Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Thermal resistivity, sound absorption and vibration damping of concrete

composite doped with waste tire Rubber: A review
Anu Bala a,⇑, Supratic Gupta b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, UIET, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110016, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Waste tire rubber is a sustainable material for the construction industry.

Thermal resistivity, sound absorption and vibration damping is summarized for rubberized concrete (RC).

Size and texture along with doped rubber amount significantly alter the properties of RC.

RC is recommended for non-structural applications to reduce the energy loss, noise and vibrations.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Accumulation of a huge volume of waste tires every year due to rubber tires’ non-biodegradable nature is
Received 12 February 2021 a major environmental concern worldwide. The scientific community has accelerated its efforts to find
Received in revised form 26 May 2021 waste tire disposal alternatives because of the serious consequences. The construction sector is a major
Accepted 10 June 2021
contributor to global warming and environmental degradation because of its dependence on natural
Available online 23 June 2021
resources that are diminishing or under huge pressure to meet the growing population’s demand. The
utilization of discarded tires in the construction industry is an economical and sustainable solution to
Keywords:
meet the current and future environmental challenges. In the present study, the research work on ther-
Waste tire
Rubberized concrete
mal resistivity, sound absorption, and vibration damping of rubberized concrete (RC) has been reviewed
Thermal resistivity and compiled. Significant research has been conducted to determine the concrete composites’ behaviour
Sound absorption with recycled rubber’s substitution in varying sizes and proportions. The addition of rubber particles
Vibration damping results in lightweight structures with reduced mechanical strength but having higher energy dissipation
Green buildings capacity, thermal resistance, and sound absorption capability. Chemically and physically treated rubber
particles yield better performance as compared to untreated rubber particles. Increasing rubber contents
increases the porosity of concrete mix, increasing thermal resistivity and sound absorption. The coeffi-
cient of noise reduction is more significant in the higher frequency beyond 500 Hz. Rubberized concrete
exhibits higher damping ratio and shows ductile behaviour under external loading. Thus, rubberized con-
crete elements are more promising for impact-resisting applications and energy savings in industrial,
commercial, and residential buildings.
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Recycling of waste tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Thermal resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Sound absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5. Vibration damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6. Applications in civil engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Bala).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123939
0950-0618/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1. Introduction rubber tires in an open atmosphere is the simplest and most inex-
pensive approach for disposal, but it emits harmful gases and toxic
With the growing expansion of the working population and the volatile products such as organic compounds, hydrocarbons, mer-
social uplifting of the middle class, there are significant expansion cury, chromium, arsenic cadmium, etc., into the atmosphere caus-
in-vehicle demands globally, so the volume of discarded vehicle ing severe fire and health hazards [10,11]. Energy can be recovered
tires increases every year. Due to the non-biodegradation of waste from the waste tires by burning them in pyrolysis plants or in
rubber material, scrapped tire waste disposal is an influential issue specific furnaces [11]. The unacceptable environmental impact of
for the ecosystem. The management of scrap tires has become a waste tires can be minimized by recycling it in another form like
growing problem in recent years [1-3]. About 1200 million tires crumb or shredded rubber and utilizing this recycled rubber waste
would be discarded yearly worldwide by the end of the year in construction and other industries [12,13].
2030 [4] and an approximate 112 million scrapped tires per year The utilization of waste rubber materials in the construction
after re-treading twice have been estimated for India [5,6]. Waste sector started after the 1960 s due to huge tire scrap accumulation
rubber is a long-lasting material, and it is exceptionally resistant after the automobile revolution and a stronger environmental
to the typical natural environment, impacting it adversely. Diverse awareness movement [12]. Non-hazardous waste materials,
strategies are proposed to manage the scrap tires at the end of use- mostly landfilled, can be used to make concrete and similar con-
ful life, including landfill, re-treading and reuse, fuel for combus- struction materials. The construction sector performs a significant
tion, recycling to get raw material, etc. [7,8] as represented in role in meeting the needs of urbanization and contributes to the
Fig. 1. The disposal of waste tires to landfills creates serious envi- economic growth of a Nation [14-16]. Therefore, experts and
ronmental problems due to the leaching of harmful and toxic ele- researchers are responding positively to formulate new construc-
ments into the surrounding ecosystem [6]. Due to tires’ tion technology and the use of recyclable waste materials to serve
impermeable nature, water storage for a longer period of time in the increasing demands of society following strict environmental
tire wastes provides breeding habitat for mosquitos and rodents. regulations. Concrete is the most abundant material used world-
Also, the waste tires consume a large area in landfills and stock- wide, which is now considered as the largest option for consuming
piles, which is becoming difficult due to the non-availability of a huge volume of recycled rubber tires every year [17]. In recent
vacant land [9]. Re-treading of tires is an economical solution to years, waste rubber tires have started to replace the natural aggre-
delay the problem of the disposal using multiple re-treading, but gate of concrete in concrete mixes and in asphalt mix to modify its
at the end of useful life, these tires are stockpiled. Burning waste properties for reduced fatigue cracking, improved durability and

Landfill
Source of fuel with
applicaons in cement
kilns, boilers and Undesirable environment
smelters, Co-combuson and health issues,
with coal Occupies large space,
Risk of fire

Energy Retreading &

Recovery reuse

Extracon of rubber,
steel fibers as a feed Economic and energy saving
materials for new soluon to disposal problem,
products poor quality res can be
reused in shock and
vibraon absorbers
Recycling
Fig. 1. Management Strategies for waste tires at the end of useful life.

