15 to
0.78 min, whereas farinograph water absorption increased 59.7–65.9%. Alveo-
Funding Information graph curve configuration ratio increased from 1.27 to 7.39, whereas specific
No funding information provided. volume (Spv) of the loaves decreased from 2.96 to 1.32 cm3/g. The Spv of WF
loaves were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from that of the 5% CB,
Received: 14 July 2015; Revised: 21 October
whereas production conditions had no significant effects on absorbed water
2015; Accepted: 1 November 2015
(t = 0.532, df = 18 P = 0.3005), weight loss during baking (t = 0.865, df = 18,
Food Science & Nutrition 2016; 4(4): P = 0.199), and Spv (t = 0.828, df = 14.17, P = 0.211). The sensory qualities
573–587 of the 5% blend were not significantly different from the WF.

doi: 10.1002/fsn3.321

Alex et al. 2008; Ade-­ Omowaye et al. 2008; Lin et al.

Introduction
2009; Adeleke and Odedeji 2010;. Malomo et al. 2011,
Bread is a staple food consumed in different parts of the 2013).
World. Varieties of bread of different sizes, shape, textures, Consumption of wheat-­based products is expected to
and flavors that contain different ingredients and are baked increase as population and urbanization increases (Bakare
under different conditions exists across many continents 2008; Malomo et al. 2011), and with the exotic lifestyle
(Zhou and Therdthai 2006). Bread was also described as and food habits adopted by the citizen of most of the
a fermented confectionery product produced mainly from nonwheat producing countries. Partial as against the desired
wheat flour, water, yeast, and salt by a series of process complete replacement of wheat flour with available indig-
involving mixing, kneading, proofing, shaping, and baking enous flours remains the only viable practical option. The
(Dewettinck et al. 2008). Several studies have reported challenges with adoption of this technology at industrial
the prospects of composite flour technology as a means scale include minimizing the changes that would occurred
of reducing the dependence on wheat for the production in the known quality of the final product, technical issues
of bakery products (Hugo et al. 2000; Doxastakis et al. relating to the use of established manufacturing procedure
2002; Woo and Seib 2002; Hallen et al. 2004; Michiyo and availability of flour of suitable quality from various
et al. 2004; Greene and Bovell-­ Benjamin 2004; Mepba indigenous sources; particularly flour from under utilised
et al. 2007; Biljan and Bojana 2008; Manuel et al. 2008; crops with less competing uses.

© 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. This is an open access article under the terms of 573
the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread A. H. Bakare et al.

Breadfruit (Artocarpus communis Forst) is one of such Analysis of flour

crops. It is a staple diet in many tropical developing coun-
All analyses were performed in triplicates. Protein, mois-
tries of the world. The tree fruits early between May and
ture, water absorption, and ash contents of wheat flour
August, producing 50–200 fruits in a year. The mature
and blends were analyzed with official methods (AACC,
fruit is round or ovoid, 15–20 cm in diameter and weighs
2000) using a Partens Inframatic analyzer (Model 9140,
2–10 kg on average. The fruit is produced mainly in Malaysia,
SE-126 53, Hägersten, Sweden). Alpha-­ amylase activity
the South Pacific Island, the Caribbean’s and West Africa
was determined with the Hagberg falling numbers instru-
(Ragone 2009). Total yearly production in Nigerian is about
ment (Partens model no 1500, USA), based on (AACC,
10 million metric tonnes with potential to exceed 100 mil-
2000) approved method. Free sugar and starch in wheat
lion metric tonnes with improved agricultural practice
and breadfruit flours samples were determined by the
(Adewusi et al. 1995; Amusa et al. 2002). The economic
spectrophotometric method of Dubois et al. (1970) and
utilization of breadfruit has been limited by its poor stor-
Mcready (1970). Crude fiber content of flour was deter-
age properties which is about 1–3 days after harvest (Ragone
mined by Trichloroacetic acid method as described by
2009). Conversion of breadfruit to flour would provide a
Entwistle and Hunter (1949).
more stable storage form and also enhance its versatility.
(Morton 1987; Oladunjoye et al. 2010).
Breadfruit is an underutilized crop in Nigeria, informa- Viscosity characteristics of flour
tion on its composition, nutritional importance, and the
Pasting characteristic of the four and their blends were
behavior of its flour during cooking had already been
determined according to ICC No 162 method. Rapid visco
studied (Graham and De-­Bravo 1981; Oladunjoye et al.
analyzer (RVA) series 4 (RVA; series 4, Newport Scientific
2010; Bakare et al. 2012). This study therefore evaluated
P.T.V., Warriewood, Australia) with the aid of thermocline
the effects of replacing wheat flour with breadfruit flour
for Windows (version 1.1. Software, 1996) provided by the
on the rheological properties of the composite flour blends,
instrument manufacturer was used for the analysis. The
the baking and sensory qualities of the resulting bread
12-­min profile was used for all the analyses. It consists of
and also compared some baking qualities of the bread
idle temp of 50°C for 1 min, then 50–95°C in 3 min 45 sec,
under laboratory and industrial conditions.
held at 95°C for 2 min 30 sec, cooled to 50°C over 3 min
45 sec, final, held at 50°C for 2 min. Two paddle speeds
Materials and Methods of 960 revolutions per minute for the first 10 sec followed
by 150 revolutions per minute were employed for the
Source of materials remaining duration of the test cycle. The weight per sample
used for each analysis was calculated from the formula:
Seedless variety of breadfruit (Artocarpus communis Forst)
used for the study was obtained from a farm at Mamu A × 100
Corrected sample weight for R V A (S) = ,
in Ijebu North Local Government area of Ogun State. 100 − M
Wheat flour was obtained from Honey well flour mill,
Ltd Apapa, Lagos, whereas other ingredients were p
­ urchased (W) = 25 + (A − S),
in the retail markets.
where A  = Weight of flour sample: using the R V A
manual as a guide.
Preparation of flour S  = Corrected sample weight.
M  = Actual moisture content of the sample.
Breadfruit was processed as described by Oladunjoye et al.
W  = Volume of water used.
(2010) with some modifications. Matured breadfruit
(Greenish-­yellow skin), peel color index -­3 (Ajayi 1997;
Ragone 2009) were hand peeled, washed, thinly sliced, and Rheological characteristics of dough
soaked in 5% sodium metabisulfite solution for 30 min to
Farinogram characteristics
prevent enzymic browning. It was then dried in a cross flow
Gallenkamp oven (Model OV-160 size 2 BS, Weiss Technik The farinogram characteristics of dough made from blends
UK, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK) at 80°C for 2 h and of breadfruit/wheat composite Flour samples (10–20%)
then, at 35°C for 12 h. The dried chips were milled to flour were determined by approved method (AACC, 2000)
in a Disk mill (Model FFC-15, Shandong-Jimo Agricultural using Brabender Farinograph (Model T 150 E,
Machinery, Qingdao City, Shandong Province, China) at Ohgduisburg, Germany). The instrument provided a
8800 RPM and sieved through a 250 μm mesh sieve (W. means of evaluating the strength of flour, dough consist-
S. Tyler, 8570 Tyler Blvd, Mentor, OH, United States). ency, and characteristics (Edmund 1967; Bloksma 1990a;

