ORACLE

It is a DBMS, which manages a large amount of data in a multi user

environment so that many users concurrently access the data. It also
provides security and Recovery. It stores and manages data using relational
model.
Oracle is the name of database management system developed by Oracle
Corporation.
Oracle server manages data in the database. Users access Oracle server
using SQL commands. So Oracle server receives SQL commands from users
and executes them on the database.

ORACLE SERVER

Database

Oracle’s Role in Client / Server Computing

Client/Server computing is a method in which

 Database is stored on the server in the network

 A dedicated program, called back-end, runs on the server to manage
database, which is also stored on the server.
 User access the data in database by running application, also called
as front-end from clients, that accesses back-end running on the
server.
 Applications running on the clients interact with the user.
 Back-end takes care of total database management.
 Client application and back-end run on different machines, which
may be of different types. For example, back-end may run on
mainframe and front-end may be on a PC.

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 Oracle is a database system that runs on the server, and used to manage
the data. The other name to database server is Back-End.

The latest version of the Oracle server is 10g(for our training). Latest Version
: 12i

Oracle server runs on different platforms. The following are some of the
platforms on which Oracle runs.

 Windows NT.
 Novel Netware
 Unix

What is Personal Oracle?

Personal Oracle is one of the flavors of Oracle. In this Oracle server and
client both run on the same machine. This is unlike other flavors where
Oracle Server runs on Server and Front-end runs on Client.

It is possible to develop an application using Personal Oracle and deploy it in

a Client / Server environment. Personal Oracle can support up to 15
database connections.

Features of Oracle

The following are some of the important features of Oracle Server.

Large Database Support

Oracle supports largest database, potentially hundreds of pita bytes in size.

It also allows efficient usage of space by providing full control on space
management.

Data Concurrence

Oracle supports concurrent access to database by multiple users. It

automatically locks and unlocks rows to maintain integrity of the data.

Industry acceptance standards

Oracle server is 100% compliant with Entry of the ANSI / ISO standards.
Oracle adheres to industry standards for data access language, network
protocols etc. This makes Oracle an ‘open’ system, which protects the
investment of customer. It is easy to port Oracle applications.

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Portability

Oracle software can be ported to different operating systems and it is the

name on all systems. Application development in Oracle can be ported to
any operating system with little or no modifications.

Enforced Integrity

Oracle allows users to define business rules and enforce them. These rules
need not be included at the application level.

Data Security

Oracle provides security in different levels – system level and object level. It
also makes implementation of security easier through Roles.

Support for Client / Server environment

Oracle allows process to be split between client and server. Oracle server
does all database management whereas Client does user interface. Oracle
server allows code to be stored in the database in the form of procedures
and functions. This allows centralization of the code and reduces network
traffic.

Database Architecture

A database contains any length of information. But for the end user, we
have to show only required information by hiding the unwanted information.
This data hiding can be done using various data abstraction methods.

In any RDBMS we can use 3 levels of data abstractions.

 Physical level
 Logical Level
 View level

Physical Level

The Physical structure of the database is placed in Physical level. It is

physically a set of three operating system files.

 Data Files
 Redo log files
 Control files

These files automatically create when database is created.

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Data Files

It contains the data of the database. Every table that is stored in the
database is a part of these files. Only Oracle Server can interpret these data
files.

Redo Log Files

Every database has a set of two or more Redo Log files. The set of redo log
files is known as databases redo log. Redo Log files are used in failure
recovery. All changes made to the database are written to redo log file.
(Filenames redo01.log)
Control Files

Contain information required to verify the integrity of the database,

including the names of the other files in the database (Extension of file is ctl)

 Database Name
 Names and locations of data files and redo log files.

Path We can use this Oracle\oradata\orcl path in the server to see all the
3 types of files

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 Logical Structure

Logical Structure is independent of Physical structure. Each Oracle

database contains the following components.

 Tablespaces
 Segments
 Extents
 Blocks

Tablespace

Each Database is a collection of tablespaces. For example we can use a table

space called PAYROLL to store all the data related to payroll application.

Every database contains SYSTEM tablespace. This is automatically created

when a database is created. SYSTEM tablespace contains the data
dictionary tables.

It is possible to make tablespace temporarily unavailable by making it off-

line and makes it available again by changing it to on-line. By making a
tablespace off-line, DBA can take the backup.

Segments

Data into table spaces comes in the form of segments.

Example Table is a segment

An Oracle database requires up to 4 types of segments

 Data segments It is used to store data of tables

 Index Segments Used to store indexes
 Rollback segments Undo information is stored
 Temporary segments Oracle stores Temporary tables

Extents

The storage space is allocated to segments is in the form of Extents. Each

Tablespace contains 65536 data files N number of such Table spaces creates
a database. An extent is made with in a data file. N Number of continuous
db blocks makes up an Extent.

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 Overall System Structure

A database system is partitioned into modules, which handles different

responsibilities of over all system.

The functional components of a database system are

 Query processor Component

 Storage manager component

Query Processor Component

This component is a collection of the following processes.

 DML Compiler : It translates DML statements into a lower level

instructions that the query evaluation engine understands

 Embedded DML precompiler It converts DML statements embedded

in an application program into normal procedure calls in the host
language.
 DDL Interpreter It interprets DDL statements and records them in a
set of tables

 Query evaluation engine It executes lower level instructions

generated by the DML compiler

Storage manager component

It is an Interface between the data stored in the database, application

programs and queries submitted to the system.

 Authorization and Integrity manager It tests for satisfaction of

integrity constraints and checks the authority of users to access data.
 Transaction Manager It ensures concurrent transaction executions
processed without conflicting.
 File manager It manages the allocation of space on disk and the data
structures used to represent information.
 Buffer manager This is responsible for fetching data from disk
storage into main memory.

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 Oracle Instance
Every oracle database is associated with an Oracle Instance. Every time a
database is started, a memory area called System Global Area (SGA) or
Shared Global Area is allocated and one or more processes are started.

The combination of SGA and Oracle processes is called as Oracle Instance.

SGA consists of several memory structures:

 The shared pool is used to store the most recently executed SQL
statements and the most recently used data from the data dictionary.
These SQL statements may be submitted by a user process or, in the
case of stored procedures, read from the data dictionary.

 The database buffer cache is used to store the most recently used
data. The data is read from, and written to, the data files.

 The redo log buffer is used to track changes made to the database by
the server and background processes.

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 Query process

1 Parse
2 Execute 3
3 Fetch

Server
Proces DB
s

1
User
Process

2
Clie
nt

When User connects to the database, it automatically creates two different

processes called as User process and Server Process. The user process is the
application program that originates SQL statements. The server process
executes the statements sent from the user process.

There are three main stages in the processing of a query:

 Parse
 Execute
 Fetch

Parsing

During the parse stage, the SQL statement is passed from the user process
to the server process, and a parsed representation of the SQL statement is
loaded into a shared SQL area.
During the parse, the server process performs the following functions:
 Searches for an existing copy of the SQL statement in the shared pool
 validates the SQL statement by checking its syntax
 Performs data dictionary lookups to validate table and column
definitions

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Execute
Execute: Identify rows selected
The steps to be taken when executing the statement
The optimizer is the function in the Oracle Server that determines the
optimal execution plan.

Fetch

Fetch: Return rows to user process. With each fetch process, it can fetch 20
records at a time.

DML Processing Steps

A data manipulation language (DML) statement requires only two phases of

processing:
 Parse is the same as the parse phase used for processing a query
 Execute requires additional processing to make data changes

DML Execute Phase

The server process records the before image to the rollback block and
updates the data block.
Both of these changes are done in the database buffer cache.

Any changed blocks in the buffer cache are marked as dirty buffers: that is,
buffers that are not the same as the corresponding blocks on the disk.

The processing of a DELETE or INSERT command uses similar steps. The

before image for a DELETE contains the column values in the deleted row,
and the before image of an INSERT contains the row location information.

Because the changes made to the blocks are only recorded in memory
structures and are not written immediately to disk, a computer failure that
causes the loss of the SGA can also lose these changes.

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 Oracle Versions

Oracle 6.0 1990

Oracle 7.0 1995
Oracle 7.1 1996
Oracle 7.2 1997
Oracle 7.3 1998 Object based
Oracle 8.0 1999 ORDBMS
Oracle 8i 2000 Internet based Application
Oracle9i 2001 Application server
Oracle10g 2004 Grid Computing
Oracle 11g 2009 482 new features
Oracle 12i 2009 Aug 1500 new features

Features & Benefits

Oracle

Scalability One Management

Interface
9i

Internet
Reliability Common Skill
Sets
Single Dev
Model

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Features

Oracle offers a comprehensive high performance infrastructure for e-

business. It is called Oracle9i.It provides everything needed to develop,
deploy and manage Internet applications.

Benefits
 Scalability from departments to enterprise e-business sites
 Reliable, available and secure architecture
 One development model, easy development options
 Common skill sets including SQL, PL/SQL,JAVA and XML
 One Management interface for all applications

9i Products

There are two products. They provide a complete and simple infrastructure
for Internet applications.

IAS Database

9i 9i

Application Server

9i Application server runs all the applications and 9i database stores our
data.
Oracle 9i Application server runs
 Portals or web sites
 Java Transactional Applications
 Provides integration between users, applications and data

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 Oracle9i: ORDBMS
Oracle is the first object-capable database developed by Oracle Corporation.
It extends the data modeling capabilities of Oracle 8 to support a new object
relational database model. Oracle provides a new engine that brings object-
oriented programming, complex data types, complex business objects, and
full compatibility with the relational world.

Oracle 9i supports

 User-Defined data types and objects

 Fully compatible with relational database (It supports all the CODD
rules)
 Support of multimedia and Large objects
 It also support client server and web based applications

Oracle 9i can scale tens of thousands of concurrent users and support up to

512 peta bytes
of data (One peta byte = 1000 tera bytes and One terabyte = 1000 GB).

Data Concurrency And Consistency

Data concurrency allows many users to access the same data at the same
time. One way of managing data concurrency is by making other users wait
until their turn comes, when a user is accessing the data. But the goal of the
database system is to reduce wait time so that it is negligible to each user.
At the same time data integrity should not be compromised.

Oracle uses locking mechanism and multiversioning to increase data

concurrency while maintaining data integrity.
Locking
Oracle uses Locks to control data concurrency. Locks are used to prevent
destructive interference. For instance, when user X is modifying a row, it is
locked so that other users cannot modify it until X completes modification.
However, it doesn’t stop users querying the row. That means users reading
the data will not be interrupted by user modifying and vice-versa.

Note: it is the responsibility of the application developer to unlock rows that

are locked by committing or rolling back the transaction.
Read Consistency
For a query, Oracle returns a timepoint-based version of data. That means,
the data retrieved is consistent with the time at which the query started. So
any changes made to database since query started will not be available.
Ready consistency is made possible In Oracle using Rollback segment.
Rollback segment keeps a copy of unchanged data. This data is substituted
for the data that has changed since query started, in the query result.

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 This ensures readers do not wait for writers and vice-versa. And ensures
that writers only wait for other writers, if they attempt to update identical
rows at the same time.

Environment
Oracle uses two types of Environments for executing our SQL statements.
SQL*plus and iSQL*plus.
ISQL*plus is (Available only from Oracle 9i)

 An Environment
 Oracle proprietary
 Keywords can be abbreviated
 Runs on a browser
 Centrally loaded, does not have to be implemented on each machine
Difference between SQL*Plus and ISQL*plus
 SQL*Plus is a CUI and iSQL*Plus runs on a browser
 SQL*plus should be loaded in each every client system, where as
iSQL*plus, centrally loaded, doesn’t have to be implemented on each
machine

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Oracle 10g Grid Computing

1. Grid computing enables groups of networked computers to be pooled on demand to

meet the changing needs of business.
2. Grid computing enables the creation of a single IT infrastructure that can be shared
by multiple business processes.
3. Grid computing also employs special software infrastructure to monitor resource
usage and allocate requests to the most appropriate resource.

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Summary

Oracle is RDBMS. In a Client/Server environment, Oracle runs on the server

as back-end to manage the data. The logical structure of the database is
independent of physical structure of the database. User is concerned with
only the logical structure of the database.

An Oracle Instance is the combination of SGA and Oracle process. Oracle

instance contains a collection of background processes, where each process
does a specific job.

Oracle uses locking mechanism to manage data concurrency. It copies the

data of a row, before the row is changed, to rollback segment to provide read
consistency.

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Exercise

1) SGA stands for _______________________________

2) _____________ is the name of the tablespace that is automatically created
when a database is created.
3) In which segment the data of a table is stored?
4) What is the difference between Personal Oracle and Client/Server Oracle
5) Redo Log files are also called as ______________
6) File extension of control file is ___________
7) ________ Number of data files are there in each table space
8) What is Oracle Instance?
9) What is the maximum storage capacity of Oracle database
10) What is Application server?

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Oracle Datatypes
Each column value and constant in a SQL statement has a data type, which
is associated with a specific storage format, constraints, and a valid range of
values. When you create a table, you must specify a data type for each of its
columns. Oracle provides the following built-in data types.

 Character Data types

 CHAR Data type
 VARCHAR2 and VARCHAR Data types
 NCHAR and NVARCHAR2 Data types

 LONG Data type

 NUMBER Data type
 DATE Data type
 LOB Data types
 BLOB data type
 CLOB and NCLOB data types
 BFILE Data type

 RAW and LONG RAW Data types

Character Datatypes

The character data types store character (alphanumeric) data in strings,

with byte values corresponding to the character.

CHAR datatype

Fixed length character data of length size in bytes.( Default size is 1 and
maximum size is 2000).
Padded on right with blanks to full length of size.

VARCHAR2 (size)

Variable length characters strings having a maximum size of 4000 bytes

(Default size is 1).
Truncates leftover blank spaces.

NVARCHAR2(size)

Variable length characters strings having a maximum size of 4000 bytes

(Default size is 1)
Or characters, depending on the choice of national character set.
Truncates leftover blank spaces.

NUMBER(size,d)

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 For number column specified with d digits after the decimal point. For
example, NUMBER (5,2) could nothing larger than 999.99 without an error.

LONG

Character data of variable size up to 2GB in length. Only one LONG column
is allowed in a table.
Long column cannot be used in sub queries, functions, expressions, where
clause or indexes.
DATE

Valid date ranges from January 1,4712 BC to December 31,9999 AD.

(Default date format DD-MON-YY)

TIMESTAMP(precision)

Date plus time, where precision is the number of digits in the fractional part
of the seconds field (default is 6).

TIMESTAMP(precision) WITH TIME ZONE

Timestamp plus time zone displacement value.

TIMESTAMP(precision) WITHLOCAL TIME ZONE

TIMESTAMP, with normalized to local time zone.

RAW(size)

Raw binary date, size bytes long. Maximum size is 2000 bytes.

LONG RAW

Raw binary data, otherwise the same as LONG.

These two data types allow storing pictures.

CLOB
Character Large object, up to 4GB in length.
BLOB

Binary large object, up to 4GB in length.

BFILE
Pointer to a binary operating system file.

Introduction to SQL

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A Brief History of SQL

The history of SQL begins in an IBM laboratory in San Jose, California,

where SQL was developed in the late 1970s. The initials stand for
Structured Query Language, and the language itself is often referred to as
"sequel." It was originally developed for IBM's DB2 product (a relational
database management system, or RDBMS, that can still be bought today for
various platforms and environments). In fact, SQL makes an RDBMS
possible. SQL is a nonprocedural language, in contrast to the procedural or
third generation languages (3GLs) such as COBOL and C that had been
created up to that time.

NOTE: Nonprocedural means what rather than how. For example, SQL
describes what data to retrieve, delete, or insert, rather than how to perform
the operation.

The characteristic that differentiates a DBMS from an RDBMS is that the

RDBMS provides a set-oriented database language. For most RDBMS, this
set-oriented database language is SQL. Set oriented means that SQL
processes sets of data in groups.

Two standards organizations, the American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO), currently
promote SQL standards to industry. The ANSI-92 standard is the standard
for the SQL used throughout this book. Although these standard-making
bodies prepare standards for database system designers to follow, all
database products differ from the ANSI standard to some degree. In
technology in a single-user business application positions the application for
future growth.