2
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

reduced cost [18,19], thus providing a sustainable and cost- to meet the criteria of sustainability and energy-efficient green
effective alternative for the disposal of scrap tires [20,21]. buildings. In the last few decades, umpteen research work has been
Being elastic in nature and lower density, rubber particles’ dop- conducted to evaluate rubberized concrete’s behavior under the
ing in concrete mix enhances the elasticity, energy absorption, heat influence of various parameters such as percentage of rubber par-
and sound insulation, workability and reduces the dead weight ticles, shape and size of particles, physical and chemical treatments
[20,22,23]. Researchers have explored the various studies to of tire rubber, etc. In recent time, few review papers [39,44,45]
enhance the behavior of rubberized concrete mix by considering have been published on rubberized concrete, majorly covering
the effect of (a) size of rubber particles, (b) amount of rubber, (c) the influence of rubber particles on workability, density, mechani-
types of treatments for rubber particles [2,24-26]. The mechanical cal properties, and durability, whereas a short summary has been
strength of rubberized concrete decreases with the increasing per- provided for thermal conductivity, sound insulation, and vibration
centage of rubber particles [27-29], limiting the substitution of damping without having the detailed description of measurement
rubber contents for structural applications. However, due to the techniques. With a motivation to present the essential characteris-
low modulus of rubber particles, rubberized concrete displays a tics of building materials for green building technology and sus-
ductile mode of failure [20,30,31] and exhibits enhancement in tainable development, this review paper summarizes the critical
toughness and damping ratio if doped in the controlled ratio properties like thermal resistivity, sound absorption, vibration
[23,32,33]. The stress–strain behaviour of rubberized concrete damping of rubberized concrete and a detailed description of the
studied by Strukar et al. [34] showed that the compressive strength method/techniques used in the measurements. After comprehen-
decreases linearly with increasing rubber contents but ductility sive discussion of thermal resistivity, sound absorption and vibra-
increases. The study conducted by Tantala et al. [32] found that tion damping of concrete composites doped with recycled tire
the substitution of 5% rubber gives higher toughness to the rubber- rubber, the effective utilization of rubberized concrete for various
ized concrete than 10% rubber content. According to Reda Taha applications has been summarized in the last section.
et al. [35], the resistance to impact loading improves with an
increase in the percentage of rubber particles up to a maximum
substitution of 50%, but the further increment of rubber contents 2. Recycling of waste tires
reduces the impact resistance. The addition of rubber particles
reduces the thermal expansion and contraction of concrete, thus, The lifespan and mechanical behaviour of automobile tires are
minimizing the risk of shrinkage cracking [36] and bridge the influenced by the chemical composition of tire rubber, fillers, and
micro cracks developed during the exposure of high temperature additives used for the processing. The recycling of automobile tires
[37,38]. Bond-behavior of cement mix is the driving factor behind is also challenging due to the wide variation of composition ingre-
the rubberized concrete performance, which is generally poor, dients and toxic nature of constituents [9]. The main constituents
resulting in reduced mechanical properties [39]. Also, increasing of automobile tires are represented in Fig. 3. Waste tires are recy-
rubber content increases the porosity and reduces concrete den- cled mechanically (Fig. 4) by separating the steel wires, shredding
sity, causing a significant mechanical strength reduction [13]. The them into small chips, crumb rubber, fine powder, and carbon
loss of mechanical properties is proportional to the percentage of products intended for various applications [39]. In addition to the
rubber particles, as shown in Fig. 2 [40]. rubber contents, the size and texture of rubber particles signifi-
Construction and operation of buildings consume a large per- cantly affect the bond with cement paste, thus, affecting the per-
centage of global energy (40–50%) and generate a significant formance of rubberized concrete [33,47,48]. Therefore, waste
amount of greenhouse gases [41,42]. Increasing the use of insulat- tires are recycled into variable sizes, classified as chipped rubber,
ing material is a more relevant solution to reduce energy consump- crumb rubber, and fine ground rubber [28,47,49]. There are various
tion in buildings [43]. Being insulating in nature, rubber particles processing routes for recycling waste tire rubber [8] as shown in
enhance the thermal and sound insulation of rubberized concrete Fig. 5. Using mechanical grinding with the shredder, rolling mills,
components [44,45] which has a direct influence on energy conser- and granulators, waste tires are shredded and chipped at ambient
vation and health perspectives of indoor lives [46]. This makes the temperature to get rubber particles as coarse aggregate in size
waste rubber a sustainable material for the construction industry varying from 100 to 460 mm length, and 100–230 mm in width
are obtained in the primary stage of shredding. The rubber parti-
cles’ size is further reduced to 13 mm in the second stage having
high-speed rotary mills, extruders, and granulators [1,39]. Crumb
30 Comprehensive strength rubber, used as a fine aggregate, is produced using two methods
Flexible strength (a) using cracker mills at ambient temperature (b) through cryo-
Splitting Strength
Mechanical strength (MPa)