574 © 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A. H. Bakare et al. Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread

Abang Zaidel et al. 2010). Inframatic analyzer was used Bread production
to obtain an estimate of the moisture content of flour
Bread loaves were produced according to AACC (2010)
sample and hence determine the actual weight of flour
with slight modification. Formulation included: Breadfruit/
samples to be used at the prescribed 14% moisture basis
Wheat (100:00, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, and 60:40) composite
for the farinogram analysis. This was obtained by the
Flour 100 g (14% moisture), 6.5 g sugar, 1.5 g iodized
expression;
salt, 3.0 g yeast, 3.9 g fat and 50 ppm of ascorbic acid
(100 − 14) × 300 g as dough improver. The water required to form a dough
Required weight of sample = ,
(100.M) of desired consistency varied between 32.1% and 93.3%
of flour using water absorption values obtained from the
where M  = Percent moisture content of the sample.
farinogram as guide.
Appropriate weight of flour sample was placed in the
Bread production was carried out in the laboratory and
mixer of the farinogram, which was thermostatically con-
also in a small-­scale industrial bakery (Eucharistic Heart
trolled by means of water jacket at a temperature of 30°C.
of Jesus, Ibonwon, Lagos state), respectively. Locally fabri-
Cold water at 30°C was added to the sample through
cated horizontal high speed mixer (Jido Nigeria) and Omega
the attached burette until optimum water ­absorption con-
spiral mixer (Model OMJ-25, China Omega Baking
tent was absorbed by the dough when the farinogram
Machinery Co. L. No.88, East Taishan Road, Shenzhou
curve was on the 500 line. A fresh sample was taken and
City, Hengshui, Hebei, China) were used in the industrial
the process was repeated using the appropriate water
and laboratory mixing, respectively. The dough was fer-
absorption for the mixing and development process. The
mented (proofed) at initial and final fermentation time of
development of the dough and the ­resistance offered to
15 and 28 min and at ambient condition of 28 ± 2°C
mixing were recorded on the farinogram.
temperatures and 85 ± 12% relative humidity. Baking trials
at laboratory level was done in an oven (Model GP-OV-
Alveogram characteristics 100-F-SS-DIG, St Helens, Merseyside, Great Britain) at 220°C
for 30 min while locally constructed typical clay oven used
The alveograph (Chopin NG France) was used to measure
by local bakeries was used for the industrial production.
(AACC, 2010) characteristics that provided insight in to
The bread samples were cooled for 1 h, then placed in
the fermentation tolerance of the dough as may be exhib-
low-­density polyethylene plastic bags and kept at 24 ± 2 °C.
ited during proofing stage of bread making. Characteristics
of interest that were measured included the average resist-
ance to expansion indicated by the peak height (mm), Determination of physical quality of bread
extensibility indicated by length (L) of the alveogram curve,
Weights of bread loaves were measured with a Mettler
energy input (Joules) required for the mechanical defor-
Toledo (A204) digital weighing scale. Volume of was
mation of the dough (W), inflation required for maximum
measured by millet seed displacement method (AACC,
development (G), and the elastic resistance (Ie) of the
2010) with minor modification.
measured dough samples.
Flour sample (250 g) of known moisture content was
placed into the mixer, sodium chloride solution (2.5%) Weight loss
was added through a burette (i.e., 129.4 ml for flour
The weight loss of the bread was determined as described
with 14% moisture) and mixed for 7 min. The dough
by Kim et al. (2003). The dough was weighed before bak-
was forced through the extrusion gate in the form of a
ing, and the breads were weighed after baking. The percent
thin strip on to a small oiled steel plate. Five extruded
weight loss of the bread samples was calculated as:
dough pieces of designated length were cut off, rolled
with an oiled rolling pin to a uniform thinness, cut into A − B × 100
%weight loss = ,
a circular disk, transferred to an oiled steel plate, and A
subjected to a brief rest period in a tempered compart-
where, A = weight of dough; B = weight of baked bread.
ment of the alveograph for 15 min. Each circular dough
test pieces were removed from the compartment and
inserted between two metal plates that held it securely Sensory analysis
in position. The air valve was opened to supply air pres-
Selection of panelists
sure to the held dough through an orifice. The electrically
driven recording manometer was simultaneously activated Forty people were selected from a pool of volunteers
to record the air pressure inside the dough bubble against comprising professional bakers, catering officers, lecturers,
time. and students of tertiary institution. The panelists were

© 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 575
Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread A. H. Bakare et al.