An Overview of SQL

SQL is the standard language used to manipulate and retrieve data from
these relational databases. SQL enables a programmer or database
administrator to do the following:

 Modify a database's structure

 Change system security settings
 Add user permissions on databases or tables
 Query a database for information
 Update the contents of a database

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SQL in Application Programming

SQL was originally made an ANSI standard in 1986. The ANSI 1989
standard (often called SQL-89) defines three types of interfacing to SQL
within an application program:

Module Language-- Uses procedures within programs. These procedures

can be called by the application program and can return values to the
program via parameter passing.

Embedded SQL--Uses SQL statements embedded with actual program code.

This method often requires the use of a precompiler to process the SQL
statements. The standard defines statements for Pascal, FORTRAN, COBOL,
and PL/1.

Direct Invocation--Left up to the implementer.

Before the concept of dynamic SQL evolved, embedded SQL was the most
popular way to use SQL within a program. Embedded SQL, which is still
used, uses static SQL—meaning that the SQL statement is compiled into the
application and cannot be changed at runtime. The principle is much the
same as a compiler versus an interpreter. The performance for this type of
SQL is good; however, it is not flexible--and cannot always meet the needs of
today's changing business environments.

Structured Query Language

Oracle server supports ANSI standard SQL and contains extensions. Using
SQL, you can communicate with the Oracle server. SQL has the following
advantages

 Efficient
 Easy to learn and use
 Functionally complete (With SQL, you can define, retrieve, and
manipulate data in the tables.)

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SQL Statements

SELECT Data retrieval

INSERT
UPDATE Data manipulation language(DML)
DELETE
MERGE
CREATE
ALTER
DROP Data definition language (DDL)
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMIT
ROLLBACK Transaction control
SAVEPOINT
GRANT
REVOKE Data control language (DCL)

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 Writing SQL Statements

• SQL statements are not case sensitive.

• SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
• Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split across lines.
• Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.
• Indents are used to enhance readability.

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 SELECT AND FROM

It is a building block for data retrieval in SQL.

Syntax : SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE>;

Your First Query
INPUT:
SQL> select * from EMP;
OUTPUT:
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
------ ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10

ANALYSIS:
Notice that columns 6 and 8 in the output statement are right justified and that columns 2 and 3 are left
justified. This format follows the alignment convention in which numeric data types are right justified
and character data types are left justified.

The asterisk (*) in select * tells the database to return all the columns associated with the given table
described in the FROM clause. The database determines the order in which to return the columns.
A full table scan is used whenever there is no where clause on a query.

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Terminating an SQL Statement

In some implementations of SQL, the semicolon at the end of the statement

tells the
interpreter that you are finished writing the query. For example, Oracle's
SQL*PLUS
won't execute the query until it finds a semicolon (or a slash). On the other
hand, some
implementations of SQL do not use the semicolon as a terminator. For
example, Microsoft Query and Borland's ISQL don't require a terminator,
because your query is typed in an edit box and executed when you push a
button.

Changing the Order of the Columns

We can change the order of selection of columns

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal, job, comm from EMP;

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME SAL JOB COMM
---------- ---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800 CLERK
7499 ALLEN 1600 SALESMAN 300
7521 WARD 1250 SALESMAN 500
7566 JONES 2975 MANAGER
7654 MARTIN 1250 SALESMAN 1400
7698 BLAKE 2850 MANAGER
7782 CLARK 2450 MANAGER
7788 SCOTT 3000 ANALYST
7839 KING 5000 PRESIDENT
7844 TURNER 1500 SALESMAN 0
7876 ADAMS 1100 CLERK
7900 JAMES 950 CLERK
7902 FORD 3000 ANALYST
7934 MILLER 1300 CLERK

14 rows selected.

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 Expressions, Conditions, and Operators
Expressions

The definition of an expression is simple: An expression returns a value.

Expression types are very broad, covering different data types such as
String, Numeric, and Boolean. In fact, pretty much anything following a
clause (SELECT or FROM, for example) is an expression. In the following
example amount is an expression that returns the value contained in the
amount column.
SELECT sal FROM EMP;

In the following statement NAME, DESIGNATION, SAL are expressions:

SELECT ENAME, DESIGNATION, SAL FROM EMP;

Now, examine the following expression:

WHERE ENAME = 'KING'

It contains a condition, ENAME = 'KING', which is an example of a Boolean

expression. ENAME = 'KING' will be either TRUE or FALSE, depending on the
condition =.

Conditions

If you ever want to find a particular item or group of items in your database,
you need one or more conditions. Conditions are contained in the WHERE
clause. In the preceding example, the condition is ENAME = 'KING'
To find everyone in your organization who worked more than 100 hours last
month, your condition would be SAL > 2000
Conditions enable you to make selective queries. In there most common
form, conditions comprise a variable, a constant, and a comparison
operator. In the first example the variable is ENAME, the constant is 'KING',
and the comparison operator is =.

In the second example the variable is SAL, the constant is 100, and the
comparison operator is >. You need to know about two more elements before
you can write conditional queries: the WHERE clause and operators.

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 The WHERE Clause

The syntax of the WHERE clause is

SYNTAX:
SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE> WHERE <SEARCH
CONDITION>;

SELECT, FROM, and WHERE are the three most frequently used clauses in
SQL. WHERE simply causes your queries to be more selective. Without the
WHERE clause, the most useful thing you could do with a query is display
all records in the selected table(s).

If you wanted a particular EMPLOYEE, you could type

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME = 'KING';

Which would yield only one record:

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
------ ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10

ANALYSIS:
This simple example shows how you can place a condition on the data that you
want to retrieve.

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 If you wanted a particular EMPLOYEE, you could type

INPUT

SQL> SELECT * FROM BIKES WHERE ENAME != 'KING';

OR
SQL> SELECT * FROM BIKES WHERE ENAME <> 'KING';

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000 20
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10

ANALYSIS:

Displays all the employees other than KING.

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Operators
Operators are the elements you use inside an expression to articulate how
you want specified conditions to retrieve data. Operators fall into six groups:
arithmetic, comparison, character, logical, set, and miscellaneous.

Arithmetic Operators

The arithmetic operators are plus (+), minus (-), divide (/), multiply (*).
The first four are self-explanatory. Modulo returns the integer remainder of a
division.

Comparison Operators

True to their name, comparison operators compare expressions and return

one of three values: TRUE, FALSE, or Unknown.

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 2000;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 3000 AND SAL <= 4000;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;

To understand how you could get an Unknown, you need to know a little
about the concept of NULL. In database terms NULL is the absence of data
in a field. It does not mean a column has a zero or a blank in it. A zero or a
blank is a value. NULL means nothing is in that field. If you make a
comparison like Field = 9 and the only value for Field is NULL, the comparison
will come back Unknown. Because Unknown is an uncomfortable condition,
most flavors of SQL change Unknown to FALSE and provide a special
operator, IS NULL, to test for a NULL condition.

Here's an example of NULL: Suppose an entry in the PRICE table does not
contain a value for WHOLESALE. The results of a query might look like this:

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SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NULL;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NOT NULL;

Character Operators

You can use character operators to manipulate the way character strings are
represented, both in the output of data and in the process of placing
conditions on data to be retrieved. This section describes two character
operators: the LIKE operator and the || operator, which conveys the
concept of character concatenation.

LIKE operator
What if you wanted to select parts of a database that fit a pattern but
weren't quite exact matches? You could use the equal sign and run through
all the possible cases, but that process would be time-consuming. Instead,
you could use LIKE.

Consider the following:

INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘A%’;

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees whose names begins with letter A

INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME NOT LIKE ‘A%’;

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees whose names not beginning with letter A

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 INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘%A%’;

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees whose names contains letter A (Any

number of A’s)

INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘%A%A%’;

ANALYSIS
Displays all the names whose name contains letter A more than one
time

INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE LIKE ‘%DEC%’;

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees who joined in the month of December.

INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE LIKE ‘%81’;

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees who joined in the year 81.

INPUT:
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL LIKE ‘4%’;

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees whose salary begins with number 4.

(Implicit data conversion takes place).

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 Underscore (_)

The underscore is the single-character wildcard.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘_A
%’;
OUTPUT:
EMPNO ENAME
---------- ----------
7521 WARD
7654 MARTIN
7900 JAMES

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose second letter is A

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘__A%’;
OUTPUT:
ENAME
----------
BLAKE
CLARK
ADAMS

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose third letter is A
( Two underscores followed by A)

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘A%\_%’ ESCAPE
‘\’;
OUTPUT:
ENAME
----------
AVINASH_K
ANAND_VARDAN
ADAMS_P

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees with underscore (_). ‘\’ Escape character
Underscore is used to identify a position in the string. To treat _ as a
character we have to use Escape (\) character,

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Concatenation ( ||) operator

Used to combine two given strings

INPUT
SELECT ENAME || JOB FROM EMP;

OUTPUT
ENAME||JOB
-------------------
SMITHCLERK
ALLENSALESMAN
WARDSALESMAN
JONESMANAGER
MARTINSALESMAN
BLAKEMANAGER
CLARKMANAGER
SCOTTANALYST
KINGPRESIDENT
TURNERSALESMAN
ADAMSCLERK
JAMESCLERK
FORDANALYST
MILLERCLERK

ANALYSIS
Combines both name and designation as a single string.

INPUT
SQL>SELECT ENAME || ‘ , ‘ || JOB FROM EMP;
OUTPUT
ENAME||','||JOB
----------------------
SMITH , CLERK
ALLEN , SALESMAN
WARD , SALESMAN
JONES , MANAGER
MARTIN , SALESMAN
BLAKE , MANAGER
CLARK , MANAGER
SCOTT , ANALYST
KING , PRESIDENT
TURNER , SALESMAN
ADAMS , CLERK
JAMES , CLERK
FORD , ANALYST
MILLER , CLERK

ANALYSIS
Combines both name and designation as a single string separated by,

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Logical Operators

INPUT:
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘%A%’ and
ENAME NOT LIKE ‘%A%A%’
OUTPUT
ENAME
----------
ALLEN
WARD
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
JAMES

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees whose names contains letter A exactly one
time.

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 3000 AND SAL <= 4000;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 3000 AND

4000;

Miscellaneous Operators: IN, BETWEEN and DISTINCT

The two operators IN and BETWEEN provide shorthand for functions you
already know how to do. You could type the following:

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 INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB= 'CLERK'
OR JOB =‘MANAGER’ OR JOB = 'SALESMAN';
OUTPUT:
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
SMITH CLERK
ALLEN SALESMAN
WARD SALESMAN
JONES MANAGER
MARTIN SALESMAN
BLAKE MANAGER
CLARK MANAGER
TURNER SALESMAN
ADAMS CLERK
JAMES CLERK
MILLER CLERK
ANALYSIS
Display employees with designations manager, clerk, and salesman,

The above statement takes more time to parse it, which reduces the
efficiency.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB
IN('CLERK','SALESMAN','MANAGER');
OUTPUT:
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
SMITH CLERK
ALLEN SALESMAN
WARD SALESMAN
JONES MANAGER
MARTIN SALESMAN
BLAKE MANAGER
CLARK MANAGER
TURNER SALESMAN
ADAMS CLERK
JAMES CLERK
MILLER CLERK
ANALYSIS
Display employees with designations manager, clerk, and salesman,

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 INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB FROM EMP
WHERE JOB NOT IN('CLERK','SALESMAN','MANAGER');
OUTPUT:
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
SCOTT ANALYST
KING PRESIDENT
FORD ANALYST

ANALYSIS
Display designations other than manager, clerk, and salesman

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME,HIREDATE
FROM EMP
WHERE HIREDATE IN (’01-MAY-1981’,’09-DEC-1982’);

OUTPUT:
ENAME HIREDATE
---------- ---------
BLAKE 01-MAY-81
SCOTT 09-DEC-82

ANALYSIS
Display employees who joined on two different dates.
DISTINCT OPERATOR

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT JOB FROM EMP;

OUTPUT:
JOB
---------
ANALYST
CLERK
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN

ANALYSIS
Distinct operator displays unique designations.
Distinct operator by default displays the information in ascending order.

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ORDER BY CLAUSE

Display the information in a particular order (Ascending or descending

order)

Syntax

SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE> WHERE <CONDITION>

ORDER BY <COLUMN(S)>;

INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME;
OUTPUT
ENAME
----------
ADAMS
ALLEN
BLAKE
CLARK
FORD
JAMES
JONES
KING
MARTIN
MILLER
SCOTT
SMITH
TURNER
WARD

ANALYSIS
Display employees in ascending order of names.

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 INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY JOB,ENAME;
OUTPUT
JOB ENAME SAL
--------- ---------- ----------
ANALYST FORD 3000
ANALYST SCOTT 3000
CLERK ADAMS 1100
CLERK JAMES 950
CLERK MILLER 1300
CLERK SMITH 800
MANAGER BLAKE 2850
MANAGER CLARK 2450
MANAGER JONES 2975
PRESIDENT KING 5000
SALESMAN ALLEN 1600
SALESMAN MARTIN 1250
SALESMAN TURNER 1500
SALESMAN WARD 1250

ANALYSIS
Display employees in ascending order of jobs. With each job it places the
information in ascending order of names.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY job, name desc;

OUTPUT:
Display employees in ascending order by jobs. With each job it places the
information in descending order of names.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY job desc, ename desc;

OUTPUT:
Display employees in descending order by jobs. With each job it places
the information in descending order of names.

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 INPUT

SQL> SELECT *
FROM EMP where JOB != ‘CLERK’
ORDER BY JOB;

OUTPUT:
Display employees in ascending order of jobs other than clerks.

ANALYSIS

When we are executing the query, it is divided into two different parts.

1) SELECT *
FROM EMP where JOB != ‘CLERK’
2) ORDER BY JOB;

First part is going to execute first, and selects all the employees whose
designation is other than clerk and places them in a temporary table.

On the temporary table, order by clause is applied, places the information

in ascending order by jobs in the shadow page, from where end user can
able to see the output.

We can also use order by clause as

INPUT

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY 3;

ANALYSIS

It places the information in the order of third column in the table.

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Exercise
1. _________ is the operator used to compare a column with null value.
2. _________is used to compare one value with a set of values.
3. The maximum number of character that can be stored in CHAR type is
4. Assume there is a table student(sname char(6), sname1 varchar2(6));
Assume that value place in both columns is RAVI.
What is the size of sname and sname1
5. How many LONG columns can a table contain?_______
6. SQL commands are to be terminated with ______________
7. Display list of employees that start with letter C
8. Display employees in ascending order of 5th column in the table

9. Examine the trace instance chart for employee table. You want to display each employee hiredate
from earliest to latest. Which SQL statement will you use?
   (1) SELECT hiredate FROM emp;   

(2) SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate;

   (3) SELECT emp FROM emp ORDER by hiredate;

   (4) SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate DESC;

10. Which data type should you use for interest rates with varying and unpredictabledecimal places
such as 1.234, 3.4, 5 and 1.23?

   (1) LONG.

   (2) NUMBER.

   (3) NUMBER(p, s)

   (4) None

11.Which SQL statement generates the alias Annual Salary for the calculated column SALARY*12?

   (1) SELECT ename, salary*12 Annual SalaryFROM employees;

   (2) SELECT ename, salary*12 Annual SalaryFROM employees;

   (3) SELECT ename, salary*12 AS Annual SalaryFROM employees;

   (4) SELECT ename, salary*12 AS INITCAP(ANNUAL SALARY)FROM employees

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 12. The EMP table has these columns: ENAME VARCHAR2(35), SALARY
NUMBER(8,2)HIRE_DATE DATE. Management wants a list of names of employees who
have been with the company for more than five years; Which SQL statement displays the
required results?

(1) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE > 5;

(2) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE HIRE_DATE-SYSDATE > 5;

(3) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE (SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE)/365 > 5;

(4) SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE (SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE)* 365 > 5;

13. The employee table contains these columns.LAST_NAME VARCHAR2 (25), FIRST_NAME
VARCHAR2(25) DEPT_ID NUMBER(9) You need to display the names of the employees that
are not assigned to the department. Evaluate this SQL statement; SELECT last_name,
first_name FROM employee WHERE dept_id is NULL which change should you make to
achieve the desired result?

(1) Create an outer join.

(2) Change the column in the where condition.