25 genic processing using liquid nitrogen at a temperature less than

80 °C [8,9]. The cracker mill process reduces the rubber particles
20
in size from 5 mm to 0.5 mm after passing the rubber between cor-
rugated steel rollers [50]. In cryogenic processing, the tire is frozen
using liquid nitrogen and crushed into fine particles of size ranging
15
from 4.75 mm to 0.075 mm.
The coarse rubber aggregates have a notable adverse effect on
10 compressive strength than the fine rubber aggregates as shown
in Table 1, which gives the average value of relative compressive
5 strength determined at various levels of replacement of conven-
tional aggregates with fine and coarse rubber [39]. This can be sup-
ported by the fact that the finer rubber particles fill the small voids
0
control mix 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 in between cement and aggregates, resulting in lesser porosity,
resulting in higher compressive strength [48,52,53]. Fine ground
Rubber Percentage (%)
rubber with a high surface and volume is produced using a wet
Fig. 2. Effect of rubber particles on the mechanical behaviour of the concrete mix grinding process. Reduction of rubber particles into a very fine
(converted from tabulated data of [40]. range from 0.5 mm to 0.075 mm, lots of heat is generated into
3
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 3. The percentage composition of transport vehicle tires [51].

Fig. 4. Waste tire shredding (a) discarded tire being shredded (b) large size tire shreds (c) chipped tire (d) crumb rubber (e) fine ground rubber [edited in [39]].

Grinding Method

Mechanical Cryogenic Wet Water Jet Berstoff’s

Grinding Grinding Grinding Grinding Method

Fig. 5. Grinding or shredding methods for recycling of waste tires [8].

4
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Table 1
Average relative compressive strengths of fine and coarse rubber concrete at various replacement levels on 28 days [39].

Rubber Type Replacement levels of conventional aggregates with waste tyre rubber (%)
5 10 20 30 40 50
Relative compressive strength* of rubber concrete ± S.D.
Fine rubber 87.1 ± 5.2 76 ± 7 59.5 ± 13.4 43.9 ± 14.9 32.3 ± 14.5 39.7 ± 27.8
Coarse rubber 82.4 ± 6.5 69.9 ± 8.4 42.5 ± 10.5 33.5 ± 17.5 28.3 ± 13.3 31 ± 19.5

*the average value is determined from the experimental results presented by various references and compiled by [39].

mechanical grinding which compels the use of wet grinding where resistivity of rubberized concrete [33]. Increasing rubber substitu-
continuous water cools the product and grindstones [8]. tion results in increasing porosity of concrete mix as listed in
Table 2 [40], causing increased air entrapment. Benazzouk et al.
3. Thermal resistivity [58] reported that with the increase of rubber content 0 to 50%,
the air content increases from 0 to 17%. Poor thermal conductivity
Thermal resistivity is reciprocal to the thermal conductivity (k), of air (0.0026 W/mK) and rubber particles (varying between 0.1
which designates a material’s ability to conduct the heat energy and 0.25 W/mK) makes the rubberized concrete more thermal
through its cross-section under the thermal gradient at the two resistive [55,56,59].
ends, as shown in Fig. 6. Steady-state and transient methods are Researchers have used various techniques [46,60] to compute
used as the main approaches to determine the thermal conductiv- the thermal conductivity (k) of concrete composites such as (a)
ity, depending upon the heat transfer conditions. The steady-state dynamic adiabatic-box technique [40,61,62] (b) Lee’s method of a
method takes more time but is more accurate in measuring k- bad conductor [33] (c) guarded hot plate apparatus [54,63] and
values than the transient method [46]. The steady-state heat trans- (d) Transient plane source (TPS) [58]. Fig. 7 shows the schematic
fer (Q) in one direction is expressed using Fourier’s law, represent- of the dynamic adiabatic box method, which is a steady-state
ing the relation between heat flux and temperature gradient, as method where an adiabatic box is used whose bottom and outer
mentioned in equation (1). According to this law, the heat transfer walls are insulated to minimize the heat losses, and the concrete
rate through a material is proportional to the thermal gradient at specimen is placed at the top side of the adiabatic box to get
the two sides and the cross-sectional area perpendicular to that one-dimensional steady heat flow. Small water is filled at the bot-
gradient through which the heat energy flows. tom side of the box, heated to a certain temperature (35 to 55 °C)
using a thermostat controlled heater. Hot water maintains the
T1  T2 DT homogeneous temperature distribution in the lateral direction in
Q ¼ kA ¼ kA ð1Þ
Dx Dx the adiabatic box during heating and cooling. After switching off
the heater, heat loss occurs through the concrete specimen fitted
where; k is the thermal conductivity of the sample (W/mC), Dx is
at the adiabatic box’s topside, and water gets cooled. Thus, thermal
the thickness, and A is the cross-sectional area (mm2) of the sample
conductivity is measured as the cooling rate of water. Yesilata et al.
as shown in Figure 6, and T1-T2 = DT is the temperature difference
[61] used the dynamic adiabatic box method to determine the
across the two surfaces of the sample.
thermal insulation of concrete specimen doped with square rubber
Thermal conductivity of normal concrete mix is approximately
pieces of thickness 2 mm. The thermal insulation of the concrete
1.2–1.50 W/mK [44,45,54] which can be lower down by 50% with
specimen was improved by 18.52% with the addition of square
the addition of rubber particles [55-57]. Sukontasukkul [57] found
rubber particles having a volume of 80 ± 1.5 cm3 into the ordinary
the reduction in k-value of rubberized concrete by 20% and 50% at
concrete. Aliabdo et al. [33] adopted the Lee bad conductor method
the replacement of 10% and 30% of fine aggregate. Geometry and
to find out the thermal conductivity (k) of rubberized concrete. In
percentage of rubber particles significantly affect the thermal
this method, a concrete sample in the form of a disc of 30 mm
thickness and 75 mm diameter was placed between the two brass
discs where a heat source is in contact with a lower brass disc to
cause thermal gradient, shown in Fig. 8. The temperature gradient
was measured using the thermometer or thermocouples inserted
into the brass discs. The fine aggregate was substituted by the
crumb rubber particles of three different sizes of 0.42 mm,
1 mm, and 2 mm mixed in equal proportion by volume 20%, 40%,

Table 2
Experimental results on the physical properties of the rubberized concrete samples
[40].