Table 1. Attributes, definitions, and references used in the descriptive sensory analysis of bread produced from wheat-­breadfruit flour.

Terms Definitions References Quality and score range

Appearances
Crust color Light golden brown 100% wheat flour bread Very pale dark brown to typical
yellowish brown: 1–5
Crumb color Typical white color of bread 100% wheat flour bread Brown to white: 1–10
Cell size Cell size of crumb resembling Internal crumb bread from 100% More cells with small diameter:
mesh of tiny diameter size wheat flour. 1–10
Cell uniformity Even distribution of the cells Internal crumb bread from 100% Extent to which cells are evenly
throughout the sample wheat flour. distributed: 1–10
Flavor
Characteristic taste of Bread Reminiscent of the characteristic Bread made with 100% wheat Foreign to typical: 1–5
of typical wheat flour bread flour
Wheaty smell Reminiscent of the smell of wheat Bread made with 100% wheat Foreign to typical: 1–10
bread flour
Aroma Characteristic aroma of freshly Bread made with 100% wheat Foreign to typically pleasant: 1–5
baked bread flour
Texture
Mouthfeel Having chewiness that is Bread made from 100% wheat Doughy to typical clean easy to
associated with freshly baked flour breakdown mouth feel: 1–10
wheat flour bread
Crumb stability and softness Bread separated slowly when Bread made from 100% wheat Unstable/hard to stable and soft:
pulled apart flour 1to 10
Nongrittiness Absence of small coarse particles Bread made from 100% wheat Absence of small particles during
in the mouth after swallowing flour and after mastication: 1–10
Lightness Bread loaf has heavy, compact, Denseness to lightness: 1–10
thick inner structure associated
with poorly aerated bread

Adapted from Greene and Bovell-­Benjamin (2004); Indrani and Rao (2007); Bakare (2008).

selected after an oral interview conducted on the basis

Statistical analysis
of a criteria checklist that included: Good health, non-
smoker, nonallergic to wheat/breadfruit, willingness to All experiments and analyses were conducted in triplicates.
participate, and passion/likeness for the consumption of Data obtained from different aspects of the study were
bread. They were compensated for their participation. Ten subjected to analysis of variance and the Duncan multiple
of the selected people were trained as panelists for descrip- range test was used to separate the means (Duncan 1955).
tive analysis aspects of the test, whereas the remaining Independent sample t-­test was used compare the baking
30 people were used as untrained panelists for the con- qualities (absorbed water, weight loss, and specific volume)
sumer/preference aspect of the test. of bread baked under laboratory and industrial conditions.
Statistical analysis package software SPSS 17 for windows
(IBM, New Orchard Road, Armonk, New York) was used
Descriptive sensory analysis
for all the analyses.
Descriptive sensory analysis was carried out as described
by Bakare et al. (2013). Judges rated the intensity of the
samples for each attribute using a numerical intensity
Results and Discussion
scale specified in Table 1
Composition of the flours and their blends
The breadfruit flour (BF) had relatively lower protein but
Consumer test
higher ash and fiber contents than wheat flour (Table 2)
Quantitative acceptance test was used to assess consumers and did not have the structural gluten-­ forming protein
liking for the product. Thirty untrained panelists rated their found in wheat flour. Protein and gluten contents of the
liking or otherwise for cakes produced from the blends blends decreased as wheat flour (WF) was gradually replaced
on a seven-­point hedonic scale (1 = liked very much less with BF, whereas ash contents increased in the blends as
as compared to reference sample ‘R’, and 7 = liked much the proportion of BF increased. Similar trend in protein
more as compared to reference sample ‘R’). valued was reported by Olatunji and Akinrele (1978).

576 © 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A. H. Bakare et al. Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread

Values for protein and ash contents in the blends ranged

a–f, Mean in the same column with the same subscripts are not significantly different (P < 0.05); N.D, Not determined; N.A, Not available; WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour; (10–40), composite
2.81 ± 0.7
7.79 ± 0.6
Fibers (%)
from 6.71 to 11.1% and 0.83% to 1.41, respectively. Falling
number values (which are indicative of the alpha amylase
activity) increased from 316.3 to 865 as the proportion
of BF was increased in the blends (Table 2). This implied
Sugars (%) that the extent of liquefaction and diastatic activity of

2.63 ± 0.6
3.75 ± 0.7
the starches in the blends decreased as the proportion of
the BF was increased (Schiller 1984; Watson 1984). The
value of damaged starch in WF was within the range
specified for bakery flour (Schiller 1984). The BF had a
higher value of damaged starch (19.3%) than the WF. It
Damaged starch

was relatively higher than the value reported for breadfruit

7.21 ± 0.1
19.3 ± 1.4

starch (Loos et al. 1981). The high fiber content (7.79%)

observed in the BF suggested greater tendency to absorb
%

more water during mixing than the WF and this has

implication on the quality of bread produced from the
blends.
Starch (%)

69.89 ± 8
61.30 ± 4

Rheological characteristics
Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of
Alpha amylase activity

matter. It is the study of the manner in which materials

respond to applied stress or strain (Mirsaeedghazi et al.
2008). The rheological properties of food materials meas-
316.3 ± 0.7b

686 ± 4.2d
302 ± 1.4a

865 ± 2.1e
(Falling No)

ured or tested by rheometers like rapid visco anlyser,

370.3 ± 2c

farinograph and alveograph provides empirical information

N.D

that correlates well with actual results on product’s qual-

ity. Also, measurements obtained from these instruments
have been reported to correlates with result gotten from
7.6 ± 0.2b
5.8 ± 0.1a
11.6 ± 0.1d
9.8 ± 0.1c
12.8 ± 0.1e

mixolab (Dapčević et al. 2009) which has been designed

Gluten (%)

to eliminate some of the short comings associated with

farinograph and amylograph (Alava et al. 2007; Fustier
N.A
Table 2. Composition of breadfruit, wheat flours, and their composite blends.

et al. 2008; Marco and Rosell 2008; Ozturk et al. 2008).