(3)  Query executes successfully

(4)  Add a second condition to the where condition

14. Which statement about SQL is true?

(1) Null values are displayed last in the ascending sequences.

(2) Data values are displayed in descending order by default.

(3) You cannot specify a column alias in an ORDER BY clause.

(4) You cannot sort query results by a column that is not included in the SELECT list.

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 FUNCTIONS

A function is a sub program, which executes whenever we call it and returns

a value to the calling place.

These functions are classified into two types

 Predefined functions
 User defined functions

Predefined functions

These functions are again classified into two types

 Group or Aggregate Functions

 Single row Functions

Aggregate Functions

These functions are also referred to as group functions. They return a value
based on the values in a column.

COUNT

The function COUNT returns the number of rows that satisfy the condition
in the WHERE clause.

Say you wanted to know how many employees are there.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP;

OUTPUT:

COUNT(*)
--------
14

ANALYSIS
It counts if row presents in the table

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 To make the code more readable, try an alias :

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) NUM_OF_EMP FROM EMP;

NUM_OF_EMP
-------------------
14

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(COMM)
FROM EMP;

COUNT(*)
--------
4

ANALYSIS

It counts only those when there is a value in comm. Column

Note: Count (*) faster than count(comm)
Count(*) count the row when a row present in the table where as
Count(comm) counts the row only when there is a value in the column.

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE JOB = ‘MANAGER’;

COUNT(*)
-------
4

ANALYSIS
It counts only managers

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INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT count (distinct job) FROM EMP;
COUNT (*)
-------
4

ANALYSIS
It counts only distinct jobs

SUM
SUM does just that. It returns the sum of all values in a
column.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUM(SAL) TOTAL_SALARY FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
TOTAL_SALARY
-------------
29025
ANALYSIS
Find the total salary drawn by all the employees

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUM(SAL) TOTAL_SALARY, SUM(COMM)
TOTAL_COMM,
FROM EMP;
TOTAL_SALARY TOTAL_COMM
------------- ----------
29025 2200

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SQL> SELECT SUM(SAL) TOTAL_SALARY, SUM(COMM)
TOTAL_COMM,
FROM EMP WHERE JOB = ‘SALESMAN’;
TOTAL_SALARY TOTAL_COMM
------------- ----------
5600 2200

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AVG

The AVG function computes the average of a column.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT AVG(sal) average_salary
2 FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
AVERAGE_SALARY
---------------
2073.21429

ANALYSIS
Find the average salary of all the employees

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT AVG(COMM) average_comm FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

AVERAGE_COMM
------------
550

ANALYSIS
Functions ignores null rows

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MAX
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

MAX(SAL)
--------
5000
ANALYSIS
Takes the value from one different rows from one particular column

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MAX(ENAME) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

MAX(ENAME)
--------
WARD

ANALYSIS
Max of name is identified based on ASCII value

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MAX (hiredate) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

MAX(HIREDATE)
-------------
12-JAN-83

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MIN

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

MIN(SAL)
--------
800

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MIN(ENAME) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

MIN (ENAME)
--------
ADAMS

INPUT

SELECT SUM(SAL),AVG(SAL),MIN(SAL),MAX(SAL),COUNT(*) FROM

EMP;

OUTPUT
SUM(SAL) AVG(SAL) MIN(SAL) MAX(SAL) COUNT(*)
-------------- --------------- -------------- -------------- -------------
29025 2073.21429 800 5000 14

ANALYSIS
All the aggregate functions can be used together in a single SQL statement

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SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS

These functions work on each and every row and return a value to the
calling places.

These functions are classified into different types

 Arithmetic Functions
 Character Functions
 Date functions
 Miscellaneous Functions

Arithmetic Functions

Many of the uses you have for the data you retrieve involve mathematics.
Most Implementations of SQL provide arithmetic functions similar to that of
operators covered here.

ABS

The ABS function returns the absolute value of the number you point to. For
example:

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ABS(-10) ABSOLUTE_VALUE FROM dual;

OUTPUT
ABSOLUTE_VALUE
----------------------------
10
ANALYSIS

ABS changes all the negative numbers to positive and leaves positive numbers
alone.

Dual is a system table or dummy table from where we can display system
information (i.e. system date and username etc) or we can make our own
calculations.

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CEIL and FLOOR

CEIL returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to its argument.
FLOOR does just the reverse, returning the largest integer equal to or less
than its argument.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CEIL(12.145) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
CEIL(12.145)
-----------------
13

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CEIL(12.000) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
CEIL(12.000)
-----------------
12
ANALYSIS
Minimum we require one decimal place , to get the next higher integer number

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT FLOOR(12.678) FLOOR DUAL;

OUTPUT:

FLOOR(12.678)
-----------------
12

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT FLOOR(12.000) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
FLOOR(12.000)
-----------------
12

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MOD
It returns remainder when we divide one value with another value

INPUT

SQL> SELECT MOD(5,2) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
MOD(5,2)
---------------
1

INPUT

SQL> SELECT MOD(2,5) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
MOD(2,5)
---------------
2
ANALYSIS
When numerator value less than denominator, it returns
numerator value as remainder.

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POWER
To raise one number to the power of another, use POWER. In this function
the first argument is raised to the power of the second:

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT POWER(5,3) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
125

SIGN
SIGN returns -1 if its argument is less than 0, 0 if its argument is equal to 0,
and 1 if its argument is greater than 0,

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SIGN(-10), SIGN(10),SIGN(0) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SIGN(-10) SIGN(10) SIGN(0)
---------- ---------- ----------
-1 1 0

SQRT

The function SQRT returns the square root of an argument. Because the
square root of a negative number is undefined, you cannot use SQRT on
negative numbers.

INPUT/OUTPUT:
SQL> SELECT SQRT(4) FROM DUAL;

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Character Functions

Many implementations of SQL provide functions to manipulate characters

and strings of characters.

CHR

CHR returns the character equivalent of the number it uses as an argument.

The character it returns depends on the character set of the database. For
this example the database is set to ASCII.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CHR(65) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
A

CONCAT

It is similar to that of concatenate operator ( | | )

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CONCAT(‘KRISHNA’, ‘ KANTH’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT
KRISHNA KANTH

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INITCAP
INITCAP capitalizes the first letter of a word and makes all other characters
lowercase.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME “BEFORE”,INITCAP(ENAME) “AFTER”FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
BEFORE AFTER
---------- ----------
SMITH Smith
ALLEN Allen
WARD Ward
JONES Jones
MARTIN Martin
BLAKE Blake
CLARK Clark
SCOTT Scott
KING King
TURNER Turner
ADAMS Adams
JAMES James
FORD Ford
MILLER Miller

LOWER and UPPER

As you might expect, LOWER changes all the characters to lowercase;

UPPER does just the changes all the characters to uppercase.
SQL>SELECT
ENAME,UPPER(ENAME) UPPER_CASE,LOWER(ENAME)
LOWER_CASE FROM EMP;
ENAME UPPER_CASE LOWER_CASE
---------- ---------- ----------
SMITH SMITH smith
ALLEN ALLEN allen
WARD WARD ward
JONES JONES jones
MARTIN MARTIN martin
BLAKE BLAKE blake
CLARK CLARK clark
SCOTT SCOTT scott
KING KING king
TURNER TURNER turner
ADAMS ADAMS adams
JAMES JAMES james
FORD FORD ford
MILLER MILLER miller

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LPAD and RPAD

LPAD and RPAD take a minimum of two and a maximum of three

arguments. The first argument is the character string to be operated on. The
second is the number of characters to pad it with, and the optional third
argument is the character to pad it with. The third argument defaults to a
blank, or it can be a single character or a character string.

The following statement adds five pad characters, assuming that the field
LASTNAME is defined as a 15-character field:

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT LPAD(ENAME,15,’*’) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
LPAD(ENAME,15,'
---------------
**********SMITH
**********ALLEN
***********WARD
**********JONES
*********MARTIN
**********BLAKE
**********CLARK
**********SCOTT
***********KING
*********TURNER
**********ADAMS
**********JAMES
***********FORD
*********MILLER
ANALYSIS:
15 locations allocated to display ename, out of that, name is occupying some
space and in the remaining space to the left side of the name pads with *.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT RPAD(5000,10,’*’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:

5000******

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LTRIM and RTRIM

LTRIM and RTRIM take at least one and at most two arguments. The first
argument, like LPAD and RPAD, is a character string. The optional second
element is either a character or character string or defaults to a blank. If you
use a second argument that is not a blank, these trim functions will trim
that character the same way they trim the blanks in the following examples.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME, RTRIM(ENAME,’R’) FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
ENAME RTRIM(ENAM
---------- ----------
SMITH SMITH
ALLEN ALLEN
WARD WARD
JONES JONES
MARTIN MARTIN
BLAKE BLAKE
CLARK CLARK
SCOTT SCOTT
KING KING
TURNER TURNE
ADAMS ADAMS
JAMES JAMES
FORD FORD
MILLER MILLE

ANALYSIS
Removes the rightmost character

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REPLACE

REPLACE does just that. Of its three arguments, the first is the string to be
searched. The second is the search key. The last is the optional replacement
string. If the third argument is left out or NULL, each occurrence of the
search key on the string to be searched is removed and is not replaced with
anything.

SYNTAX :

REPLACE(STRING,SEARCH_STRING,REPLACE_STRING)

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT REPLACE (‘RAMANA’,’MA’, VI’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

RAVINA

INPUT
SQL> SELECT REPLACE(‘RAMANA’,’MA’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

RANA
ANALYSIS
When the replace string is missing, search string removed from the given
string

INPUT
SQL> SELECT REPLACE (‘RAMANA’,’MA’, NULL) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

RANA

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TRANSLATE

The function TRANSLATE takes three arguments: the target string, the
FROM string, and the TO string. Elements of the target string that occur in
the FROM string are translated to the corresponding element in the TO
string.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TRANSLATE(‘RAMANA’,’MA’,’CD’) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
RDCDND

ANALYSIS

Notice that the function is case sensitive.

When search string matches, it replaces with corresponding replace string and if any
one character is matching in the search string , it replaces with corresponding replace
character.

SUBSTR
This three-argument function enables you to take a piece out of a target
string. The first argument is the target string. The second argument is the
position of the first character to be output. The third argument is the
number of characters to show.

SYNTAX

SUBSTR(STRING,STARTING_POSITION[,NO_OF_CHARACTERS])

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,1,3) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
RAM

ANALYSIS
It takes first 3 characters from first character

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,3,3) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
MAN

ANALYSIS
It takes 3 characters from third position

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,-2,2) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
NA

ANALYSIS
You use a negative number as the second argument, the starting point is
determined by counting backwards from the end.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,1,2) || SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,-2,2) FROM
DUAL;
OUTPUT:
RANA

ANALYSIS
First two characters and last two characters are combined together as a
single string

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,3) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:
MANA

ANALYSIS
When third argument is missing, it takes all the character from starting
position

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 INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SUBSTR(HIREDATE,4,3) =
SUBSTR(SYSDATE,4,3);

OUTPUT:
RANA

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees who joined in the current month
SYSDATE is a single row function, which gives the current date.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,1,2) || SUBSTR(‘RAMANA’,-2,2) FROM
DUAL;
OUTPUT:
RANA

ANALYSIS
First two characters and Last two characters are combined together as a
single string

INSTR

To find out where in a string a particular pattern occurs, use INSTR. Its first
argument is the target string. The second argument is the pattern to match.
The third and forth are numbers representing where to start looking and
which match to report.

This example returns a number representing the first occurrence of O

starting with the second

INPUT

SQL> SELECT INSTR(‘RAMANA’,’A’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT
2
ANALYSIS

Find the position of the first occurrence of letter A

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 INPUT

SQL> SELECT INSTR(‘RAMANA’,’A’,1,2) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT
4
ANALYSIS

Find the position of the second occurrence of letter A from the beginning
of the string.
Third argument represents from which position, Fourth argument represents,
which occurrence.

SQL> SELECT INSTR (‘RAMANA’,’a’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT
0
ANALYSIS

Function is case sensitive; it returns 0 (zero) when the given character is

not found.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT INSTR(‘RAMANA’,’A’,3,2) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT
6
ANALYSIS

Find the position of the second occurrence of letter A from 3rd position of
the string

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59
Conversion Functions

These functions provide a handy way of converting one type of data to

another. They are mainly useful for changing date formats and number
formats.

TO_CHAR

The primary use of TO_CHAR is to convert a number into a character.

Different Implementations may also use it to convert other data types, like
Date, into a character, or to include different formatting arguments.

The following example illustrates the primary use of TO_CHAR:

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SAL, TO_CHAR(SAL) FROM EMP;

OUTPUT:

SAL TO_CHAR(SAL)
---------- ----------------------------------------
800 800
1600 1600
1250 1250
2975 2975
1250 1250
2850 2850
2450 2450
3000 3000
5000 5000
1500 1500
1100 1100
950 950
3000 3000
1300 1300

ANALYSIS

After conversion, Converted information is left aligned. So we can say that

it is a string.

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60
 The main usage of this function is, to change the date formats and number
formats

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DD/MM/YYYY’) FROM

DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD/MM/YYYY')
--------- ------------------------------
24-MAR-07 24/03/2007

ANALYSIS

Convert the default date format to DD/MM/YYYY format

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DD-MON-YY’) FROM

DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MON-YY')
--------- ------------------------------
24-MAR-07 24-MAR-07

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DY-MON-YY’) FROM

DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DY-MON-YY')
--------- ------------------------------
24-MAR-07 SAT-MAR-07

ANALYSIS:
DY displays the first 3 letters from the day name

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

61
 INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DAY MONTH YEAR’) FROM

DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DAYMONTHYEAR')
--------- ------------------------------
24-MAR-07 SATURDAY MARCH TWO THOUSAND SEVEN

ANALYSIS:
DAY gives the total day name
MONTH gives the total month name
YEAR writes the year number in words

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DDSPTH MONTH YEAR’)

FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPTHMONTHYEAR')
--------- -------------------------------------------------------------------
24-MAR-07 TWENTY-FOURTH MARCH TWO THOUSAND SEVEN

ANALYSIS:
DD gives the day number
DDSP Writes day number in words
TH is the format. Depends upon the number it gives either ST / RD/ST/ND
format

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62
 INPUT:

SQL> SELECT HIREDATE,TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,’DDSPTH MONTH

YEAR’) FROM EMP;

OUTPUT:
HIREDATE TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'DDSPTHMONTHYEAR')
--------- -------------------------------------------------------------------
17-DEC-80 SEVENTEENTH DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY
20-FEB-81 TWENTIETH FEBRUARY NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
22-FEB-81 TWENTY-SECOND FEBRUARY NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
02-APR-81 SECOND APRIL NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
28-SEP-81 TWENTY-EIGHTH SEPTEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
01-MAY-81 FIRST MAY NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
09-JUN-81 NINTH JUNE NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
09-DEC-82 NINTH DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-TWO
17-NOV-81 SEVENTEENTH NOVEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
08-SEP-81 EIGHTH SEPTEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
12-JAN-83 TWELFTH JANUARY NINETEEN EIGHTY-THREE
03-DEC-81 THIRD DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
03-DEC-81 THIRD DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
23-JAN-82 TWENTY-THIRD JANUARY NINETEEN EIGHTY-TWO

ANALYSIS:
Converts all hire dates in EMP table into Words

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’Q’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’Q’)
--------- ------------------------------
24-MAR-07 1

ANALYSIS:

Gives in the quarter the given date falls

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63
 INPUT:

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(’10-SEP-2005’),’Q’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('10-SEP-2005'),'Q')
----------------------------------------
3
ANALYSIS:

To_date is data conversion function, which converts given string into date type

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’W’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’W’)
--------- ------------------------------
24-MAR-07 4

ANALYSIS:

Gives the week number in the current month ( In which week given date falls in the
current month)

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’WW’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE TO_CHAR(SYSDATE)
--------- ----------------------------
24-MAR-07 12

ANALYSIS:
MSAT GE-GDC Internal
Returns no. of weeks worked during the 64
year.
 INPUT:

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’HH:MI:SS AM’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(SYS
-----------
08:40:17 PM

ANALYSIS:

HH returns Hours }
MI returns Minutes } Returns time from current date
SS returns Seconds }
AM returns AM / PM depends on Time

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’HH24:MI:SS’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(
--------
20:43:12
ANALYSIS:

HH24 returns Hours in 24 hour format }

MI returns Minutes } Returns time from current date
INPUT:
SS returns Seconds }
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(12567,’99,999.99’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(12567,'99,999.99')
-----------------------------
12,567.00
MSAT GE-GDC Internal
ANALYSIS: 65

Converts the given number into comma format with two decimal places
 INPUT:

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(12567,’L99,999.99’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(12567,'L99,999.99')
-----------------------------
$12,567.00

ANALYSIS:

Display the local currency symbol

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(-12567,’L99,999.99PR’) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(-12567,'L99,999.99PR')
-----------------------------------
<$12,567.00>

ANALYSIS:

PR Parenthesis negative number

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66
TO_NUMBER

TO_NUMBER is the companion function to TO_CHAR, and of course, it converts a

string into a number.