Unit Weight(g/ Water Absorption (% mass) Porosity

cm3) (%)
Control 2.17 ± 0.03 3.05 ± 0.77 6.6 ± 1.4
mix
R-10 2.11 ± 0.02 3.81 ± 0.80 8.0 ± 1.6
R-20 2.03 ± 0.02 4.64 ± 0.40 9.4 ± 0.7
R-30 1.95 ± 0.02 5.00 ± 0.41 9.7 ± 0.7
R-40 1.84 ± 0.02 5.95 ± 0.88 10.9 ± 1.5
R-50 1.73 ± 0.04 6.48 ± 0.87 11.2 ± 1.2
R-60 1.6 ± 0.05 6.77 ± 1.51 10.9 ± 2.6
R-70 1.53 ± 0.04 7.41 ± 0.39 11.4 ± 0.4
Fig. 6. Heat Conduction through a slab.

5
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 7. Dynamic adiabatic box setup for the measurement of thermal conductivity [61,62].

adopted to evaluate the k-values of rubberized samples as shown

in Fig. 9, where the bifilar spiral disc is the heat source placed
between the two samples, which also acts as the sensor for mea-
suring the temperature change simultaneously with the voltage
change. Medina et al. [64] measured the thermal conductivity (k)
of the concrete samples of size 240  240  30 mm3 using a high
insulating box of 400  400  400 mm3, which consists of a square
opening of 210  210 mm2 on each wall side. This insulating box is
also called a thermal model house. With 100% crumb rubber, the k-
value for concrete specimen has reduced by 48% as compared to
reference concrete. Fig. 10 shows the thermal house model to
investigate the thermal conductivity of rubberized concrete, where
the inside temperature was raised using a 100 W light bulb con-
nected to a thermal regulator thermostat [65]. Results reported
that the addition of recycled rubber powder of finer particle size
gives the best thermal insulation effect. Khan and Khitab [66] rec-
ommended 5% addition of crumb rubber, which gives 2% reduction
in density with 16% enhancement in thermal resistivity.
Fig. 8. Setup for Lee’s test of bad conductor [33]. The heat transfer occurs due to the molecular vibration occur-
ring in a material, which depends on the density (q) of the mate-
rial. Researchers have attempted to develop the correlation
60%, 80%, and 100%. The k-value of rubberized concrete decreased
between k and q for different concrete admixtures, as listed in
with increasing rubber contents, as listed in Table 3. The highest
Table 4. The correlation indicates the influence of constituents on
reduction of 59% in k-value was obtained at 100% substitution of
the variation of k-values. Thus, the thermal conductivity or heat
crumb rubber by fine aggregate.
loss from concrete composite can be controlled by proper selection
Benazzouk et al. [58] reported the decrease in k-value from 1.16
of waste material, type and fraction of aggregate, type of cementi-
for the cement mix to 0.47 W/mK; for the rubberized concrete
tious material, moisture, etc., significantly affecting the density of
sample containing 50% rubber particles. The TPS method was
concrete [61,70,71]. Although rubberized concrete has lower ther-
mal conductivity, the addition of 10% silica fume and fly ash as a
replacement of cement content leads to a further reduction in ther-
Table 3
mal conductivity [72]. According to Rajaei et al. [73], in addition to
Effect of rubber percentage on thermal conductivity (K) of rubberized concrete [33].
the crumb rubber, the incorporation of polypropylene fibres (upto
Sand replacement by rubber Thermal conductivityK (W/m Reduction 1% of volume of mix) can help in enhancing the thermal resistivity.
(%) °C) (%)
Fibre-mix exhibits higher water absorption attributing to the
Control 1.45 — higher porosity, thus causing reduced thermal conductivity. Marie
20 0.96 34
Iqbal [54] found the reduction of more than 30% in the k-value of
40 0.85 41
60 0.73 50 hybrid recycled aggregate-rubberized concrete (RARC) produced
80 0.67 54 by replacing 20% natural coarse aggregate with recycled concrete
100 0.6 59 aggregate (RCA) combined with 10% replacement of sand with

6
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 9. Schematic for TPS experimental setup [58].

Table 4
Correlation developed between thermal conductivity (k) and density (q).