1.31 ± .01d

Viscosity characteristic
0.65 ± .01a

0.98 ± 0.0c
1.72 ± .01f

1.41 ± 01e
0.83 ± .0b
Ash (%)

Pasting temperature gives an indication of temperature

required to cook the flour beyond its gelatinization point
(BeMiller 2011). It corresponds to the temperature where
viscosities first increase by at least 2 RVU over a 20 sec
10.9 ± 0.1de

10.3 ± 0.3d

6.71 ± 0.1b
2.6 ± 0.1a
11.1 ± 0.3e
Protein (%)

8.59 ± 0.3c

period (Olkku and Rha 1978; Appelqvist and Debet 1997).

Changes that may occur when a starch-­ water system is
heated included enormous swelling, increased viscosity,
translucency and solubility, and loss of anisotropy (bire-
fringence) (Shimelis et al. 2006). The starch granules of
blends; # = Substitution levels.
Moisture (%)

12.8 ± 0.1ba

the BF gelatinized at a higher temperature (71.7°C) than

13.7 ± 0.2b
13.7 ± 0.2b
12.5 ± 0.3a

12.5 ± 0.2a
12.5 ± 0.1a

that of WF (68.50°C). The starch gelatinization range

observed for wheat flour was within the range reported
by Hoseney (1994) and Shimelis et al. (2006).
Peak viscosity is the maximum viscosity develops during
100:00#

or soon after the heating phase of the test. It occurred

00:100

10:90
20:80
30:60
60:40
BF:WF

after most of the granule swelling had ceased. Hot starch

Flour

paste is a mixture of swollen starch granules and granule

© 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 577
Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread A. H. Bakare et al.

Table 3. Pasting characteristics of breadfruit and wheat flours.

Peak viscosity Holding Breakdown Final viscosity Set back Peak time Pasting
Flours (RVU) strength (RVU) viscosity (RVU) (RVU) viscosity (RVU) (min) temperature °C
BF:WF
00:100 101.17 ± 0.7a 64.33 ± 0.1a 36.83 ± 0.6a 114.92 ± 0.7b 50.58 ± 0.1e 6.20 ± 0.7b 68.50 ± 0.4a
100:00 251.90 ± 0.9g 191.60 ± 0.7f 60.94 ± 0.6c 316.00 ± 0.7f 126.0 ± 0.7f 4.60 ± 0.7a 71.74 ± 0.3d
05:95 109.20 ± 1.4b 66.14 ± 0.2a 43.06 ± 0.4b 111.86 ± 0.3a 45.70 ± 0.5c 6.22 ± 0.1b 68.77 ± 0.1ab
10:90 114.06 ± 0.7c 77.13 ± 0.9b 37.03 ± 0.5a 118.92 ± 0.7c 42.79 ± 0.6ab 6.19 ± 0.0b 69.50 ± 0.4b
15:85 115.8 ± 1.1d 79.43 ± 0.2c 36.46 ± 0.6a 123.44 ± 0.3d 43.01 ± 0.2b 6.19 ± 0.1b 70.12 ± 0.1c
20:80 119.02 ± 0.7e 82.15 ± 0.1d 36.87 ± 0.6a 124.09 ± 0.7d 41.94 ± 0.4a 6.16 ± 0.1b 70.46 ± 0.2c
40:60 122.30 ± 0.6f 85.40 ± 0.3e 36.93 ± 0.4a 134.40 ± 0.3e 48.37 ± 0.3d 6.07 ± 0.4b 78.30 ± 0.2c

a–g, Mean in same column with the same subscripts are not significantly different (P < 0.05); WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour; (05–90), composite
blends.