For example:

INPUT:

SQL> SELECT SAL, TO_NUMBER((TO_CHAR(SAL)) FROM EMP;

OUTPUT:
SAL TO_NUMBER(TO_CHAR(SAL))
---------- -----------------------
800 800
1600 1600
1250 1250
2975 2975
1250 1250
2850 2850
2450 2450
3000 3000
5000 5000
1500 1500
1100 1100
950 950
3000 3000
1300 1300

ANALYSIS

After conversion, Converted information is right aligned. So we can say

that it is a number.

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67
Date and Time Functions
We live in a civilization governed by times and dates, and most major
implementations of SQL have functions to cope with these concepts.

It demonstrates the time and date functions.

ADD_MONTHS
This function adds a number of months to a specified date.

For example, say a customer deposited some amount on a particular date for a
period of 6 months. To find the maturity date of the deposit

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ADD_MONTHS (SYSDATE, 6) MATURITY_DATE FROM
DUAL;
OUTPUT:

MATURITY_DATE
--------------------
24-SEP-07

ANALYSIS
It adds 6 months to the system date

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT HIREDATE, ADD_MONTHS(HIREDATE,33*12)
RETIRE_DATE FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
HIREDATE RETIRE_DATE
--------- ---------------
17-DEC-80 17-DEC-13
20-FEB-81 20-FEB-14
22-FEB-81 22-FEB-14
02-APR-81 02-APR-14
28-SEP-81 28-SEP-14
01-MAY-81 01-MAY-14
09-JUN-81 09-JUN-14
09-DEC-82 09-DEC-15
17-NOV-81 17-NOV-14
08-SEP-81 08-SEP-14
12-JAN-83 12-JAN-16
03-DEC-81 03-DEC-14
03-DEC-81 03-DEC-14
23-JAN-82 23-JAN-15

ANALYSIS
Find the retirement date of an employee
MSATAssume, 33 years of service from date of join is retirement date
GE-GDC Internal
68
 INPUT:
SQL> SELECT HIREDATE,
TO_CHAR(ADD_MONTHS(HIREDATE,33*12),’DD/MM/YYYY’)
RETIRE_DATE FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:

HIREDATE RETIRE_DATE
--------- ---------------
17-DEC-80 17/12/2013
20-FEB-81 20/02/2014
22-FEB-81 22/02/2014
02-APR-81 02/04/2014
28-SEP-81 28/09/2014
01-MAY-81 01/05/2014
09-JUN-81 09/06/2014
09-DEC-82 09/12/2015
17-NOV-81 17/11/2014
08-SEP-81 08/09/2014
12-JAN-83 12/01/2016
03-DEC-81 03/12/2014
03-DEC-81 03/12/2014
23-JAN-82 23/01/2015

ANALYSIS
Displaying the retirement date with century.

LAST_DAY

LAST_DAY returns the last day of a specified month.

For example, you need to know what the last day of the month

MONTHS_BETWEEN
Used to find the number of months between two given months

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)
-------------------------
31-MAR-07

ANALYSIS
Find the last date of the month

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69
 INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME,MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)/12
EXPERIENCE FROM EMP;
OUTPUT:
ENAME EXPERIENCE
---------- ----------
SMITH 26.2713494
ALLEN 26.0966182
WARD 26.0912419
JONES 25.9783387
MARTIN 25.4917795
BLAKE 25.8976935
CLARK 25.7928548
SCOTT 24.2928548
KING 25.3546827
TURNER 25.545543
ADAMS 24.2014569
JAMES 25.3089838
FORD 25.3089838
MILLER 25.171887

ANALYSIS
Finds number of months between sysdate and hiredate . Result is divided
with 12 to get the experience

LOCALTIMESTAMP

Returns Local timestamp in the active time zone, with no time zone information
shown

INPUT

SQL> SELECT LOCALTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

LOCALTIMESTAMP
------------------------------------
25-MAR-07 06.21.02.312000 PM

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70
NEW_TIME

This function is used to adjust the time according to the time zone you are in.

Here are the time zones you can use with this function:

Abbreviation Time Zone

AST or ADT Atlantic standard or daylight time
BST or BDT Bering standard or daylight time
CST or CDT Central standard or daylight time
EST or EDT Eastern standard or daylight time
GMT Greenwich mean time
HST or HDT Alaska-Hawaii standard or daylight time
MST or MDT Mountain standard or daylight time
NST Newfoundland standard time
PST or PDT Pacific standard or daylight time
YST or YDT Yukon standard or daylight time
You can adjust your time like this:

INPUT
SQL> select
TO_CHAR(new_time(LOCALTIMESTAMP,'EsT','PDT'),'DD/MM/YYYY HH :
MI :SS PM') from DUAL;

OUTPUT
TO_CHAR(NEW_TIME(LOCALTIM
-------------------------
25/03/2007 04 : 32 :55 PM

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

71
 INPUT:
SQL> select hiredate,new_time(hiredate,'EsT','PDT') from emp;
OUTPUT:
HIREDATE NEW_TIME(
--------- ---------
17-DEC-80 16-DEC-80
20-FEB-81 19-FEB-81
22-FEB-81 21-FEB-81
02-APR-81 01-APR-81
28-SEP-81 27-SEP-81
01-MAY-81 30-APR-81
09-JUN-81 08-JUN-81
09-DEC-82 08-DEC-82
17-NOV-81 16-NOV-81
08-SEP-81 07-SEP-81
12-JAN-83 11-JAN-83
03-DEC-81 02-DEC-81
03-DEC-81 02-DEC-81
23-JAN-82 22-JAN-82

ANALYSIS

Like magic, all the times are in the new time zone and the dates are
adjusted.

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72
NEXT_DAY

NEXT_DAY finds the name of the first day of the week that is equal to or later than
another specified date.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’MONDAY’) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

NEXT_DAY(
---------
26-MAR-07

ANALYSIS
If the sysdate is Saturday, March 24, 2007, It display the date of the next
coming Monday.

EXTRACT

We can use Extract function in the place of to_char function from Oracle 9i.

SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;

SELECT EXTRACT(DAY FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL

SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL

Interval Data types ( Only from 9i)

Oracle supports two interval datatypes. Both were introduced in Oracle9i

Database, and both conform to the ISO SQL standard.

INTERVAL YEAR to MONTH

Allows you to define and interval of time in terms of years and months

INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND

Allows you to define an interval of time in terms of days, hours, minutes
and seconds (including fractional seconds).

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

73
Example

select (sysdate - to_date('10-jan-2004')) year to month from dual

OUTPUT

+000000003-10

Analysis

Returns the difference. No of years and months between both the dates.

Example

Select (sysdate - to_date('10-NOV-2007')) day to second from dual

OUTPUT

+000000009 11:04:07

Analysis

Find the difference with days and time. For sysdate it takes 0.00 hrs as starting
time

Note :- We can also change the default format for a given session using the ALTER
SESSION command

SQL> ALTER SESSION SET NLS_DATE_FORMAT = ‘DD/MM/YYYY’;

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL:

Interpreting Two-digit Years

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

74
Oracle provides the RR format element to interpret two-digit years.

If the Current year is in the first half of the century ( years 0 through 49), then:

 If you enter a date in the first half of the century (i.e. from 0 through 49), RR
returns the current century.
 If you enter a date in the latter half of the century (i.e. from 50
through 99), RR returns the previous century.

For example

select to_char(sysdate,'dd/mm/yyyy') "current date",

to_char(to_date('14-oct-88','dd-mon-rr'),'yyyy') "Year 88",
to_char(to_date('14-oct-18','dd-mon-rr'),'yyyy') "year 18" from dual

OUTPUT

current date Year 88 year 18

------------------------- -------------------- --------------------
19/11/2007 1988 2018

When we reach the year 2050, RR will interpret the same dates
differently

current date Year 88 year 18

------------------------- -------------------- --------------------
19/11/2050 2088 2118

Going from Numbers to Intervals

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

75
 The NUMTOYMINTERVAL and NUMTODSINTERVAL functions allow you
to convert a single numeric value to one of the interval data types.

The function NUMTOYMINTERVAL (pronounced “ num to Y M interval”)

converts a numeric value an interval of type INTERVAL YEAR TO
MONTH.

SQL> select numtoyminterval (10.5,'year') from dual;

NUMTOYMINTERVAL (10.5,'YEAR')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+000000010-06

SQL> select numtoyminterval (10.3,'year') from dual;

NUMTOYMINTERVAL (10.3,'YEAR')
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+000000010-03

Try the following formats

 SELECT NUMTOYMINTERVAL(10.5,’MONTH’) FROM DUAL;

 SELECT NUMTOYMINTERVAL(10.5,’DAY’) FROM DUAL;
Name Description
YEAR Some number of years ranging from 1 through 999,999,999
MONTH Some number of months ranging from 0 through 11
DAY Some number of days ranging from 0 through 999,999,999
HOUR Some number of hours ranging from 0 through 23
MINUTE Some number of minutes ranging from 0 through 59
SECOND Some number of seconds ranging from 0 through 59.999999999

NUMTODSINTERVAL

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

76
 This function allows to convert a single numeric value to one of the
interval data types.

This function ( pronounced “num to D S interval”) likewise converts

a numeric value to an interval of type INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND.

Example

SQL> select NUMTODSINTERVAL(1440,’minute’) from dual;

OUTPUT
+01 00:00.00.000000

ANALYSIS
Oracle automatically taken care of normalizing the input value of
1440 minutes to an interval value of 1 day.

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

77
  Miscellaneous Functions

Here are three miscellaneous functions you may find useful.

GREATEST and LEAST

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT GREATEST(10,1,83,2,9,67) FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

GREATEST
---------
83
ANALYSIS

Displays the greatest of the given set of values

Difference between GREATEST AND MAX IS

1) GREATEST IS SINGLE ROW FUNCTION, MAX IS A GROUP
FUNCTION
2) GREATEST TAKES VALUES FROM DIFFERENT COLUMNS
FROM EACH ROW, WHERE AS MAX TAKES VALUES FROM
DIFFERENT ROWS FROM A COLUMN.

Assume there is a student table

STUDENT
ROLLNO NAME SUB1 SUB2 SUB3 SUB4
1 RAVI 55 22 86 45
2 KRIS 78 55 65 12
3 BABU 55 22 44 77
4 ANU 44 55 66 88

To find the greatest and Least Marks

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT NAME,SUB1,SUB2,SUB3, SUB4,
GREATEST(SUB1,SUB2,SUB3,SUB4) GREATEST_MARK,
LEAST(SUB1,SUB2,SUB3,SUB4) LEAST_MARK FROM STUDENT

OUTPUT:
ROLLNO NAME SUB1 SUB2 SUB3 SUB4 GREATEST LEAST
MARK MARK
1 RAVI 55 22 86 45 86 22
2 KRIS 78 55 65 12 78 12
3 BABU 55 22 44 77 77 22
4 ANU 44 55 66 88 88 44

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

78
USER

USER returns the character name of the current user of the database.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT USER FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT:

USER
--------
SCOTT

ANALYSIS
Displays the current sessions user name
We can also display username using environment command
SQL> SHOW USER

The DECODE Function

The DECODE function is one of the most powerful commands in SQL*Plus--and

perhaps the most powerful. The standard language of SQL lacks procedural
functions that are contained in languages such as COBOL and C.
The DECODE statement is similar to an IF...THEN statement in a procedural
programming language. Where flexibility is required for complex reporting needs,
DECODE is often able to fill the gap between SQL and the functions of a
procedural language.

SYNTAX:
DECODE (column1, value1, output1, value2, output2, output3)

The syntax example performs the DECODE function on column1.

If column1 has a value of value1, then display output1 instead of the column's
current value.

If column1 has a value of value2, then display output2 instead of the column's
current value.

If column1 has a value of anything other than value1 or value2, then display
output3 instead of the column's current value.

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

79
 INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB,DECODE(JOB,’CLERK’,’EXEC’,’SALESMAN’,
‘S.OFFICER’,’ANALYST’,’PM’,’MANAGER’,’VP’,JOB) PROMOTION FROM EMP;

OUTPUT
ENAME JOB PROMOTION
---------- --------- ---------
SMITH CLERK EXEC
ALLEN SALESMAN S.OFFICER
WARD SALESMAN S.OFFICER
JONES MANAGER VP
MARTIN SALESMAN S.OFFICER
BLAKE MANAGER VP
CLARK MANAGER VP
SCOTT ANALYST PM
KING PRESIDENT PRESIDENT
TURNER SALESMAN S.OFFICER
ADAMS CLERK EXEC
JAMES CLERK EXEC
FORD ANALYST PM
MILLER CLERK EXEC

ANALYSIS
When JOB has a value CLERK , then display EXEC instead of CLERK
When JOB has a value SALESMAN , then display S.OFFICER instead of SALESMAN
When JOB has a value ANALYST , then display PM instead of ANALYST
When JOB has a value MANAGER , then display VP instead of MANAGER
OTHERWISE DISPLAY SAME JOB

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

80
 INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB,SAL,DECODE(JOB,’CLERK’,SAL*1.1,’SALESMAN’,
SAL*1.2,’ANALYST’,SAL*1.25,’MANAGER’,SAL*1.3,SAL) NEW_SAL FROM EMP;
OUTPUT
ENAME JOB SAL NEW_SAL
---------- --------- ---------- ----------
SMITH CLERK 800 880
ALLEN SALESMAN 1600 1920
WARD SALESMAN 1250 1500
JONES MANAGER 2975 3867.5
MARTIN SALESMAN 1250 1500
BLAKE MANAGER 2850 3705
CLARK MANAGER 2450 3185
SCOTT ANALYST 3000 3750
KING PRESIDENT 5000 5000
TURNER SALESMAN 1500 1800
ADAMS CLERK 1100 1210
JAMES CLERK 950 1045
FORD ANALYST 3000 3750
MILLER CLERK 1300 1430
ANALYSIS
When JOB has a value CLERK , then giving 10% increment
When JOB has a value SALESMAN , then giving 20% increment
When JOB has a value ANALYST , then giving 25% increment
When JOB has a value MANAGER , then giving 30% increment
OTHERWISE no increment

Assume there is a table with empno,ename,sex

INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME,SEX,DECODE(SEX,’MALE’,’MR.’||ENAME,
‘MS.’||ENAME) FROM EMP;

ANALYSIS
Adding Mr.’ or ‘Ms.’ before the name based on their Gender

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

81
CASE

As of Oracle 9i, you can use the CASE function in place of DECODE. The CASE
function uses the keywords when, then, else, and end to indicate the logic path
followed, which may make the resulting code easier to follow than an equivalent
DECODE.

Example

SQL> SELECT JOB,

CASE JOB
WHEN 'MANAGER' then 'VP'
WHEN 'CLERK' THEN 'EXEC'
WHEN 'SALESMAN' THEN 'S.OFFICER'
ELSE
JOB
END
FROM EMP;

JOB CASEJOBWH
--------- ---------
CLERK EXEC
SALESMAN S.OFFICER
SALESMAN S.OFFICER
MANAGER VP
SALESMAN S.OFFICER
MANAGER VP
MANAGER VP
ANALYST ANALYST
PRESIDENT PRESIDENT
SALESMAN S.OFFICER
CLERK EXEC
CLERK EXEC
ANALYST ANALYST
CLERK EXEC

ANALYSIS
Works similar to that of DECODE

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

82
NVL

If the value is NULL, this function is equal to substitute. If the value is not NULL,
this function is equal to value. Substitute can be a literal number, another column,
or a computation.