Materials Correlation b/w k and q Reference

Conventional Concrete k = 0.072e0.0125q [67]
Light weight Concrete k = 0.0864 e0.0125q [68]
Modified waste expanded k = 0.193e0.0146q (for oven dry [69]
polystyrene(MEPS) Concrete density)k = 0.303e0.965q (for
saturated surface density)
Hybrid recycled aggregate- k = 0.0733e0.0011q [54]
rubberized concrete (20%
recycled concrete aggregate
combined with 10% crumb
rubber)
Rubberized concrete containing k = 0.018e0.00181q [33]
20–100% rubber
Rubberized concrete containing k = 0.1236e0.0011q [58]
0–50% rubber particles
Concrete mix (for densities k = 0.0625e0.0015q(With [46]
between 150 to 2350 kg/m3) correlation coefficient
R2 = 0.81)
Fig. 10. Top side view of an Insulating box or thermal model house [65].

crumb rubber (RA). A guarded hot plate method (ASTM C177) was
used (with max. temperature 70 °C) as represented in Fig. 11 to
a, the better the material’s ability to isolate the sound [63]. Noise
investigate the k-value of RARC samples cast in the form of a slab
pollution is a serious and growing issue in urban and industrial
of 300 mm  300 mm  30 mm dimension. Fig. 12 shows the com-
areas, but urban development and building planning authorities
parison of thermal conductivities of natural aggregate (NA) con-
are continuously ignoring it. Concrete is a highly dense material
crete, RARC, and other materials. It can be observed that RARC
that reflects the sound wave and prevents transmission through
shows better thermal resistance as compared to NA concrete,
it, increasing the echoes and annoyance in enclosed spaces such
RCA, RA, limestone and cement mortar. Research work conducted
as factories, apartments, narrow streets, etc. [80]. Thus, various
by other researchers reported that the size and concentration of
research attempts have been made to get sustainable and econom-
rubber constituents significantly affect the reduction of thermal
ical solutions to absorb or mitigate the sound/noise in surround-
conductivity of concrete specimen [74-79]. Thus, the use of waste
ings. The materials possessing the lower bound value of a = 0.5,
tire rubber in concrete composites is desirable for reducing resi-
are categorized as sound-absorbing [81], and the concrete with
dential buildings’ energy consumption.
high porosity (15–25%) has a reasonable value of a to absorb the
sound [82]. Rubberized concrete possesses higher porosity; thus,
4. Sound absorption it performs better as compared to conventional concrete in retard-
ing or absorbing the sound/noise [9,33,45,57].
The sound absorption capability of a material is expressed in Impedance tube method [31,64,81,84] and reverberant field
terms of the sound absorption coefficient (a). Higher the value of method [80,83] are generally employed for determining the
7
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 11. Guarded hot plate setup [46].

Fig. 12. Comparison of thermal conductivity of RARC with other materials [54].

Fig. 13. Schematic of (a) Impedance tube [86] (b) Configuration of sound attenuation test [33].

8
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

where; A0 is the initial amplitude of the sound wave, and AX is the

amplitude after traveling for the distance X.
The value of a varies with the frequency range of incident sound
wave; therefore, the ability of sound absorption of a material can
be alternatively represented as the noise reduction coefficient
(NRC), which is calculated using the following relation [82]:
NRC ¼ ðay1 þ ay2 þ ay3 þ    þ ayn Þ=n ð3Þ
where; ay1 ,. . .ayn is the sound absorption coefficients determined
against the different frequency bands (Y1, Y2, . . .. Yn).
Increasing the amount of rubber aggregate increases the sound
absorption or decay of the sound transmission through the con-
crete mix, as represented in Figs. 14 and 15. Fig. 14 show that
the replacement of sand aggregate at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and
100% by rubber particles, increased the sound attenuation by
14%, 24%, 46%, 58% and 69% respectively [33]. Increased rubber
Fig. 14. Influence of rubber percentage on attenuation coefficient of rubberized content increases the rubberized specimen’s porosity, which
concrete [33].
affects the scattering and absorption of sound energy [87]. The
effect of silica fumes on sound transmission can be observed from
Fig. 15, which fills the micro-voids, thereby decreases the sound
absorption capacity [72]. The addition of recycled tire crumb at
30% reduced the ultrasonic sound pulse velocity by 65% in the
lightweight cellular concrete [88].
The acoustic insulation (or the value of a) depends on the fre-
quency and incident angle of the sound wave [57,89]. Experimen-
tal findings of [63,90] and [57] revealed that the sound absorption
property of rubberized concrete is noticeable at a sound frequency
beyond 500 Hz and significantly greater above 1000 Hz compared
with conventional concrete. According to Medina et al. [82],
replacing coarse aggregate with crumb rubber, 33–48.6% improve-
ment in sound absorption was achieved in the frequency range of
800–1000 Hz. The use of fibers coated with crumb rubber results
in better sound absorption than normal crumb rubber. Wang and
Du [63] used the standing wave tube method to evaluate the
Fig. 15. Variation in sound transmission with increasing rubber contents and silica acoustic performance of concrete mix combined with the recycled
fumes [72]; S: silica fume; F: fly ash. aggregate and rubber particles. The recycled aggregate and rubber
particles were added at the replacement of coarse aggregates
(gravel) as listed in Table 5. Samples in the shape of a Cylinder
of diameter 100 mm and thickness 50 mm were installed and
acoustic properties of a material. Fig. 13 shows the test setup of
sealed in a cylinder using grease. The value of a and NRC were cal-
impedance tube equipment, which includes a metallic cylinder
culated under the test frequencies of 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000,
for holding the test specimen, sound source (or signal generator),
4000 Hz. With the increasing rubber particles’ content, rubberized
sensors (mounted on the surface of the concrete sample), power
concrete (RCC) gives better a and NRC values, as represented in
amplifier, and oscilloscope (for signal analysis). The experiments
Fig. 16(a-b). It can be observed from Fig. 16(a) that the sound
are performed at multiple test frequencies [63]. Acoustic wave fol-
absorption is effective beyond the frequency of 500 Hz whereas
lows the combined effect of scattering and absorption while trav-
the replacement of recycled material is effective above 20% for
eling through a material; thus, the absolute measurement of
noise reduction as show in Fig. 16(b). Holmes et al. [80] studied
signal transmission becomes difficult [84,85]. Therefore, reduction
the sound absorption characteristics of rubberized concrete panels
in amplitude of sound wave after traveling through a material is
using the random incidence method where the reverberation time
measured as the sound absorption coefficient (a), mentioned in
of a room was calculated (average time of 10 tests) with or with-
equation [33]:
out panels. The random incident method setup is shown in Fig. 17,