fragments, together with colloidal and molecularly dispersed value (316 RVU) than the WF indicating that it formed
starch molecules. It gelatinizes when heated beyond 50°C. a firmer gel after cooking and cooling.
This caused a marked increase in the viscosity and further Setback viscosity is the phase of the pasting curve after
disintegration of the starch granules. The viscosity of the cooling the starches to 50°C. This stage involved re-­
starch paste dropped at elevated temperature near 95 °C association, retrogradation, or reordering of starch mol-
depicting the characteristic peak in the viscosity–tempera- ecules. Also, the water previously bounded in the viscoelastic
ture curve of the RVA graph (Dengate 1978; Bakare et al. gel are released at this stage in a process referred to as
2012). The peak viscosity also measures the alpha amylase syneresis. The higher the setback viscosity, the greater the
activity and other contributory factors such as the inherent tendency toward retrogradation. The BF had relatively
susceptibility of the starch to amylase and the starch gel higher viscosity value than the WF.
strength (Watson 1984; Meera 2010). Therefore, a higher Peak time was the time at which the peak viscosity
value of RVU at the peak of the curve indicated a lower was attained in minutes. The WF had a significantly higher
diastatic activity and vice versa (Schiller 1984). The peak peak time than the BF.
viscosity of WF (101.0 RVU) was found to be significantly
lower than that of BF (252.0 RVU) (Table 3) indicating
Farinograph
a relatively higher diastatic activity and lower gel strength.
Peak viscosities occur at equilibrium between swelling Mixing, fermentation and baking are the three basic opera-
of the granules (that ‘increases the viscosity) and the tions involve in bread making. Mixing transforms the flour
granule rupture and alignment (that reduces viscosity). and water into cohesive viscoelastic dough and also incor-
The relatively high swelling capacity exhibited by the BF porates air in to the dough. The incorporated air provided
may have resulted from a weak internal bonding in the the gas cells into which the carbon dioxide produced by
starch granules. the yeast fermentation diffuses. Bread dough is a wet mass
Holding strength indicated the ability of the starch developed after mixing of wheat flour, water and other
granules to maintain their gelatinized structure when the ingredients. Development of dough occurs as a result of
paste was held at 95°C for 2 min 30 sec under mechani- interactions among flour constituents during mixing opera-
cal shearing stress. The BF had a holding strength value tion. Although, these interactions are more complex than
that was higher than that of the WF. what was observed during the farigraph test. The test,
Breakdown viscosity is a measure of the degree of starch however, provided an empirically verifiable insight in to
disintegration. It is an indication of hot paste stability of what may be at play during the actual process of dough
the starch. The smaller the breakdown viscosity, the higher development. The aim of mixing is to bring about changes
the paste stability (Hugo et al. 2000; Bakare et al. 2012). in the physical properties of the dough that would improve
The BF had significantly higher (60.9 RVU) breakdown the ability of the dough to retain the carbon dioxide gas
viscosity value than the WF (36.8 RVU) indicating rela- that would be produced during yeast fermentation.
tively lower hot paste stability. Resistance to deformation, extensibility, elasticity, and sticki-
Final viscosity is the section of the paste gel curve ness are some of the physical properties of dough that
where the gelatinized dispersion of starch becomes vis- are critical for control in bread making process.
coelastic on cooling resulting in the formation of a loose The rheological characteristics exhibited by flour during
paste or gel. The BF had significantly higher final viscosity mixing (Table 4) revealed that the WF arrived at the

578 © 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A. H. Bakare et al. Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread

Table 4. Farinogram of wheat flour and its composite blends with breadfruit flour.

Arrival time Departure Dough Mixing tolerance Water Breakdown Dough development
Flours (min) time (min) stability (min) index (BU) absorption (%) time (min) time (min)
BF:WF
00:100 1.86 ± 0.1e 10.9 ± 0.1d 9.35 ± 0.4e 80.5 ± 0.3a 58.6 ± 0.4a 10.9 ± 0.5c 8.25 ± 0.1c
05:90 1.69 ± 0.1d 10.6 ± 0.1d 9.15 ± 0.2d 82.5 ± 0.7a 59.7 ± 0.4a 10.7 ± 0.4c 8.28 ± 0.1c
10:90 1.04 ± 0.1a 3.44 ± 0.1c 2.25 ± 0.2b 106.5 ± 0.9b 64.7 ± 0.6b 2.56 ± 0.2a 1.65 ± 0.3a
15:85 1.06 ± 0.7b 3.13 ± 0.4b 2.36 ± 0.1c 106.80 ± 1.3b 65.5 ± 0.4c 2.48 ± 0.1a 1.63 ± 0.2a
20:80 1.67 ± 0.1c 2.54 ± 0.4a 0.78 ± 0.1a 161.7 ± 1.2c 65.9 ± 0.6c 2.65 ± 0.1b 2.15 ± 0.1b

d–a, Mean in same column with the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05); WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour; (05–20), composite
blends.

consistency line in 1.85 min, whereas the blends arrived 65.9% with the WF and the 20% blend having the lowest
at relatively short times, indicating faster uptake of water and highest values, respectively. Earlier studies (Doxastakis
and faster dough development (Lorenz 1990). Arrival time, et al. 2002; Malomo et al. 2011) have also reported the
(AT) was the time to the nearest one-­half minutes required absorption of more water by composite blends. The
for the top of the curve to reach the point of greatest increases in water absorption values as the BF replaces
torque after the commencement of mixing (500 BU con- WF in the blends may not be unconnected with the higher
sistency line). It is a measure of the rate at which water crude fiber content in the BF (7.8%) compared to the
was taken up by the flour (Shuey 1990; Abang Zaidel WF (2.81%), respectively (Table 3). Crude fiber have
et al. 2010). Departure time (DT) was the time required components that are hydrophilic (D’Appolonia and Kim
for the curve to drop below the 500 BU consistency line. 1976; Hu et al. 2007) and capable forming solution of
All the blends of BF and WF had shorter DT times com- high viscosity (Yin et al. 2011).
pared to the WF. Mixing tolerance index (MTI) values ranged from 80.5
Dough Stability Time (DST), indicated how much tol- to 161.7 BU with the WF having the lowest values. It
erance the flour has to over or under mixing (Schiller also decreased as BF was used to replace WF in the blends.
1984). The WF had a DST value of 9.30 min, whereas Generally, flours with good tolerance to mixing have low
all the blends have significantly lower DST which decreased MTI; the higher the MTI value, the weaker the flour
as WF was replaced with BF. The DST values of the (Shuey 1990). Breakdown Time (TBD) like MTI it is also
blends ranged from 0.78 to 9.15 min. This DST trends an index of the relative strength of flours. The TBD values
agreed with the reports of Olatunji and Akinrele (1978) ranged from 2.65 to 10.9 min. The WF showed better
for tropical tuber and breadfruit and Michiyo et al. (2004) resilience than the blends of composite flour.
for pre-­germinated and brown rice. Dough development particularly for the WF begins with
Water is responsible in hydrating the protein fibrils addition of water and commencement of mixing opera-
and facilitating the interactions between the proteins cross-­ tion. Initially all ingredients are hydrated and appeared
links with the disulfide bonds during dough mixing. An like a sticky paste. Belton (1999) and Letang et al. (1999)
optimum amount of water is needed to develop cohesive, demonstrated that gluten development was mainly brought
viscoelastic dough with optimum gluten strength. Optimum about by the interactions of glutenin proteins with each
water level differs from flour to flour depending on the other in the loop by disulfide bonds. On further mixing,
quantity of protein and other dense particles that they more protein becomes hydrated and the glutenins tend
contained. Protein content has been known as an impor- to align because of the imposed shear and stretching forces
tant determinant of the extent to which WF would absorbed (Abang Zaidel et al. 2010). the viscosity also increased,
water during mixing (Sliwinski et al. 2004). In composite sticky characteristics of dough disappeared and a nonsticky
flour, the influence of starches, fiber from nonwheat source, mass was developed at peak consistency of dough typified
and relatively higher damaged starch in the BF on the as the peak of the curve above the 500 BU of the farino-
absorbed water may be more significant than the effect gram (Fig. 1A). The interactions between the polymers
of protein content in the flour blends as substitution of cross-­links was stronger and led to an increase in dough
WF for BF progresses. strength, maximum resistance to extension and restoring
The water absorption is the amount of water required force after deformation. When the dough was mixed
to develop dough to the point of greatest torque when, beyond its peak development, the cross-­ links began to
for wheat flour, the gluten would have been fully devel- break due to the breaking of disulfide bonds. The glu-
oped. The water absorption values ranged from 58.6 to tenins become depolymerized and the dough is overmixed.