NVL is not restricted to numbers, it can be used with CHAR, VARCHAR2, DATE,
and other data types, but the value and substitute must be the same data type.

SYNTAX NVL(value, substitute)

INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,SAL,COMM, SAL + COMM TOTAL FROM EMP;

OUTPUT
EMPNO SAL COMM TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 800
7499 1600 300 1900
7521 1250 500 1750
7566 2975
7654 1250 1400 2650
7698 2850
7782 2450
7788 3000
7839 5000
7844 1500 0 1500
7876 1100
7900 950
7902 3000
7934 1300

ANALYSIS
Arithmetic operation is possible only when value is there in both columns

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

83
 INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,SAL,COMM, SAL + NVL(COMM,0) TOTAL FROM

EMP;

OUTPUT
EMPNO SAL COMM TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 800 800
7499 1600 300 1900
7521 1250 500 1750
7566 2975 2975
7654 1250 1400 2650
7698 2850 2850
7782 2450 2450
7788 3000 3000
7839 5000 5000
7844 1500 0 1500
7876 1100 1100
7900 950 950
7902 3000 3000
7934 1300 1300

ANALYSIS
Using NVL, we are substituting 0 if COMM is NULL.

INPUT
SQL>SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL),RATIO_TO_REPORT(SUM(SAL))
OVER() FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
DEPTNO SUM(SAL) RATIO_TO_REPORT(SUM(SAL))OVER()
---------- ---------- -------------------------------
10 8750 .301464255
20 10875 .374677003
30 9400 .323858742

ANALYSIS
RATIO_TO_REPORT FUNCTION FINDS THE SALARY RATIO OF THAT DEPARTMENT
OVER THE TOTAL SALARY OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES.

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

84
LENGTH
Finds the length of the given information

SQL> SELECT ENAME,LENGTH(ENAME) FROM EMP;

SQL> SELECT LENGTH(SYSDATE) FROM EMP;
SQL> SELECT SAL,LENGTH(SAL) FROM EMP;

ASCII
Finds the ASCII value of the given character

SQL> SELECT ASCII(‘A’) FROM DUAL;

CAST
Converts one type of information into another type

SQL> SELECT 50 numb, cast(50 as varchar2(2) value from dual;

Exercise

 _____________ function performs one to one character substitution.

 _____________ format option is used to get complete year spelled out in
TO_CHAR function.
 ___________ symbol is used to combine tow given strings
 What happens if “replace string” is not given for REPLACE function
 Can a number be converted to DATE?
 Convert the value of name in the EMP table to lower case letters
 Display the names of the employees who have more than 4 characters in the
name.
 Print *’s as number of thousands are there in the number
 Display the ename, comm. If the commission is NULL, print as NO COMM
 Add number of days to the given date
 Display the first and last two characters from a given name and combine
them as a single string (Use only functions)
 Find the difference between two given dates
 Display all the names which contain underscore
 subtract number of months from given date

MSAT GE-GDC Internal

85
MSAT GE-GDC Internal
86
GROUP BY CLAUSE

Group by statement groups all the rows with the same column value.
Use to generate summary output from the available data.
Whenever we use a group function in the SQL statement, we have to use a group
by clause.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT
JOB COUNT(*)
--------- ----------
ANALYST 2
CLERK 4
MANAGER 3
PRESIDENT 1
SALESMAN 4

ANALYSIS
Counts number of employees under each and every job.
When we are grouping on job, initially jobs are placed in ascending
order in a temporary segment.
On the temporary segment, group by clause is applied, so that on each
similar job count function applied.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT
JOB SUM(SAL)
--------- ----------
ANALYST 6000
CLERK 4150
MANAGER 8275
PRESIDENT 5000
SALESMAN 5600

ANALYSIS

With each job, it finds the total salary

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ERROR with GROUP BY Clause

Note :

 Only grouped columns allowed in the group by clause

 When ever we are using a group function in the SQL statement, we have to
use group by clause.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP;

OUTPUT
SELECT JOB, COUNT (*) FROM EMP
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function

ANALYSIS
This result occurs because the group functions, such as SUM and
COUNT, are designated to tell you something about a group or rows,
not the individual rows of the table. This error is avoided by using
JOB in the group by clause, which forces the COUNT to count all the
rows grouped within each job.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT JOB,ENAME,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT

SELECT JOB,ENAME,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00979: not a GROUP BY expression

ANALYSIS

In the above query, JOB is only the grouped column where as ENAME
column is not a grouped column.

What ever the columns we are grouping, the same column is allowed to
display.

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 INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, MIN(SAL),MAX(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT
JOB MIN(SAL) MAX(SAL)
--------- ---------- ----------
ANALYST 3000 3000
CLERK 800 1300
MANAGER 2450 2975
PRESIDENT 5000 5000
SALESMAN 1250 1600

ANALYSIS
With each job, it finds the MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM SALARY

For displaying Total summary information from the table.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB, SUM(SAL),AVG(SAL),MIN(SAL),MAX(SAL) ,COUNT(*)
FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT
JOB SUM(SAL) AVG(SAL) MIN(SAL) MAX(SAL) COUNT(*)
--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
ANALYST 6000 3000 3000 3000 2
CLERK 4150 1037.5 800 1300 4
MANAGER 8275 2758.33333 2450 2975 3
PRESIDENT 5000 5000 5000 5000 1
SALESMAN 5600 1400 1250 1600 4

ANALYSIS

With each job, finds the total summary information.

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To display the output Designation wise, Department wise total salaries
With a matrix style report.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM(DECODE(DEPTNO,10,SAL)) DEPT10,

SUM(DECODE(DEPTNO,20,SAL)) DEPT20,
SUM(DECODE(DEPTNO,30,SAL)) DEPT30,
SUM(SAL) TOTAL FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT

JOB DEPT10 DEPT20 DEPT30 TOTAL

--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
ANALYST 6000 6000
CLERK 1300 1900 950 4150
MANAGER 2450 2975 2850 8275
PRESIDENT 5000 5000
SALESMAN 5600 5600

ANALYSIS
When we apply group by, initially all the designations are placed in ascending order of
designations.
Then group by clause groups similar designations, then DECODE function (Single
row function) applies on each and every row of that group and checks the DEPTNO. If
DEPTNO=10, it passes corresponding salary as an argument to SUM() .

INPUT

SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY

DEPTNO,JOB;

OUTPUT
DEPTNO JOB COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1
10 MANAGER 1
10 PRESIDENT 1
20 CLERK 2
20 ANALYST 2
20 MANAGER 1
30 CLERK 1
30 MANAGER 1
30 SALESMAN 4

ANALYSIS

Department wise, Designation wise , counts the number of employees

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To display the DEPTNO only one time

INPUT

SQL> BREAK ON DEPTNO SKIP 1

SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO,JOB;

OUTPUT
DEPTNO JOB COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1
MANAGER 1
PRESIDENT 1

20 CLERK 2
ANALYST 2
MANAGER 1

30 CLERK 1
MANAGER 1
SALESMAN 4

ANALYSIS

Break is Environment command , which breaks the information on repetitive

column and displays them only once.
SKIP 1 used with BREAK to leave one blank line after completion of each
Deptno.

To remove the given break , we have to use an Environment command

SQL> CLEAR BREAK;

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 Group by with ROLLUP and CUBE
Operators

●Use Rollup or CUBE with Group by to produce super

aggregate rows by cross-referencing columns.

●ROLLUP grouping produces a result set containing the

regular grouped rows and the subtotal values.

●CUBE grouping produces a result set containing the rows

from ROLLUP and cross-tabulation rows

The ROLLUP and CUBE operators are available only in Oracle8i and later releases.

Syntax

SELECT [column,] group_function(column)...

FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY [CUBE] group_by_expression]
[HAVING having_expression]
[ORDER BY column];

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CUBE function

We can use CUBE function to generate subtotals for all combinations of the values
in the group by clause.( CUBE and ROLLUP are available only from 9i)

INPUT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY
CUBE(DEPTNO,JOB);

OUTPUT
DEPTNO JOB COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ----------
14
CLERK 4
ANALYST 2
MANAGER 3
SALESMAN 4
PRESIDENT 1
10 3
10 CLERK 1
10 MANAGER 1
10 PRESIDENT 1
20 5
20 CLERK 2
20 ANALYST 2
20 MANAGER 1
30 6
30 CLERK 1
30 MANAGER 1

DEPTNO JOB COUNT(*)

---------- --------- ----------
30 SALESMAN 4

ANALYSIS

Cube displays the out with all the permutation and combination of all the columns
given a CUBE function.

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ROLLUP FUNCTION

It is similar to that of CUBE function

INPUT
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY
ROLLUP(DEPTNO,JOB)

OUTPUT
DEPTNO JOB COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ----------
10 CLERK 1
10 MANAGER 1
10 PRESIDENT 1
10 3
20 CLERK 2
20 ANALYST 2
20 MANAGER 1
20 5
30 CLERK 1
30 MANAGER 1
30 SALESMAN 4
30 6
14

HAVING CLAUSE

Whenever we are using a group function in the condition, we have to use having
clause. Having clause is used along with group by clause.

For example, to display Designation wise total salaries

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

JOB SUM(SAL)
--------- ----------
ANALYST 6000
CLERK 4150
MANAGER 8275
PRESIDENT 5000
SALESMAN 5600

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To Display only those designations, whose total salary is more than 5000

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SUM(SAL) > 5000
GROUP BY JOB;
OUTPUT
SELECT JOB,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SUM(SAL) > 5000 GROUP BY JOB
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00934: group function is not allowed here

ANALYSIS

Where clause doesn’t allow using group function in the condition.

When we are using group function in the condition, we have to use having clause.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB HAVING
SUM(SAL) > 5000;

OUTPUT
JOB SUM(SAL)
--------- ----------
ANALYST 6000
MANAGER 8275
SALESMAN 5600

ANALYSIS

Displays all the designations whose total salary is more than 5000.

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 INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB HAVING
COUNT(*) BETWEEN 3 AND 5;

OUTPUT
JOB COUNT(*)
--------- ----------
CLERK 4
MANAGER 3
SALESMAN 4

ANALYSIS

Displays all the designations whose number where employees between 3 and 5

INPUT
SQL> SELECT SAL FROM EMP GROUP BY SAL HAVING COUNT(SAL) > 1;

OUTPUT
SAL
----------
1250
3000

ANALYSIS

Displays all the salaries, which are appearing more than one time in the table.

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 POINTS TO REMEMBER

WHERE clause can be used to check for conditions based on

values of columns and expressions but not the result of GROUP
functions.
HAVING clause is specially designed to evaluate the conditions
that are based on group functions such as SUM , COUNT etc.
HAVING clause can be used only when GROUP BY clause is
used.

ORDER OF EXECUTION

Here are the rules ORCALE uses to execute different clauses given in SELECT
command

 Selects rows based on Where clause

 Groups rows based on GROUP BY clause
 Calculates results for each group
 Eliminate groups based on HAVING clause
 Then ORDER BY is used to order the results

Example
INPUT
SQL> SELECT JOB,SUM (SAL) FROM EMP WHERE JOB != ‘CLERK’
GROUP BY JOB HAVING SUM(SAL) > 5000 ORDER BY JOB DESC;

EXERCISE

ANNEXURE – A QUERY 2

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Nested Sub queries

Nesting is the act of embedding a sub query within another sub query.
SYNTAX

Select * FROM SOMETHING WHERE (SUBQUERY (SUBQUERY (SUBQUERY)));

Whenever particular information is not accessible through a single query, then we

have to write different queries one included in another.

Sub queries can be nested as deeply as your implementation of SQL allows.

We can write different types sub queries

 Single row sub queries
 Multi row sub queries
 Multi column sub queries
 Correlated sub queries.

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Single row sub query
A Sub query which returns only one value.

For example,

To get the employee, who is drawing maximum salary?

INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL = ( SELECT
MAX(SAL) FROM EMP);

OUTPUT
ENAME SAL
------------ ----------
KING 5000

ANALYSIS
Right side query is called as child query and left side query is called parent
query. In nested queries, child query executes first before executing parent
query.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME, HIREDATE FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE =
( SELECT MAX(HIREDATE) FROM EMP);

OUTPUT
ENAME HIREDATE
---------- ---------
ADAMS 12-JAN-83

ANALYSIS
Display the least experienced employee

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 INPUT
SQL> SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL < (SELECT
MAX(SAL) FROM EMP);

OUTPUT
ENAME SAL
---------- ----------
SMITH 800
ALLEN 1600
WARD 1250
JONES 2975
MARTIN 1250
BLAKE 2850
CLARK 2450
SCOTT 3000
TURNER 1500
ADAMS 1100
JAMES 950
FORD 3000
MILLER 1300

ANALYSIS

Display all the employees whose salary is less than the

maximum salary of all the employees.

Query

To display all the employees whose salary lines between minimum and maximum
salaries

INPUT

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN (SELECT MIN(SAL)

FROM EMP) AND (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP);

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Display all the employees who are getting maximum commission in the
organization

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM =

(SELECT MAX(COMM) FROM EMP);

Query

Display all the employees from department 30 whose salary is less than maximum
salary of department 20.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=30

AND SAL < (SELECT MAX (SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20);

Multi row Sub queries

A sub query, which returns more than one value.

INPUT
SQL>SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL IN(SELECT
SAL FROM EMP GROUP BY SAL HAVING COUNT(*)> 1);

OUTPUT
ENAME SAL
---------- - ---------
WARD 1250
MARTIN 1250
SCOTT 3000
FORD 3000

ANALYSIS
Displays all the employees who are drawing similar salaries

When child query returns more than one value, we have to use IN operator for
comparison.

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 Multi Column Sub Queries

When sub queries returns values from different columns.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO,SAL FROM EMP WHERE (DEPTNO,SAL)
IN (SELECT DEPTNO,MAX(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO);

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO SAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7839 KING 10 5000
7788 SCOTT 20 3000
7902 FORD 20 3000
7698 BLAKE 30 2850

ANALYSIS
Display all the employees who are drawing maximum salaries in each department

DML STATEMENTS IN SUB QUERIES

To modify the salary of an employee who is drawing minimum salary with the
salary of the employee who is drawing maximum salary

INPUT

SQL> UPDATE EMP SET SAL = (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP) WHERE
EMPNO = (SELECT EMPNO FROM EMP WHERE SAL =
(SELECT MIN (SAL) FROM EMP));

ANALYSIS

Identify the employee who is drawing minimum salary and update with the
maximum salary of all the employees.

To insert selected rows from emp table to emp1 table

INPUT
SQL> INSERT INTO EMP1
SELECT * FROM EMP ;

ANALYSIS
EMP1 is an existing table. Inserts all the selected rows into EMP1 table.

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 CORRELATED SUB QUERIES

A correlated sub query is a sub query that receives a value from the main query
and then sends a value back to main query.

For example
Display all the employees whose salary is less than maximum salary of each
department

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO,SAL FROM EMP X WHERE SAL < (SELECT MAX(SAL)
FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = X.DEPTNO);

EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO SAL

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 20 800
7499 ALLEN 30 1600
7521 WARD 30 1250
7566 JONES 20 2975
7654 MARTIN 30 1250
7782 CLARK 10 2450
7844 TURNER 30 1500
7876 ADAMS 20 1100
7900 JAMES 30 950
7934 MILLER 10 1300

ANALYSIS
Find department wise maximum salaries and display the employees whose salary
is less than that value for each department

Execution Sequence of steps in Correlated sub queries

 A row from main query is retrieved

 Executes sub query with the value retrieved from main query
 Sub query returns a value to main query
 Main query’s current row is either selected or not, depending upon the value
passed by sub query.
 This continues until all rows of main query are retrieved

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 To display the nth highest paid employee
INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP X WHERE &N =

(SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SAL >=X.SAL);

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7788 SCOTT 3000
7902 FORD 3000

ANALYSIS
It selects each row from emp table from parent query and finds the distinct count for
each salary whose salary >= the salary returned by main query.