20 AX where the concrete sample is placed in a duct or tunnel between
a¼ log  ð2Þ
the echoing and anechoic chambers. A sharp sound of 65 dB was
X A0
created in the hard-surfaced room, recorded in an anechoic cham-
ber after passing through the concrete sample tightly placed in a
tunnel. Sound insulation of rubberized concrete panels was deter-
Table 5 mined using a low (63, 125, 250, and 500 Hz) and high frequen-
The composition of recycled aggregate and recycled rubber in the concrete mix [63]. cies (1000, 2000, 4000, 5000 Hz) sound wave. The sound
Sample type Recycled aggregate (%) Recycled rubber material (%) absorption was enhanced for the panels with 7.5% and 15%
replacement levels for rubber particles, particularly at a higher
NC 0.0 0.0
RC 20.0 0.0
frequency range.
RCC1-1 20.0 10 Pre-treatment of rubber crumb has a positive influence on
RCC1-2 20.0 20 increasing the sound absorption capacity. Zhang and Poon [91]
RCC1-3 20.0 30 used a metal ball (according to the modified standard ASTM
NC: normal concrete; RC: recycled aggregate concrete; RCC: recycled aggregate E1007-90) to generate the impact noise in the frequency range of
crumb rubber concrete. 100 Hz to 3150 Hz for evaluating the noise absorption of concrete
9
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 16. Variation of acoustic performance of rubberized concrete (a) Sound absorption coefficient (b) Noise reduction coefficient [63].

Fig. 17. Setup of Acoustic laboratory for random incident method [80].

Table 6
Composition of rubberized concrete mix [91].

Mix Code w/c FBA Cement Water LWC Untreated Rubber Pre-treated Rubber Superplasticizer (L/m3)
CTR 0.34 637 550 187 323 0 0 4.0
R25u 0.34 478 550 187 323 113 0 4.0
R25p 0.34 478 550 187 323 0 113 4.0
R50u 0.34 319 550 187 323 226 0 4.0
R50p 0.34 319 550 187 323 0 226 4.0
R75u 0.34 159 550 187 323 340 0 4.0
R75p 0.34 159 550 187 323 0 340 4.0
R100u 0.34 0 550 187 323 453 0 4.0
R100p 0.34 0 550 187 323 0 453 4.0

w/c; water cement ratio, FBA; furnace bottom ash, LWC; light weight concrete.

slabs made of untreated and pre-treated rubber particles. The 5. Vibration damping
results of the noise reduction effect for the concrete mix (given
in Table 6) are presented in Fig. 18, showing the positive influence Damping property is the energy dissipation capacity of a mate-
of pre-treatment of crumb rubber on the sound reduction effect. rial, which shows the ability to resist structural vibrations [93,94],
The highest sound reduction was achieved in the frequency range an essential requirement for earthquake resisting buildings. It is
of 1600–2500 Hz. Rubber fibre gives improved sound attenuation one of the intrinsic dynamic characteristics that directly represents
as compared to spheroid particles [92]. From the literature, it can vibration energy dissipation as disordered thermal energy in the
be concluded that the enhanced sound absorption capability of material [95,96]. The vibration damping is determined in terms
rubberized concrete makes them more attractive for producing of damping ratio, an important dynamic performance indicator
noise-absorbing blocks, slabs, and panels for sound insulation in that describes the pattern of oscillation decay in a system or struc-
residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. ture after some external excitation [97].
10
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 18. Effect of frequency and pre-treatment on Noise reduction effect [91].

Fig. 19. Schematic illustration of setup for free vibration test [modified from [98]].

The literature review reveals that the concrete specimens in the approach by considering the system having viscous damping [36]
shape of beam and column were prepared for free vibration and [100]. Using the logarithmic decrement approach, the decay in
seismic shaking table tests [98,99], respectively, in order to mea- the amplitude of free vibration w.r.t. time in a specimen is given
sure the dynamic characteristics of the structure. In both the tests, by the Equations (4–6) as represented by Fig. 20 [93,101]. From
vibration is induced into the specimen using external impact like equations (4–6), it is clear that the higher the damping ratio ðfÞ,
rubber hummer followed by recording the intensity of this impact the lower will be the amplitude of vibration ðAÞ in consecutive
using the accelerometers fitted on the specimen as illustrated in cycles; therefore, more will be the energy dissipation.
Fig. 19. In order to calculate the natural frequency of vibration of
A ¼ A0 efwt ð4Þ
a given specimen, the vibration data is processed through software
packages (like Seismo Signal) [98,100] that convert the data from
1 A0
the time domain to the frequency domain [99,100]. The free vibra- d¼ ln ; n ¼ 1; 2; 3    ð5Þ
n An
tion damping is determined using the logarithmic decrement
11
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