© 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 579
Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread A. H. Bakare et al.

(A)

BF:WF 00: 100

(B)

BF:WF 10: 90

BF:WF 20:80

Figure 1.  (A) Farinogram of Wheat and Breadfruit-­Wheat composite flour. (B) Farinogram of Wheat and Breadfruit-­Wheat composite flour.

The monomeric proteins, gliadins form a matrix within proofing stage of bread making (Pyler 1988; Mepba et al.
the long polymer networks and contribute to resistance 2007). The P values ranged from 90 to 226 mm with
to extension by forming viscous dough with reduced elas- the WF and the 10% blend offering the least and highest
ticity. The presence of smaller chains in the dough makes resistance to expansion, respectively (Table 5). The length
the dough stickier. In Figure 1B, the ability of the blends (L) indicated the extensibility of the dough. The L values
to sustain the viscoelastic property of the dough reduced ranged from 33 to 80 mm with the 10% blend and WF
with increasing presence of the BF as shown in the trends having the least and highest extensibility, respectively. The
in dough stability, breakdown, and dough development P/L (configuration ratio) ranged from 1.13 to 7.39. The
time. WF and 20% had the highest and lowest values, ­respectively,
and the 5% blend was not significantly (P < 0. 05) ­different
from the WF.
Alveograph
The energy (W) required for deformation is an indica-
The alveograph is an important dough testing instrument tion of the baking strength of the dough. It ranged from
use to evaluate the quality of wheat flours for bread and 227 × 10−4 J in the 20% blend to 336 × 10−4 J in the
biscuit and cookie making (Bettge et al. 1989; Janssen 10% blend. Baking strength increased as WF was replaced
et al. 1996). It measures the resistance to expansion and with BF and peaked at 10% substitution level which was
the extensibility of a dough by providing the measurement the inflection point in the trend.
for maximum over pressure, average abscissa at rupture, The curve configuration ratio (P/L) is an index of gluten
index of swelling, and deformation energy (Fig. 2) of dough behavior. It ranged from 1.13 to 8.04 with the WF and
(Indrani and Rao 2007). It impacts strain rates of 0.1–1 the 15% blend having the lowest and highest values, respec-
sec−1, which are about 100-­fold higher than those occur- tively. Also, there was no significant (P < 0.05) difference
ring in actual baking processes (Chin and Campbell 2005). between the WF and 5% blend. High values of curve
The Peak height (P) indicated the resistance that the configuration ratio may be indicated strong wheat flour
dough offered to deformation and it is related the tensile as observed by Pyler (1988). However, the strength of
strength or stability that the dough exhibited during the composite flour is probably influenced by considerations

580 © 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A. H. Bakare et al. Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread

other than gluten behavior. The significantly higher ratios

of the 10–20% blend could not be due their gluten con-
tents alone. This G values (Table 5) depicted the relative
abilities of the dough to be inflated for maximum devel-
opment until they eventually burst. It is a measure of the
magnitude of the total response of the dough to the biaxial
stress and strain imposed on it by the instrument. It ranged
from 11.4 to 19.9, decreased significantly as WF was replaced
with BF. The WF and 5% blend had significantly higher
values than other blends. Elasticity index (Ie) may be used
to characterize the dough on the basis of the elastic resist-
BF:WF 00:100 ance that they offer during their bi-­axial deformation (Pyler
1988; BaNu et al. 2011). It also decreased with substitution
levels and the WF and 5% blend offered significantly bet-
ter elastic resistance.
The nonlinear viscoelastic behavior of WF dough has
been attributed to the continuous gluten matrix and starch
granules embedded in it (Collar et al. 2007). It possesses
the properties of both solid and liquid bodies, and exhib-
ited the rheological properties that were in between that
of the ideal solid and fluid bodies. The inclusion of BF
in the blends increased the starch and fiber contents,
whereas decreasing the quantity and quality of protein
needed to sustain the viscoelastic behavior of their dough.
BF:WF 10:90
These effects were aptly described by alveograph (Fig. 2)
as shown by the significant (P < 0.05) decline of impor-
tant quality indices (Table 5).

Evaluation of bread quality

Absorbed water by dough
The quantity of water used to form dough of consistent
quality (Table 6) for baking was significantly (t = 0.540,
df = 13.89, P = 0.299) lower than the farinograph water
absorption (Table 4). Similar observation was made by
El-­Dash et al., (1977) and Shuey (1990). This indicated
BF: WF 20:80
that the presence of other baking ingredients may have
been responsible for the reduction in the actual quantity
of water used to form the dough.
Figure 2.  Alveogram of Wheat and Breadfruit-­Wheat composite flour.