Least Efficient ( 156 Mill Sec)

SQL>SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;

SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP E WHERE SAL >=5000 AND JOB = 'MANAGER' AND
25 < (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE MGR = E.EMPNO) ;
SQL> SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;

Most Efficient (110 Mill Sec)

SQL>SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;

SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP E WHERE

25 < (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE MGR = E.EMPNO) and SAL
>=5000 AND JOB = 'MANAGER'

SQL> SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;

Table joins should be written first before any condition of WHERE clause. And
the conditions which filter out the maximum records should be placed at the end
after the joins as the parsing is done from BOTTOM to TOP.

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 ANY And ALL Operators

Both are used for comparing one value against a set of values.

The operator can be any one of the standard relational operators

( =, >=, >, <. <= , !=) and list is a series of values.

SYNTAX

Operator ANY list

Operator ALL list

INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ANY(SELECT SAL FROM EMP);

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7566 JONES 2975
7654 MARTIN 1250
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7788 SCOTT 3000
7839 KING 5000
7844 TURNER 1500
7876 ADAMS 1100
7900 JAMES 950
7902 FORD 3000
7934 MILLER 1300
ANALYSIS
>ANY displays greater than any values in the list.

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INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL < ANY (SELECT SAL FROM
EMP);

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7566 JONES 2975
7654 MARTIN 1250
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7788 SCOTT 3000
7844 TURNER 1500
7876 ADAMS 1100
7900 JAMES 950
7902 FORD 3000
7934 MILLER 1300

ANALYSIS

Less than ANY of the list of values

INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL >ALL(SELECT SAL FROM
EMP);

OUTPUT

no rows selected

ANALYSIS

Greater than Maximum of list

INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL >ALL(3000,2000,4000);

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7839 KING 5000

ANALYSIS
Greater than maximum of List

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INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL <ALL(3000,2000,4000);

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7654 MARTIN 1250
7844 TURNER 1500
7876 ADAMS 1100
7900 JAMES 950
7934 MILLER 1300

ANALYSIS
Less than minimum of List

EXISTS And NOT EXISTS Operators

These two operators are exclusively used in correlated sub query. EXISTS checks
whether any row is existing in the sub query, and NOT EXISTS does the opposite.

EXISTS is different from other operators like IN , ANY etc, because it doesn’t
compare values of columns, instead. It checks any row is retrieved from sub query
or not. If any row is retrieved from sub query the EXISTS returns true otherwise it
returns False.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,MGR FROM EMP X WHERE EXISTS(SELECT MGR FROM EMP
WHERE X.MGR = EMPNO);

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME SAL MGR
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800 7902
7499 ALLEN 1600 7698
7521 WARD 1250 7698
7566 JONES 2975 7839
7654 MARTIN 1250 7698
7698 BLAKE 2850 7839
7782 CLARK 2450 7839
7788 SCOTT 3000 7566
7844 TURNER 1500 7698
7876 ADAMS 1100 7788
7900 JAMES 950 7698
7902 FORD 3000 7566
7934 MILLER 1300 7782

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 Note :Use EXISTS in place of IN for Base Tables to improve the performance .

Remember

The following important points to be remembered while dealing with sub queries

 Sub query can not use ORDER BY clause. Because ORDER BY clause must be
the last clause of SELECT
 BETWEEN … AND operator can not be used with Sub queries

Exercise

 In department 20, one employee is drawing minimum salary and is having

some designation. Display the employees from other departments whose
designation is matching with the designation of the above employee.

 Display all the employees whose salary is within ±1000 from the average
salary of all the employees.

 Display the employees who reported to KING

 Display all the employees whose salary is less than the minimum salary of
MANAGERS.

 Display the details of students who have paid the highest amount so far in
their course.

 Display the details of subjects that have been taken by more than two
students

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INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS

Constraints are used to implement standard rules such as uniqueness in the key
filed and business rule such as AGE column should contain a value between 15
and 60 etc.

Oracle server makes sure that the constraints are not violated whenever a row is
inserted, deleted or updated. If constraint is not satisfied the operation will fail.

Constraints are normally defined at the time of creating table. But it is also
possible to define constraints after the table is created.

Constraint Guidelines

Name a constraint or the Oracle server generates a

name by using the SYS_Cn format
Create a constraint either:
At the same time as the table is created, or
After the table has been created.

Define a constraint at the column or table level.

View a constraint in the Data dictionary

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TYPES OF CONSTRAINTS

Constraints are classified into two types

 Table Constraints
 Column Constraints

Table Constraint A constraint given at the table level is called as Table

Constraint. It may refer to more than one column of the table.

A typical example is PRIMARY KEY constraint that is used to define composite

primary key.

Column Constraint A constraint given at the column level is called as Column

constraint. It defines a rule for a single column. It cannot refer to column other
than the column, at which it is defined,
A typical example is PRIMARY KEY constraint when a single column is the primary
key of the table.

Various types of Integrity constraints

 PRIMARY KEY
 UNIQUE
 NOT NULL
 CHECK

PRIMARY KEY It is used to uniquely identify rows in a table. There can be only
one primary key in a table. It may consist of more than one column, if so, it is
called as composite primary key. ( It maintains uniqueness in the data and null
values are not acceptable).

i.e. UNIQUE + NOT NULL = PRIMARY KEY

 Automatically creates unique index to enforce uniqueness.

UNIQUE Maintains unique and NULL values are acceptable.

 Oracle automatically creates a unique index for the column.

Example : EmailID

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A UNIQUE key integrity constraint requires that every value in a column or
set of columns (key) be unique- that is, no two rows of table can have
duplicate values in a specified column or set of columns. The column (or
set of columns) included in the definition of the UNIQUE key constraint is
called the unique key. If the UNIQUE constraint comprises more than one
column, the group of columns is called a composite unique key.

NOT NULL Uniqueness not maintained and null values are not acceptable.

Note: The NOT NULL constraint can be specified only at the column level, not at
the table level.

CHECK Defines the condition that should be satisfied before insertion

and updating is done.

 Defines a condition that each row must satisfy

 The following expressions are not allowed
- References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL and ROWNUM pseudocolumns
- Calls to SYSDATE,UID,USER functions
- Queries that refer to other values in other rows

Note: - Pseudocolumns are not actual columns in a table but they behave like
columns. For example, you can select values from pseudocolumns. However, you
cannot insert into, update, or delete from a pseudocolumn.

Guidelines for Primary Keys and Foreign Keys

• You cannot use duplicate values in a primary key.
• Primary keys generally cannot be changed.
• Foreign keys are based on data values and are purely logical, not physical,
pointers.
• A foreign key value must match an existing primary key value or unique key
value, or else be null.
• A foreign key must reference either a primary key or unique key column.

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DDL ( Data Definition language)
Create, Alter, Drop

DDL STATEMENTS COMMITS AUTOMATICALLY. There is

no need to save explicitly.

Create Table

CREATE TABLE <TABLE-NAME> (COLUMN

DEFINITION1, COLUMN DEFINITION2);

Syntax :-

Column Def :
<Name> Data type [Default Value] [constraint <name> constraint type]

Note: = Min. Column in a table = 1

Max. Columns in a table = 1000

Rules: -

1. A table or a column name must never start a number but they can contain
numbers in them
2. They can’t consist of any special characters other than “$”, “#”, “-“
i.e. $,# are used mainly for system tables.

Example :

SQL>CREATE TABLE EMPL47473 (EMPNO NUMBER (3) CONSTRAINT

PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO PRIMARY KEY, ENAME VARCHAR2 (10)
NOT NULL, GENDER CHAR(1) CONSTRAINT
CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER CHECK(UPPER (GENDER) IN
(‘M’,’F’)), EMAIL_ID VARCHAR2 (30) UNIQUE, DESIGNATION
VARCHAR2 (15), SALARY NUMBER (7,2) CHECK (SALARY
BETWEEN 10000 AND 70000));

Note :
 Constraint name is useful for manipulating the given constraint
 When the constraint name is not given at the time of defining constraints,
system creates a constraint with the name SYS_Cn.

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  Constraints defined on a particular table are store in a data dictionary table
USER_CONSTRAINTS, USER_CONS_COLUMNS.
 Tables defined by a user are stored in a data dictionary table USER_TABLES

SQL> DESCRIBE USER_CONSTRAINTS

SQL> SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME, CONSTRAINT_TYPE,
SEARCH_CONDITION FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS
WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'EMPL47473';

OUTPUT
CONSTRAINT_NAME CONSTRAINTTYPE SEARCH_CONDITION
------------------------------ - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SYS_C003018 C "ENAME" IS NOT NULL

CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER C UPPER (GENDER) IN ('M','F')

SYS_C003020 C SALARY BETWEEN 10000 AND 70000

PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO P

SYS_C003022
SQL> DESCRIBE U
USER_CONS_COLUMNS
SQL> SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME,COLUMN_NAME FROM
ANALYSIS
USER_CONS_COLUMNS WHERE TABLE_NAME =
'EMPL47473';
Describe displays structure of the data dictionary table.
Select statement is used to view the constraints defined on the table
OUTPUT
CONSTRAINT_NAME COLUMN_NAME
------------------------------ - --------------------------------
CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER GENDER

PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO EMPNO

SYS_C003018 ENAME

SYS_C003020 SALARY

SYS_C003022 EMAIL_ID

ANALYSIS
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Describe displays structure of the data dictionary table.
Select statement is used to view the constraints defined on the column
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 ALTER TABLE
Used to modify the structure of a table

SYNTAX
ALTER TABLE <TABLENAME> [ ADD | MODIFY | DROP |
RENAME] ( COLUMN(S));

ADD - for adding new columns into the table

MODIFY - for modifying the structure of columns
DROP - for removing a column in the table ( 8i)
RENAME - for renaming the column name ( Only from 9i)

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 ADD (ADDRESS

VARCHAR2 (30), DOJ DATE,PINCODE VARCHAR2(7));
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 MODIFY (ENAME
CHAR (15), SALARY NUMBER (8,2));
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 DROP COLUMN
PINCODE;
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 DROP
(DESIGNATION,ADDRESS);

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 RENAME COLUMN

ENAME TO EMPNAME

Note: This command is also useful for manipulating constraints

INPUT
SQL> ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 DROP PRIMARY KEY;

ANALYSIS
To remove the primary key from table. Other constraints are removed
only by referring constraint name.

INPUT
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 ADD PRIMARY KEY(EMPNO);
ANALYSIS
To add primary key in the table with out constraint name. It creates
constraint name with SYS_Cn.

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INPUT
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMPL47473 ADD CONSTRAINT
PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO PRIMARY KEY(EMPNO);

ANALYSIS
To add primary key in the table with constraint name

DATA MANIPULATION

INSERTING ROWS

SYNTAX
INSERT INTO TABLENAME [ COLUMNNAME,COLUMNNAME,
….]
VALUES(VALUE1,VALUE2,VALUE3, …..);

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473 VALUES(101,’RAVI’,’M’,

‘[email protected]’,5000,’10-JAN-2001’);
OR
SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473 VALUES(&EMPNO ,
’&EMPNAME’,’&GENDER’,’&EMAIL_ID’,&SALARY,’&DOJ’);

TO INSERT SPECIFIED COLUMNS IN THE TABLE

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473(EMPNO,EMPNAME,SALARY)

VALUES(101,’RAVI’, 5000);
OR
SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473(EMPNO,EMPNAME,SALARY)
VALUES(&EMPNO,’7EMPNAME’,&SALARY);

ANALYSIS
We can’t skip primary key and NOT NULL columns

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Note :- Changes made on the database are recorded only in the shadow page. For
saving the information we have to use a command COMMIT,
ROLLBACK.SAVEPOINT ( Called as Transactional processing statements)

SQL>COMMIT;

ANALYSIS

Information from shadow page flushed back to the table and shadow
page gets destroyed automatically.

SQL>ROLLBACK;

ANALYSIS

Shadow page destroys automatically without transferring the

information back to the table.

SAVEPOINT

We can use save points to roll back portions of your current set of transactions

For example

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473 VALUES(105,’KIRAN’,’M’,

‘[email protected]’,5000,’10-JAN-2001’);

SQL> SAVEPOINT A

SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473 VALUES(106,’LATHA’,’F’,

‘[email protected]’,5000,’15-JAN-2002’);

SQL> SAVEPOINT B

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SQL> INSERT INTO EMPL47473 VALUES(107,’RADHA’,’F’,
‘[email protected]’,15000,’15-JAN-2002’);

When we SELECT data from the table

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPL47473;

EMPNO EMPNAME G EMAIL_ID SALARY DOJ

---------- ---------- - ------------------ ---------- ---------
105 KIRAN M [email protected] 5000 10-JAN-01
106 LATHA F [email protected] 5000 15-JAN-02
107 RADHA F [email protected] 15000 15-JAN-02

The output shows the three new records we’ve added . Now roll back just the last
insert:

SQL> ROLLBACK TO B;
IMPLICIT COMMIT

The actions that will force a commit to occur, even without your instructing it to, or
quit, exit (the equivalent to exit), any DDL command forces a commit.

AUTO ROLLBACK

If you’ve completed a series of inserts, updates or deletes, but not yet explicitly or
implicitly committed them, and you experience serious difficulties, such as a
computer failure, Oracle automatically roll back any uncommitted work. If the
machine or database goes down, it does this as cleanup work the next time the
database is brought back up.

Note :

 Rollback works only on uncommitted data

 A DDL transaction after a DML transaction, automatically commits.
 We can use an Environment command SET VERIFY OFF to remove the old
and new messages while inserting data.

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 ISSUE Frequent commit statements

Whenever possible, issue frequent COMMIT statements in all your programs. By

issuing frequent COMMIT statements, the performance of the program is
enhanced & its resource requirements are minimized as COMMIT frees up the
following resources:

 Information held in the rollback segments to undo the transaction if

necessary.

 All locks acquired during statement processing

 Space in the redo log buffer cache

 Overhead associated with any internal Oracle mechanisms to manage

the resources in the previous three items.

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 CREATING A TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE

SYNTAX
CREATE TABLE <TABLENAME> AS SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM
<EXISTING TABLE> [WHERE <CONDITION>];

Example
SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP47473 AS SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,JOB
FROM EMP;

To add a new column in the table

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP47473 ADD(SEX CHAR(1));

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP47473;

UPDATING ROWS

This command is used to change the data of the table

SYNTAX

UPDATE <TABLENAME> SET column1 = expression, column2 =

expression WHERE <condition>;

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SAL = SAL*1.1;

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
ANALYSIS
To give uniform increments to all the employees

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SAL = DECODE (JOB,’CLERK’,SAL*1.1,

‘SALESMAN’,SAL*1.2,SAL*1.15);
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;

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SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SEX = ‘M’ WHERE ENAME IN
(‘KING’,’MILLER’,’BLAKE’);
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP47473;

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET SEX = ‘F’ WHERE SEX IS NULL;

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP47473 ;

SQL> UPDATE EMP47473 SET ENAME =

DECODE(SEX,’M’,’Mr.’||ENAME,’Ms.’||ENAME);
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
ANALYSIS
ADD Mr. or Ms. Before the existing name as per the SEX value

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 DELETING ROWS
-
SYNTAX

DELETE FROM <TABLENAME> WHERE <CONDITION>;

SQL> DELETE FROM EMP47473 WHERE SEX = ‘M’;

SQL> COMMIT | ROLLBACK;

TRUNCATING A TABLE

SYNTAX

TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLENAME>

Note : Removes all the rows from table. Deleting specified rows is
Not possible. Once the table is truncated, it automatically
commits. It is a DDL statement

Droping a table

SYNTAX

DROP TABLE <TABLENAME>

Note : Table is dropped permanently. It is a DDL statement.

It removes the data along with table definitions and the table.

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Adding comments to a table

You can add comments up to 2000 bytes about a column, table, view by
using the COMMENT statement. The comment is stored in the data
dictionary and can be viewed in one of the following data dictionary views in
the COMMENTS column:

 ALL_COL_COMMENTS
 USER_COL_COMMENTS
 ALL_TAB_COMMENTS
 USER_TAB_COMMENTS

Syntax

COMMENT ON TABLE table | COLUMN table.column IS ‘text’ ;

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 REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS
This constraint is useful for maintaining relation with other table.

Various referential integrity constraints we can use in Oracle are

 Foreign Key
 References
 On delete cascade
 On Delete Set NULL

Foreign Key: Defines the column in the child table at the table constraint level

References Identifies the table and column in the parent table

Reference key accepts NULL and duplicate values.