The previous studies have found that the rubberized concrete

specimen displays higher vibration damping than the conventional
concrete specimen. Therefore, rubberized concrete provides better
performance than conventional concrete under dynamic condi-
tions such as earthquakes [102,103]. Habib et al. [98] performed
the free vibration tests on a beam specimen of configuration
150x150x600 mm to investigate the effect of substituting 15%
and 25% of the well-graded mix of coarse and fine rubber particles
with natural aggregates by volume on dynamic characteristics of
rubberized concrete (15RBC and 25RBC). The 25RBC specimen pro-
vided the best vibration damping compared to 15RBC and control
mix concrete (ZRBC), as shown in Fig. 21. Compared to ZRBC, the
damping ratio of 15 RBC and 25RBC improved by 67% and 91%,
Fig. 20. Representation of vibration damping in logarithmic decrement [93]. respectively. The behaviour of rubberized concrete composite is
governed by its individual constituents and the interface between
them. The vibrational energy loss in rubberized concrete arises
from the elastic deformation of polymeric material and the internal
friction in the deformation of solid aggregates [104].
Lin et al. [105] revealed that the damping ratio of rubberized
concrete at 2.5% replacement of fine aggregate by fine rubber pow-
der increased by 94%. Moustafa & ElGawady [106] found that rub-
berized concrete’s damping ratio improved by 32% by replacing
30% of the sand with fine rubber. Whereas Xue & Shinozuka
[107] found that the replacement of 15% of the coarse aggregates
by 6 mm rubber particles in conventional concrete mix improved
the damping ratio by 60%. These findings indicate that the coarse
rubber particles provide better vibration damping as compared
to fine ones. Therefore, the overall static and dynamic performance
of rubberized concrete mix can be improved by optimizing the
packing of concrete mixture by considering the type and size of
Fig. 21. The damping ratio of control mix and rubberized concrete specimen [98].
its constituents [108,109]. [99] studied the damping and seismic
behaviour of rubberized concrete using small-scale column mod-
1 d els, as shown in Fig. 22. Three sets of normal concrete (NC) col-
f ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2p2  2p ð6Þ umns and three sets of rubberized concrete (RC) columns were
1þ d prepared by adding 15% tire crumb rubber with a maximum size
of 6 mm. The test results showed that the average damping ratio
where A; amplitude of vibration (oscillation) which can be displace- for NC and RC columns were 4.75% and 7.70%, respectively, thus
ment, velocity or acceleration, A0 is initial amplitude, An is ampli- the RC column showed a 62% improvement in damping ratio com-
tude after n cycles of oscillations, d is damping coefficient, f is pared to NC columns. Seismic shaking table tests revealed that the
damping ratio, w is natural frequency (rad/s) and t is time (s). RC column’s recorded peak acceleration decreased by 27%; thus,
less seismic force is experienced in the RC column. The study
showed that the rubberized concrete is more capable of absorbing
kinetic energy. [110] studied the vibrations mitigating of mortar
composed of recycled tire rubber named as (C-COM) in rail tunnels.
The behaviour of C-COM mortar under train induced vibration was
simulated using a numerical model of the tunnel, and it was con-
cluded that the C-COM mortar could reduce the vibrations in rail
tunnels by 10–20%. Rahman et al. [111] studied the anti-
vibration behaviour of rubber-modified reinforced beam by replac-
ing the fine aggregate with 5, 7.5, and 10% of tire crumb rubber
particles (1–4 mm). The damping ratio was highest for 10% rubber,
and the rate of damping was found to increase with increasing
load. Kaewunruen et al. [93] demonstrated the improvement in
damping ratio by more than 45% with the replacement of sand
aggregate by 5% crumb rubber during the free vibration tests on
a concrete prism of size 45 mm  20 mm  120 mm. In the exten-
sion of this study conducted by Meesit and Kaewunruen [101], the
effect of size and concentration of rubber particles was demon-
strated on the damping ratio of concrete mixes for the application
of railway sleepers. Concrete mix with 10% micro crumb rubber of
425-mm size gives a higher damping ratio (0.04052) compared to
the concrete mix with a crumb rubber of 75 mm (0.03319) mea-
sured at 28 days. Najim and Hall [112] demonstrated that the
self-compacting rubberized concrete results in a rise of damping
ratio of 230%, with 15 wt% mixes of rubber particles. The loss factor
Fig. 22. Small scale column model for vibration damping and seismic tests [99]. of rubberized concrete (rubber particles: 20% max) is 43–60%
12
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Fig. 23. SEM image of untreated and silica fume treated rubber concrete [26].