Table 5. Alveogram of wheat flour and its composite blends with breadfruit flour.

Peak height Curve Maximum Elasticity index

Flours (mm) (P) Length (mm) (L) Energy (10−4J) (W) configuration (P/L) inflation (G) (%) (Ie)
BF:WF
00:100 90 ± 0.4a 80 ± 1.4d 304 ± 0.7c 1.13 ± 0.2a 19.9 ± 0.6b 64.6 ± 0.4e
05:95 96 ± 0.7a 76 ± 0.7c 304 ± 1.4c 1.27 ± 0.4a 18.4 ± 0.4b 62.6 ± 0.4d
10:90 226 ± 0.7d 33 ± 0.7b 336 ± 2.8d 6.79 ± 0.3b 12.8 ± 0.4a 59.1 ± 1.4c
15:85 217 ± 0.6c 27 ± 0a 298 ± 1.4b 8.04 ± 0.2d 12.1 ± 0.2a 45.0 ± 0.7b
20:80 193 ± 0.7b 26 ± 0.7a 227 ± 1.4a 7.39 ± 0.2c 11.4 ± 0.4a 0.0a

d–a, Mean in same column with the same superscripts are not significantly different (P < 0.05); WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour; (05–20),
­composite blends.

© 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 581
Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread A. H. Bakare et al.

Table 6. Physical quality characteristics of bread. Differences in the pasting temperature and peak viscos-
ity of composite starches have been suspected to influence
Absorbed Weight loss Specific volume
Flour water (%) (%) (cm3/g)
extensibility (Greene and Bovell-­Benjamin 2004). Pasting
temperature is related to gelatinization temperature because
BF:WF
00:100 32.1 ± 0.4a 2.44 ± 0.3a 3.00 ± 0.05d
it occurred after gelatinization. It was noted (Table 3)
05:95 37.3 ± 0.3a 1.58 ± 0.1a 2.96 ± 0.01d that pasting temperature increased as the WF was replaced
10:90 54.3 ± 0.9b 14.9 ± 0.6b 2.16 ± 0.04b with the BF. This implied that peak viscosity of each of
15:85 59.1 ± 0.2c 14.6 ± 0.6b 2.17 ± 0.04b the composite blend were attained at different pasting
20:80 67.3 ± 0.1d 16.4 ± 0.4c 1.75 ± 0.05a temperatures and may have induced additional tensile
30:70 75.3 ± 0.5e 18.1 ± 0.5d 1.44 ± 0.03a
40:60 93.3 ± 0.9f 15.4 ± 0.5b 1.32 ± 0.02a
stress in dough membranes during baking. This may have
over stretched the membranes beyond its capacity, rup-
f–a, Mean in the same column with the same superscripts are not tured it and terminating oven rise prematurely.
­significantly different (P < 0.05); WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour;
The differences in specific volume of the composite
(05–40), BF/WF composite blends.
blend and the WF could therefore be traced to factors
(Composition of the flour, their rheological and pasting
Absorbed water ranged from 32.1 to 99.3% with the properties) that directly determines their behavior during
WF and 40% blend having the highest and lowest values, processing rather than the behavior of the dough them-
respectively. The WF was not significantly (P > 0.05) dif- selves (Bloksma 1990b), because these are factors that
ferent from the 5% blend but the both of them were influenced the specific volume.
significantly (P < 0.05) different from the rest of the
blends. The significantly higher values of absorbed water
Weight loss
in the blends when substitution was beyond 10% levels
may be due to the relatively higher starch and fiber con- Cut-­out dough losses weight during the proofing and
tents that may be present in the blends as the WF was baking stages of bread processing. This may be may be
gradually replaced by the BF. due to both fermentation losses brought about by amyl-
ases of starch and utilization of soluble sugar by yeast
and also by evaporation of moisture during baking.
Specific volume
Weight loss decreased as the BF replaces the WF in the
Loaf volume is used as a criterion to measure the quality blends (Table 6). It ranged from 1.68 to 18.1% with
of fresh bread in research quality control in industry and the 5 and 30% blend having the lowest and highest
by consumers (Penfield and Campbell 1990; Zuwariah losses, respectively. The weight loss recorded for the 5%
and Noor Aziah 2009). Specific volume of loaves of bread blend was not significantly different from the WF. The
provide a uniform basis for comparing results of various 20% was significantly different from the 30% blend and
studies (Oyeku et al. 2008). It ranged from 1.32 to both have significantly higher weight loss values than
3.00 cm3/g. The WF and 40% blend have the highest other blends.
and lowest values. The values decreased as BF replaces Significantly higher weight loss by the blends (except
the WF in the blends but the 5% blend was not signifi- at 5%) could be attributed to their ability to form a
cantly (P > 0.05) different from the WF. viscous dough while imbibing large amount of water
Specific volume is an indication of the gluten content (Tables 4 and 6) which were lost during the baking.
of the bread (Van Hall 2000; Abang Zaidel et al. 2010)
but other constituents such as starch and fiber also con-
Comparison of baking qualities of bread from
tribute to the specific volume of bread. Gluten or more
laboratory and industrial conditions
precisely glutenin, is the main structure-­forming protein
in wheat flour that is responsible for the elastic and exten- Relatively more water was absorbed by the dough, greater
sible properties needed to produce good quality wheat weight losses were observed and higher specific volumes
bread (Bloksma 1990b; : Gallagher et al. 2003). Bread made were recorded in the bread produced under industrial
from soft wheat flour usually yield lower loaf volumes. It condition (Table 7). This may be due to the high amount
has also been shown that the difference between weak of mechanical energy inputted by the locally fabricated
and strong flours can be explained by differences in the horizontal high-­speed mixer and humidity condition of
molecular mass distribution of their proteins (MacRitchie the oven. Results of independent t-­ test for absorbed
1973). Abundance of glutenin molecules with long chain water (t = 0.532, df = 18, P = 0.3005, one-­ tailed),
was observed to have made the protein phase, and con- weight loss (t = 0.865, df = 18, P = 0.199, one tailed),
sequently the dough, highly extensible (Bloksma 1990a). and specific volume (t = 0.828, df = 14.17, P = 0.211,