On delete cascade Deletes the dependent rows in the child table when a row in
the parent table is deleted.

On Delete Set NULL Converts dependent foreign key values to null.

Example

Department47473 (Deptno , dname)

Employee47473 (Empno, ename, salary, dno)

Deptno of Department47473 is a primary key

Empno of Employee47473 is a primary key
Dno of Employee47473 is a reference key

Solution

SQL>Create table department47473 (deptno number(3) primary key, dname

varchar2(20) Not null);

SQL>Create table employee47473(empno number(3) primary key, ename

varchar2(10)
Not null, salary number(7,2) check(salary > 0), dno number(3) references
department47473(deptno) on delete cascade);

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Assume the case where supermarket selling various items and customers order the
items.

SQL>Create table itemmaster (itemno number (3) primary key, itemname

varchar2 (10), stock number (3) check (stock > 0));

SQL>Create table itemtran (trnno number (3), itemno number (3) references
itemmaster (itemno), trndate date, trntype char (1) check (upper (trntype) in
(‘R’,’I’)), quantity number (3) check (stock > 0), primary key (trnno, itemno));

Itemmaster
Itemno itemname stock
Itemtran
Trnno itemno trndate trntype quantity

Assume the case where with each transaction

customer orders more than one item.

DROP TABLE <TABLENAME> CASCADE CONSTRAINTS

ANALYSIS
Dropping the table along with constraints

ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;

ANALYSIS
Removing the primary key along with Reference key

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 ALTER TABLE <TABLENAME> DISABLE PRIMARY KEY

ALTER TABLE <tablename> DISABLE PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;

Note : It is not possible to enable using cascade

Exercise

 Consider a training institute conducting different courses, into which the

students are joining for various courses ( Also, assume the case where
same student can join in more than one course)
 The students may pay the fee in installments

Identify the tables, attributes and define them with relations

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JOINS

Objectives
Join will enable you to gather and manipulate data across several tables. By

One of the most powerful features of SQL is its capability to gather and
manipulate data from across several tables. Without this feature you would
have to store all the data elements necessary for each application in one
table. Without common tables you would need to store the same data in
several tables.

Objectives

After completing this lesion, you should be

able to do the following.

■ Write SELECT statements to access data

from more than one table using equality and
nonequality join.

■ View Data that generally does not meet

a join condition by using outer joins

■ Join a table itself by using self join

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 TYPES OF JOINS

Oracle Proprietary SQL:1999

Joins(8i and prior) Compliant Joins:

●EquiJoin ● Cross Joins

●Non-equi join ● Natural Joins

●Outer join ● Using caluse

●SelfJoin ● Full or two sided outer

joins

● Arbitrary join conditions for

Outer joins

Types of Joins

The Oracle 9i database offers join syntax that is SQL: 1999 compliant. Prior
to 9i release, the join syntax was different from the ANSI standards. The new
SQL: 1999 compliant join syntax does not offer any performance benefits
over the Oracle proprietary join syntax that existed in prior releases.

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Joining tables using Oracle Syntax

Use a join to query data from more than one table

SELECT Table1.column1, table2.column2

FROM table1,table2

WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2;

 Write the join condition in the WHERE clause.

 Prefix the column name with table name when the same column name
appears in more than one table.

Guidelines

 When writing a SELECT statement that joins tables, precede the common
column name with the table name for clarify and to enhance database
access.

 If the same column name appears in more than one table, the column name
must be prefixed with the table name.

 To join n tables together, you need a minimum of n-1 join conditions. This rule
many not apply if your table has a concatenated primary key, in which case
more than one column is required to uniquely identify each row.

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 What is An Equi Join?

Departments Employees

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 Equi join

Extracting the information from more than one table by comparing ( = ) the
common information.

Note : Equi Joins are also called as simple joins or Inner Joins

To display common column information

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DNAME FROM EMP,DEPT

WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;
OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL DNAME
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450 ACCOUNTING
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000 ACCOUNTING
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300 ACCOUNTING
7369 SMITH CLERK 800 RESEARCH
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100 RESEARCH
7902 FORD ANALYST 3000 RESEARCH
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000 RESEARCH
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975 RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 1600 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850 SALES
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250 SALES
7900 JAMES CLERK 950 SALES
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 1500 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 1250 SALES

ANALYSIS
Efficiency is more when we compare the information from lower data
table(master table) to Higher data table( child table).

When Oracle processes multiple tables, it uses an internal sort/merge

procedure to join those tables. First, it scans & sorts the first table
(the one specified last in FROM clause). Next, it scans the second table
(the one prior to the last in the FROM clause) and merges all of the
retrieved from the second table with those retrieved from the first
table. It takes around 0.96 seconds

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SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DNAME FROM DEPT,EMP
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;

ANALYSIS

Here driving table is EMP. It takes around 26.09 seconds

So, Efficiency is less.

Non-Equi joins

Getting the information from more than one table without using comparison
(=) operator.

INPUT
SQL> select empno,ename,sal,grade,losal,hisal from salgrade g,emp e
where e.sal between g.losal and g.hisal
/

ANALYSIS

Displays all the employees whose salary lies between any pair of low and high salary ranges.

INPUT
SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO NOT IN
(SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO FROM EMP);
OUTPUT
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

ANALYSIS
Displays the details of the department where there are no employees

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We can also get above output using relational algebra operators.

SQL> SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT

MINUS
SELECT DEOTNO FROM EMP;

SQL> SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT

UNION
SELECT DEOTNO FROM EMP;

SQL> SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT

UNION ALL
SELECT DEOTNO FROM EMP;

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OUTER JOIN

It is a join, which forcibly joins multiple tables even without having the
common information. It is represented by +.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DNAME FROM DEPT,EMP

WHERE DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO(+);

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL DNAME
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450 ACCOUNTING
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000 ACCOUNTING
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300 ACCOUNTING
7369 SMITH CLERK 800 RESEARCH
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100 RESEARCH
7902 FORD ANALYST 3000 RESEARCH
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000 RESEARCH
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975 RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 1600 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850 SALES
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250 SALES
7900 JAMES CLERK 950 SALES
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 1500 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 1250 SALES
OPERATIONS

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LEFT, RIGHT AND FULL OUTER JOIN
As of Oracle 9i, you can use the ANSI SQL standard syntax for outer joins.
In the FROM clause, you can tell Oracle to perform a LEFT, RIGHT or FULL
OUTER join.
SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM EMP
LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO DNAME
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7934 MILLER CLERK 10 ACCOUNTING
7839 KING PRESIDENT 10 ACCOUNTING
7782 CLARK MANAGER 10 ACCOUNTING
7902 FORD ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7876 ADAMS CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7566 JONES MANAGER 20 RESEARCH
7369 SMITH CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7900 JAMES CLERK 30 SALES
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 30 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30 SALES
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 30 SALES
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 30 SALES

ANALYSIS
Gets the common information, and forcibly joins from left side table to right side
table.

SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM DEPT

LEFT OUTER JOIN EMP ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO DNAME
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7369 SMITH CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 30 SALES
7566 JONES MANAGER 20 RESEARCH
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30 SALES
7782 CLARK MANAGER 10 ACCOUNTING
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7839 KING PRESIDENT 10 ACCOUNTING
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 30 SALES
7876 ADAMS CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7900 JAMES CLERK 30 SALES
7902 FORD ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7934 MILLER CLERK 10 ACCOUNTING
40 OPERATIONS
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ANALYSIS 135
Gets the common information from both tables, then forcibly joins from dept table to
emp table.
 SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM DEPT
RIGHT OUTER JOIN EMP ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO DNAME
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7369 SMITH CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 30 SALES
7566 JONES MANAGER 20 RESEARCH
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30 SALES
7782 CLARK MANAGER 10 ACCOUNTING
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7839 KING PRESIDENT 10 ACCOUNTING
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 30 SALES
7876 ADAMS CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7900 JAMES CLERK 30 SALES
7902 FORD ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7934 MILLER CLERK 10 ACCOUNTING

ANALYSIS
Gets the common information from both tables, and then forcibly joins from dept table
to emp table.

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 SQL> SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM EMP
RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT ON DEPT.DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO;

OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO DNAME
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7369 SMITH CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 30 SALES
7566 JONES MANAGER 20 RESEARCH
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30 SALES
7782 CLARK MANAGER 10 ACCOUNTING
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7839 KING PRESIDENT 10 ACCOUNTING
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 30 SALES
7876 ADAMS CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7900 JAMES CLERK 30 SALES
7902 FORD ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7934 MILLER CLERK 10 ACCOUNTING
40 OPERATIONS

ANALYSIS
Gets the common information from both tables, then forcibly joins from dept table to
emp table.

Position of Joins in where clause

Table joins should be written first before any condition of WHERE clause. And the
conditions which filter out the maximum records should be placed at the end after the
joins as the parsing is done from BOTTOM to TOP

For ex;

Least Efficient (Total CPU = 153.6 Sec)

SELECT ENAME,JOB,MGR FROM EMP E WHERE SAL > 50000 AND

JOB = ‘MANAGER’
AND 25 < (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE MGR = E.EMPNO);

Most Efficient (Total CPU time = 10.6 sec)

SELECT ENAME,JOB,MGR FROM EMP E WHERE 25 <

(SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE MGR = E.EMPNO)
AND SAL > 5000 AND JOB = ‘MANAGER’;

SELF JOIN

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 Joining the table from itself is called as self join.

SQL> SELECT WORKER.ENAME || ' IS WORKING UNDER ' ||

MANAGER.ENAME FROM EMP WORKER, EMP MANAGER
WHERE WORKER.MGR = MANAGER.EMPNO;
OUTPUT

WORKER.ENAME||'ISWORKINGUNDER'||MANAGE
--------------------------------------
SCOTT IS WORKING UNDER JONES
FORD IS WORKING UNDER JONES
ALLEN IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
WARD IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
JAMES IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
TURNER IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
MARTIN IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
MILLER IS WORKING UNDER CLARK
ADAMS IS WORKING UNDER SCOTT
JONES IS WORKING UNDER KING
CLARK IS WORKING UNDER KING
BLAKE IS WORKING UNDER KING
SMITH IS WORKING UNDER FORD

ANALYSIS
It displays who is working under whom.
MGR number appearing against employee is the employee number of
manager
NATURAL AND INNER JOINS (Introduced in 9i)

We can use natural keyword to indicate that a join should be performed

based on all columns that have the same name in the two tables being
joined.

Creating Natural Joins

 The Natural join clause is based on all columns in the two tables
that have the same name,
 It selects rows from the two tables that have equal values in all
matched columns.
 If the columns having the same names have different data types,
an error is returned.

For example, To get the common information from two tables,

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INPUT

SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,DEPTNO,DNAME FROM DEPT

2 NATURAL JOIN EMP;

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME JOB DEPTNO DNAME

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 10 ACCOUNTING
7839 KING PRESIDENT 10 ACCOUNTING
7934 MILLER CLERK 10 ACCOUNTING
7369 SMITH CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7876 ADAMS CLERK 20 RESEARCH
7902 FORD ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 20 RESEARCH
7566 JONES MANAGER 20 RESEARCH
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 30 SALES
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 30 SALES
7900 JAMES CLERK 30 SALES
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 30 SALES
7521 WARD SALESMAN 30 SALES

Creating Joins with Using Caluse

■ If several columns have the same names but the data types do
not match, the NATURAL JOIN clause can be modified with
USING clause to specify the columns that should be used for an
equijoin.

■use the USING clause to match only one column when more than
one column matches.

■Do not use a tablename or alias in the referenced columns

■The NATURAL JOIN and USING clauses are mutually exclusive.

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INNER JOIN

Support for INNER join syntax was introduced in Oracle9i, inner joins are
the default – they return the rows the two tables have in common, and are
the alternative to outer joins. Note that they support ON clause, so that you
can specify join criteria.

SQL>SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPT.DEPTNO, DNAME FROM EMP

INNER JOIN DEPT ON EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;

CROSS JOIN (CARTESIAN PRODUCT)

Joining tables without giving proper join condition.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT * FROM DEPT,EMP;

OR
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT;

ANALYSIS

It multiplies the rows from both tables and displays the output
i.e. 14 rows (emp table) X 4 rows(dept table) = 56 rows.

EXERCISE

ANNEXURE QUERY III

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OTHER OBJECTS

SEQUENCE OBJECT

Used to generate sequence(Unique) Integers for use of primary keys.

SYNTAX

CREATE SEQUENCE sequence

[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];

Sequence is the name of the sequence generator

INCREMENT BY n specifies the interval between sequence numbers where n is

an
integer (If this clause is omitted, the sequence
increments by 1.)

START WITH n specifies the first sequence number to be generated (If this
clause is
omitted, the sequence starts with 1.)

MAXVALUE n specifies the maximum value the sequence can generate

NOMAXVALUE specifies a maximum value of 10^27 for an ascending

sequence and
–1 for a descending sequence (This is the default
option.)

MINVALUE n specifies the minimum sequence value

NOMINVALUE specifies a minimum value of 1 for an ascending sequence
and –
(10^26) for a descending sequence (This is the default
option.)

CYCLE | NOCYCLE specifies whether the sequence continues to generate

values after reaching its maximum or minimum value (NOCYCLE is the
default Option.)

CACHE n | NOCACHE specifies how many values the Oracle server

preallocates and keep in memory (By default, the Oracle server caches 20
values.) The value set must be less than MAXVALUE minus

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Example
CREATE SEQUENCE SQNO47473
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 10;

CREATE SEQUENCE SQNO47473

START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAVALUE 10
CACHE 3
CYCLE;

Note: - These sequences are stored in a data dictionary table

USER_SEQUENCES.
This sequence object provides two public member functions
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL

NEXTVAL is a function which generate next value from sequence object

CURRVAL is a function, which gives the current value of the sequence object

Assume there is a table

SAMPLE47473
EMPNO ENAME SAL

To insert the values into the table

SQL> INSERT INTO SAMPLE47473 VALUES(SQNO47473.NEXTVAL,

‘&ENAME’, &SAL);

TO MODIFY THE SEQUNECE OBJECT

SQL> ALTER SEQUENCE SQNO47473

INCREMENT BY 2
MAXVALUE 40;

Note : We can’t change starting value

To remove the sequence object

SQL> DROP SEQUENCE <SEQUENCE_NAME>;

VIEWS

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  A view is an object, which is a logical representation of a table
 A view contains no data on its own
 It is derived from tables
 Changes made in tables are automatically reflected in views
 As a view does not store any data the redundancy problem does not
arise.+-
 Critical data in the base table is safeguarded as access to such data
can be controlled.
 It is used to reduce the complexity of the query

In Oracle Oracle we can create different types of views

SIMPLE COMPLEX INLINE

SIMPLE view is a view, which is created using only one base table.

COMPLEX view is a view, which is created using more than one table or
using group functions

INLINE view is a view, which is created using sub query (it is not a schema
object. • It is a named sub query in the FROM clause of the main query. Generally
used in TOP N Analysis.

SYNTAX

CREATE OR REPLACE [FORCE] VIEW <VIEWNAME> AS SELECT

<COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE > [ WITH READ ONLY];

The table on which a view is based is called as base table

FORCE option allows view to be created even if the base table doesn’t exist.
However, the base table should exist before the view is used.

Changing Base Table through view

A view can also be used to change the data of base table

A view can be used to delete, insert and update rows in the base table.

However for each operation certain conditions are to be satisfied.

Rules for deleting row

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 The following should NOT be used in the query.

 More than one table

 GROUP BY clause
 GROUP Function
 DISTINCT clause
 Pseudo column ROWNUM

Rules for updating rows

The following are the rules that are to be satisfied to update base table
through view.

 All the rules of Delete are applicable

 The column being updated should not be derived from an expression.

Rules for insertion of rows

 All the rules of UPDATE

 Al NOT NULL columns should be included in the view.

Example

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW TESTVIEW47473 AS SELECT

EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP47473;

Note: - These views are stored in a data dictionary table USER_VIEWS

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW TESTVIEW47473 AS

SELECT
EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP47473 WITH READ ONLY;

ANALYSIS
View becomes a read only view

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WITH CHECK OPTION

This option is used to prevent any changes to base table through view.
Insertion and updation is not allowed into base table through view.