higher than conventional concrete, and it can be effectively used in also has a positive influence on the enhancement of mechanical
anti-collision cladding for bridge piers [113]. The increases in strength of rubberized concrete [13,119,120]. Using physical and
damping ratio with the substitution of crumb rubber particles have chemical treatments on rubber particles, the hydrophobic surface
also been reported by [94,95,104,114]. of the rubber particles becomes hydrophilic, thereby improving
the physical bonding with the hydrated cement phase resulting
6. Applications in civil engineering in improved mechanical strength [25,26]. Fig. 23 shows the scan-
ning electron microscopic image of untreated and silica fume trea-
Rubberized concrete exhibits increased vibration damping, ted rubber concrete, proving the effect of rubber treatment on the
higher thermal resistivity, and sound insulation as compared to enhancement of bonding between tire crumb and cement matrix.
conventional concrete [44,45], which further depends on the size Thus, physical and chemical treatments of tire rubber have further
and ratio of rubber particles replaced with the aggregates. The sig- brightened the potentials of rubberized concrete for structural
nificant reduction of mechanical strength in rubberized concrete applications. Due to the enhanced ductility, rubberized concrete
restricts their use in load-bearing structural applications. Thus, a can be used in bridge decks, structural beams and columns. Under
trade-off between sound absorption, thermal insulation, and impact load, rubberized concrete has increased crack resistance
mechanical strength is required by controlling the rubber contents and high energy absorption capacity; thus, it can be utilized in rail-
at low (10%) to medium level (30%). The mechanical properties of way slippers [93,121,122] as shown in Fig. 24.
rubberized concrete depend on the bonding between rubber and The rubberized concrete is highly attractive for lightweight
cement matrix, which depends on the surface property of rubber- non-structural applications for vibration damping of structures
ized particles, including roughness, chemical composition, and sur- and geotechnical works. Vibration damping significantly improves
face contamination [26]. In comparison to untreated rubber the working of sensitive areas like hospitals, residences, or
particles, various chemically treated such as NaOH [26,115–117], telecommunication buildings [110]; therefore, rubberized concrete
acetone, methanol [101], KMnO4 [26,118] treated rubber particles can be used in foundation pad of machinery, earthquake shock-
resulted in enhancement of compressive strength and flexural wave absorber [123], airport runways [124], and anti-collision
strength of rubberized concrete. Pre-coating of rubber particles applications such as crash barriers [113]. Rubberized concrete is

Fig. 24. Rubberized concrete in railway sleepers [121].

13
A. Bala and S. Gupta Construction and Building Materials 299 (2021) 123939

Chemically and physically treated rubber particles yield better

performance as compared to untreated rubber particles.

Various techniques such as dynamic adiabatic box-method,
Lee’s method of a bad conductor, guarded hot plate, and tran-
sient plane methods have been utilized to study rubberized
specimens’ thermal conductivity or resistivity. The substitution
of rubber particles increases the porosity of the concrete mix
resulting in increases in air contents. Both air and rubber parti-
cles are bad conductors of heat, therefore, increases the thermal
resistivity of rubberized concrete.

Sound absorption is expressed as the decay in the amplitude of
sound wave after traveling through a material. Having higher
porosity in rubberized concrete, scattering of a sound wave is
more, resulting in a significant reduction in amplitude of the
transmitted sound wave. Thus, the noise reduction coefficient
increases with increasing rubber contents and the sound
absorption are more significant in the higher frequency range
beyond 500 Hz.
Fig. 25. Rubberized concrete cladding on high rise structures [80,128].

Due to the viscous nature of rubber particles, rubberized con-
crete exhibits higher vibration damping as compared to the
conventional concrete mix. Thus, having a higher energy
absorption capacity under the seismic loadings. Increasing rub-
also used in highway pavements [18,125]. Rubber aggregates can ber contents increases the vibration damping ratio, which has
be used as substitutes for natural aggregates to modify the rheo- been commonly measured using free vibration tests on rubber-
logical properties of asphalt mixtures that provides better perfor- ized concrete specimens. Coarse rubber particles provide better
mance in terms of reduced fatigue cracking, resistance to rutting, vibration damping as compared to fine rubber.
better service life at varying climate conditions and reduced main-
The higher the rubber contents, higher the loss of mechanical
tenance cost [18,19]. strength. Therefore, a trade-off is required between mechanical
Thermal comfort and acoustic insulation significantly impact strength, vibration damping, thermal resistance, and sound
human beings’ physical and mental health, thus affecting their pro- absorption. Being lightweight and low in strength, rubberized
ductivity [126]. To ensure comfortable living conditions, energy concrete is highly recommended for non-structural applications
consumption for space heating is more in cold climate countries, to reduce the noise and vibrations in commercial, residential,
whereas more energy is consumed for cooling in hot countries and hospital buildings.
[127]. Being porous, rubberized concrete can be used as wall pan-
A building made of rubberized concrete elements like slabs,
els, flooring, and bricks for energy-saving and control of noise pol- bricks, wall panels etc. will ensure the minimum energy loss
lution in residential and commercial buildings and apartments. and maintains the thermal insulation of buildings while outside
Rubberized concrete can also be used as wall cladding on highway temperature fluctuates. Thus, waste tire rubber material will
tunnels, railway tunnels [110], and high-rise structures (Fig. 25) to help to achieve the goals of sustainable and energy-efficient
control the reflection and transmission of sound in surroundings. green buildings.
Rubberized concrete with higher rubber contents and additives
The future research can be expanded on fire behaviour and blast
like silica fumes and fly ash will reduce energy consumption, mitigation of rubberized concrete structures doped with chem-
improve economics and have environmental benefits. ically or physically treated waste tire rubbers.

7. Conclusions

The accumulation of waste tires will continue to grow, and Declaration of Competing Interest
therefore, the disposal of scrap tires will remain a global concern.
The utilization of recycled tire waste rubber in the construction The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
industry is the most desirable and sustainable alternative to avoid cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
its harmful environmental issues. Waste tire rubber can be substi- to influence the work reported in this paper.
tuted for coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and other fibres in vary-
ing ratios in accordance with the required combination of
properties. Being polymeric material, tire rubber plays a distinct References
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