582 © 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
A. H. Bakare et al. Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread

one-­tailed), however, indicated there was no significant by the BF. The 5% blend was appreciated better than
(P > 0.05) difference (0.601, 0.398, and 0.421 were other blends in terms of appearance. Similar trends were
>0.05) in the mean values of these quality parameters, observed for flavor (3.47–7.80) and texture (4.25–8.03).
respectively. These implied that there may be no techni- However, the 5% blend was not significantly different
cal hindrance to successful industrialization of this tech- from the WF (Fig. 3).
nology (Table 7).

Consumer acceptance
Descriptive sensory quality
The mean score for consumer acceptance of the bread
Sensory quality of breads
samples ranged from 3.71 to 8.10 with the 5 and 40%
The summary of the descriptive sensory attributes of the blends having the highest and lowest values, respectively.
bread samples is presented in Table 8. The mean scores The panelists felt that bread samples produced when the
(3.55–6.73) for appearance (crust and crumb color, contour WF was replaced with the BF up to 15%, was not sig-
consistency, and grain quality) of the bread samples nificantly (P < 0.05) different from samples from the WF
decreased significantly (P < 0.05) as the WF was replaced in terms of acceptance ratings.

Table 7. Comparison of baking qualities of bread produced under laboratory and industrial conditions.

Absorbed water Absorbed water Weight loss Weight loss Specific volume Specific volume
Blends (%) L (%) I (%) L (%) I (cm3/g) L (cm3/g) I

BF:WF 0:100 32.1 26.1 2.48 3.23 3.00 3.70

BF:WF 05:95 37.3 38.1 1.58 4.71 2.96 3.51
BF:WF 10:90 54.3 42.3 14.9 15.7 2.16 3.31
BF:WF 15:85 59.1 47.4 14.6 15.2 2.17 2.58
BF:WF 20:80 67.3 56.3 16.4 17.2 1.75 2.15
BF:WF 30:70 75.3 81.6 18.1 21.1 1.44 1.12
BF:WF 40:60# 93.3 88.3 15.4 21.6 1.32 1.1

L, laboratory; I, industrial; WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour; (05–40), BF/WF composite blends; # = Substitution levels.

Table 8. Sensory qualities of bread.

Blends SCORES BF:WF/00:100 05:90 10:90 15:85 20:80 30:70 40:60

Attributes
Appearance
Crust color 5 3.0 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.3 2.5 1.5
Crumb color 10 7.0 7.3 5.5 6.0 5.0 5.5 3.7
Cell size 10 8.0 8.0 5.0 5.6 4.8 4.3 4.7
Cell uniformity 10 8.0 8.1 5.2 5.1 4.8 5.0 4.3
Mean 6.5 ± 2.4d 6.73 ± 2.2d 4.75 ± 1.0c 5.0 ± 1.2c 4.48 ± 0.8ab 4.33 ± 1.3ab 3.55 ± 1.4a
Flavor
Taste 5 5.0 4.7 3.5 3.5 2.8 2.8 2.7
Wheaty smell 10 10.0 9.6 5.0 5.1 4.7 4.3 4.2
Aroma 10 8.0 8.5 4.5 4.7 3.5 4.5 3.5
Mean 7.67 ± 2.5b 7.80 ± 2.6b 4.33 ± 0.8a 4.4 ± 0.8a 3.67 ± 1.0a 3.87 ± 0.9a 3.47 ± 0.8a
Texture
Mouthfeel 10 8.0 8.4 6.5 6.5 5.8 4.7 4.5
Crumb stability 10 8.0 8.0 6.0 5.2 5.2 5.2 4.5
and softness
Grittiness 10 7.0 7.2 6.0 5.0 5.2 4.3 3.5
Lightness 10 8.0 8.5 6.0 5.5 5.2 5.2 4.5
Mean 7.75 ± 0.5d 8.03 ± 0.6d 6.12 ± 0.3c 5.55 ± 0.7bc 5.35 ± 0.3b 4.85 ± 0.4ab 4.25 ± 1.9a
General acceptance
7.85c 8.1c 7.04c 7.01c 5.83b 5.20b 3.71a

d–a, Mean in same column with the same alphabets are not significantly different (P < 0.05); WF, wheat flour; BF, breadfruit flour; (05–40), BF/WF
composite blends.

© 2015 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 583
Production, Rheology, Baking, and Bread A. H. Bakare et al.

BF:WF 00:100 10:90 20:90 30:85 40:80

Figure 3.  Samples of Wheat and Breadfruit-­Wheat composite flour.

Conclusion is recommended that substitution should be limited to a

range from 5 to 10%. More so, when results have showed
In this study, attempt was made to evaluate the extent that this effort can be replicated at industrial level without
to which WF can be replaced with BF in the production significant alteration in baking quality indices.
of bread and to assess whether such efforts could be
replicated at industrial scale. This was done by analyzing
the rheological properties of the flour and dough, as well Conflict of Interest
as baking qualities of the resulting bread. Nigeria bakers None declared.
have often complained about the gaps between research
results obtained in the laboratory and the practicality of References
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