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW CHKVIEW AS SELECT * FROM EMP

WHERE DEPTNO = 20 WITH CHECK OPTION;

It doesn’t allow you to update the condition column as well as it doesn’t

allow you to insert the details of employees with DEPTNO other than 20.

We can also create a view using group functions. Such views are called as
INLINE views. They are by default read only.

SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW SIMPLEVIEW47473 AS

SELECT
SUBSTR(HIREDATE,-2) YEAR, COUNT(*) NUMB FROM EMP47473
GROUP BY JOB;

To remove a view

SQL> DROP VIEW <VIEWNAME>;

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INDEX

The concept indexing in Oracle is same as a book index. Just like how book
index is sorted in the ascending order of topics, an index in Oracle is a list of
values of a column in the ascending order. Page number in book index is
similar to ROWID if Oracle index.

An oracle index is a database object. It contains the values of the indexed

column(s) in the ascending order along with address of each row. The
address of rows are obtained using ROWID pseudo column.

Why to Use An INDEX

INDEXES in ORACLE are used for two purposes

 To speed up data retrieval and thereby improving performance of

query
 To enforce uniqueness

Note :- A UNIQUE index is automatically created when you use PRIMARY

KEY and UNIQUE constraints

An index can have up to 32 columns.

SYNTAX
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name ON table(column1,column2,…);

Note :- Indexes are stored in the data dictionary table USER_INDEXES.

When Oracle Does Not Use Index

Oracle index is completely automatic. I.e., you never have to open or close
an index. Oracle server decides whether to use an index or not.

The following are the cases in which Oracle does NOT use index.

 SELECT doesn’t contain WHERE clause

 When the data size is less
 SELECT contains WHERE clause, but WHERE clause doesn’t refer to
indexed column.
 SELECT contains WHERE clause and WHERE clause uses indexed
columns but indexed column is modified in the WHERE clause.

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Negative Side of an Index

INDEX plays an important role in improving performance. But at the same

time it may also degrade performance, if not designed carefully.

Having many indexes may have negative impact on the performance because
whenever there is a change in the table, immediately index is to reflect that
change. A new row’s insertion will effect index and Oracle server implicitly
updates index. So this will put more burden on the machine if more number
of indexes are created on a table.

FUNCTIONAL INDEX

As of Oracle8i, we can create functional-based indexes. When we are storing

alpha-numeric information, we may store the information in any case. When
we create index on such columns, information is placed in different ranges
of indexes. So, before creating index, we can convert them in to single case.

SQL> CREATE INDEX IDX_NAME ON EMP(UPPER(ENAME));

Dropping an Index

SYNTAX

DROP INDEX <INDEXNAME>;

Removing an index doesn’t invalidate existing applications, because

applications are not directly dependent on index, but at the same time not
having an index may effects performance.

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PSEUDO COLUMN

A pseudo-column is a column that yields a value when selected but which is

not an actual column of the table.

Example

ROWID
ROWNUM
SYADATE
NEXTVAL
CURRVAL
NULL
LEVEL

Are called as Pseudo-columns.

SELECT ROWNUM, EMPNO, ENAME FROM EMP;

TO DISPLAY 3 HIGHEST PAID EMPLOYEES

SQL> SELECT ROWNUM,EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM (SELECT EMPNO,

ENAME,SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

Exercise

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 1) Display the string SATYAM in the format
S
A
T
Y
A
M
2) Display only even rows from the table
3) Display one year calendar
4) Display how many a’s are there in the given string
5) Remove duplicate rows from the given table
Empno ename
1 x
2 y
3 z
1 x
3 z

6)Find out how many columns are there in a given table(Use the
data dictionary table USER_TAB_COLUMNS)

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ADVANCED QUERIES

ANALYTICAL QUERIES

Analytical functions are used mainly for the analysis of data as required by
decision-making managers.
Oracle has embedded analytical functions in SQL statement to cater to most
of the requirements of data mining.

These functions are listed below

Ranking For calculating ranks, percentiles, and n-tiles of the values in a

result set.

For example, to find out top three salaried employees

SQL> SELECT RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL DESC) DEFAULT_RANK, SAL FROM EMP;

DEFAULT_RANK SAL

------------ ----------

1 855945.6

1 855945.6

1 855945.6

4 641959.2

5 196867.32

6 184563.24

7 153802.68

7 153802.68

9 129461.88

10 111807.6

11 66870.77

12 10000

13 6810.91

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When different employees salary is same, they get the same rank. There is a gap between ranks.
In the example, see the ranks between 1 and 4.
 DENSE_RANK

The main difference between RANK () and DENSE_RANK () is that in the

DENSE_RANK () there is no gap between ranks.

SQL> SELECT DENSE_RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL DESC) DEFAULT_RANK, SAL FROM EMP;

DEFAULT_RANK SAL
------------ ----------
1 855945.6
1 855945.6
1 855945.6
2 641959.2
3 196867.32
4 184563.24
5 153802.68
5 153802.68
6 129461.88
7 111807.6
8 66870.77
9 10000
10 6810.91

ROW_NUMBER
The function row number assigns unique rank to each row even if they are
having the same value of order by expression. The rows will get the same
rank if their order by expression has the same value.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL) DEFAULT_RANK, ROW_NUMBER() OVER(ORDER

BY SAL) RW_NUM,SAL FROM EMP

OUTPUT

DEFAULT_RANK RW_NUM SAL

------------ ---------- ----------
1 1 6810.91
2 2 10000
3 3 66870.77
4 4 111807.6
5 5 129461.88
6 6 153802.68
6 7 153802.68
8 8 184563.24
9 9 196867.32
10 10 641959.2
11 11 855945.6
11 12 855945.6
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152
NULLIF FUNCTION

This function produces NULL value if the expression has a specified value.
It produces NULL value if the expression has a specified value. This is like a
complement of the NVL function.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT ENAME,JOB,COMM,NULLIF(JOB,'MANAGER') FROM EMP;

OUTPUT

ENAME JOB COMM NULLIF(JO

--------------- --------- ---------- ---------
ss ss CLERK 1234 CLERK
allen SALESMAN 746.5 SALESMAN
WARD SALESMAN 1244.16 SALESMAN
JONES MANAGER
MARTIN SALESMAN 3483.65 SALESMAN
BLAKE MANAGER
CLARK MANAGER
SCOTT ANALYST ANALYST
TURNER SALESMAN 0 SALESMAN
ADAMS CLERK CLERK
JAMES CLERK CLERK
FORD ANALYST ANALYST
phani se 20000 se

ANALYSIS
It is just opposite to NVL(). NVL() substitute value, if its is NULL.
Where as NULLIF produces NULL, if value matches.

NVL2 Function

It is an extended form of NVL.

Syntax

NVL2(expr1,expr2,expr3)

In NVL2, expr1 can never be returned; either expr2 or expr3 will be

returned.

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 If expr1 is not NULL, NVL2 returns expr2,
If expr1 is NULL , NVL2 returns expr3.

The expr1 can have any data type. The arguments expr2 and expr3 can have
any datatype except LONG.

INPUT

SQL> SELECT COMM,NVL2(COMM,COMM,0) FROM EMP;

OUTPUT

COMM NVL2(COMM,COMM,0)
---------- -----------------
0
300 300
500 500
0
1400 1400
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0

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 Coalesce Function

This function takes n arguments and produces first argument, which is

having the first NOT NULL value.

SQL> SELECT ENAME, COMM, SAL, DEPTNO, MGR, COALESCE (COMM, SAL, DEPTNO, MGR)
COAL FROM EMP;

ENAME COMM SAL DEPTNO MGR COAL

--------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
ss ss 1234 6810.91 20 7902 1234
allen 746.5 196867.32 30 7698 746.5
WARD 1244.16 153802.68 30 7698 1244.16
JONES 855945.6 20 7839 855945.6
MARTIN 3483.65 153802.68 30 7698 3483.65
BLAKE 855945.6 30 7839 855945.6
CLARK 855945.6 10 7839 855945.6
SCOTT 641959.2 20 7566 641959.2
TURNER 0 184563.24 30 7698 0
ADAMS 129461.88 20 7788 129461.88
JAMES 111807.6 30 7698 111807.6
FORD 66870.77 20 7566 66870.77
phani 20000 10000 90 9822 20000

Multiple Insert and Merge statements

Oracle 9i provides enhanced facility of loading data in the table using select
statement.

Using this facility you

 Load data in multiple tables in single insert statement

 Load multiple rows in the same table in single insert statement
 Load data conditionally in the table.

Multiple insert statement

There are four types of multiple inert statements

 Unconditional insert statement

 Pivoting insert statement
 Conditional insert statement
 Insert first statement

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Unconditional Insert Statement

This statement enables to you insert data in multiple tables using a single
insert statement.

To understand this query consider the three tables from Annexure

To insert the data into two tables

Example1(pname,title,salary)
Example2(pname,course,cost)

Insert all
Into example1 values(pname,title,salary)
Into example2 values(pname,course,cost)
Select p.pname,title,course,cost,salary from programmer p,software s,
studies st
Where p.pname = s.pname and s.pname = st.pname;

Conditional Insert statement

It inserts the data into the table only when condition is satisfied.
Assume there are three tables with structure (table1,table2,table3)
Empno.ename,job,sal,deptno

We can load the data conditionally into three tables by using following
statement

SQL> insert all

When deptno = 10 then
Insert into table1 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 20 then
Insert into table2 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 30 then
Insert into table3 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
Select empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp

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Insert First statement

Insert first
When deptno = 10 then
Insert into table1 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 20 then
Insert into table2 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
When deptno = 30 then
Insert into table3 values(empno,ename,job,sal,deptno);
Select empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp;

The difference between Insert First and Insert All is that in the formar at the
most one row is inserted into the table while latter rows may be inserted into
multiple tables.

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 LOCKING MECHANISMS
To ensure data integrity oracle uses locks. Locks are used to prevent
destructive interaction between processes accessing the same resource.

Oracle uses two locking types

 DML locks - used to protect data. Can be either table or row level.
 Dictionary locks – used to protect the database structure

Locks may be explicit or implicit. A process or user instigates explicit locks.

Implicit locks are undertaken by Oracle. Oracle will lock any resource when
it detects a valid attempt to update the resource. Dictionary locks are always
implicit. DML locks may be implicit or explicit.

There are five locking modes. They are

EXCLUSIVE(X) LOCK ALLOWS QUERIES BUT NOTHING ELSE

SHARE(S) Lock allows queries but not updates
ROW SHARE(RS) Lock allows concurrent process access to table. Resource may not
be locked exclusively.
ROW EXCLUSIVE Same as row share but no share mode locking. Updates. Deletes and
(RX) inserts use this lock mode.

Locks are held until either a transaction is committed / rolled back.

Locking using SELECT for UPDATE

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO = 7521 FOR UPDATE OF SAL

NOWAIT;

With this SELECT we lock all the rows in the result set for later update. The
FOR UPDATE tells Oracle to lock each row as it processes it.

The OF keyword prefixes the column identification area which specifies

which columns are going to be updated by us at a later date.

The NOWAIT keyword specifies that we don’t want the statement to wait
until, and current locks on the table are removed.

Assume that there are tow users

SCOTT AND X

In the Scott user there is one table with the name EMP.
Scott has given some privileges on EMP table to X user.

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 If X wants to lock the EMP table, then he has to issue a command

LOCK TABLE SCOTT.EMP IN EXCLUSIVE MODE NOWAIT;

Now from SCOTT user , if he tries to the lock the table, which is already
locked by X

LOCK TABLE EMP IN EXCLUSIVE MODE;

It results an error

LOCK TABLE EMP IN EXCLUSIVE MODE NOWAIT

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00054: resource busy and acquire with NOWAIT specified

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 SECURITY

What is a privilege

A privilege is a right to access an object such as a table, view etc., or to

execute a particular type of SQL command such as CREATE TABLE.

Privileges are classified into two categories depending upon what type of
right they give to the user.

 Object Privileges
 System privileges

Object privilege

An object privilege is a right to perform a particular operation on an object.

An object is a table, view, sequence, procedure, function or package.

System privilege

A system privilege is a right to perform certain operation in the system. For

example, the privilege to create a table is a system privilege.

Object Privileges

User owns the object that he/she creates. Unless otherwise specified, only
the owner and DBA can access the object.

But, if user wants to share his object with other users, he has to grant
privileges on the object to other users.

The following are the list of object privileges available in Oracle

ALTER, DELETE EXECUTE,INDEX,INSERT,SELECT,UPDATE

These privileges are given on various objects, such as

TABLE, VIEW, SEQUENCE, PROCEDURE,FUNCTION, PACKAGE AND

OBJECT TYPE

SYNTAX
GRANT <PRIVILEGES> | ALL [(COLUMN1,COLUMN2)] ON <OBJECT>
TO (USER | PUBLIC | ROLE) [ WITH GRANT OPTION];

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 Privileges --- any object privileges
ALL -- to grant all privileges
PUBLIC -- to grant privilege to all the users of the system.

Example

GRANT SELECT,UPDATE ON EMP TO X;

Note :- X is a user

Now from X user, he can select as well as update the information in EMP
table.

SELECT * FROM SCOTT.EMP;

UPDATE SCOTT.EMP SET SAL = 11000 WHERE EMPNO = 7521;

Restricting privilege to certain columns

GRANT UPDATE(SAL) ON EMP TO X;

So, X user can modify only sal value in the EMP table.

REVOKE OBJECT PRIVILEGES

To remove the given privileges, we can use REVOKE command

REVOKE <PRIVILEGES> ON <OBJECT> FROM <USER>;

Using Synonyms

To simplify accessing tables owned by other busers, create a SYNONYM. A

synonym is another name(alias) to a table or view. By creating a synonym
you can avoid giving the owner name while accessing table of other users.

We can create two types of synonyms

Private Synonyms

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Public Synonyms
Any user can create private synonym, where as public synonym is created
by only DBA using a keyword called public.

Creating private synonym.

CREATE SYNONYM EMPL FOR SCOTT.EMP;

Now we can access EMP table which is there in SCOTT user using synonym
EMPL as

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPL;

Public Synonym

Public synonym is available for all the users.

SQL>CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM EMPL FOR SCOTT.EMP;

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What is SQL*Loader?

SQL*Loader is Oracle’s utility program for loading data into an Oracle table.

Most often, SQL*Loader takes two input files – a control file and a data file – and loads the
data into a single Oracle table.  The data file contains data, and the control file contains
information about the data -- where to load it, what to do if something goes wrong, etc.

SQL*Loader has lots and lots of options which can be used to handle various types of data
and levels of complexity.  SQL*Loader is fully described in the Oracle Server Utilities
User’s Guide.  This document is just about getting started.  SQL*Loader runs on Unix,
mainframes, and PC’s.  This document is just about running it from a Windows PC.
 

Why Use SQL*Loader From Your PC?

If you need to transfer quite a lot of data from your machine to an Oracle database table, you
might want to use SQL*Loader.   If you already have the data in some other format, it may
be worthwhile to use SQL*Loader.  If you need to transfer local data to a remote database on
some recurring basis, it may be preferable to use SQL*Loader rather than something like
FTP.  At the end of this document, there is a brief comparison of FTP versus SQL*Loader.
 

Getting Started, an Example

Say, for example, that you’ve got an Excel spreadsheet with State data already in it.  You’ve
got 50 rows of data – each containing the State Abbreviation, State Name, an [optional]
unofficial State Slogan, and the number of State Residents Who Drink Bottled Water.

(Is 50 rows of data really sufficient to justify this exercise?  That’s debatable, but let’s say
you’ve thought it over and you DO want to SQL*load your data into a 4-column Oracle table
at UW-Stevens Point.  The remote table is called sp.mystates.)
 

Here’s what you do:

1) Create your data file.  This is easy.  Save your Excel spreadsheet data AS a Comma-
Separated-Variable (*.csv) file.  This will automatically put commas between each of the
four data elements.  In addition, if any of the data elements already contain a comma, the
Save AS *.csv step will optionally and automatically enclose that data in double quotes.

So, after your Save AS command, you might have a file named C:\MyStates.csv that
contains data like this:

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AR,Arkansas,We are sure proud of Bill,0
CO,Colorado,,3000
WI,Wisconsin,Rose Bowl Champions Again!,5
CA,California,"Dude? You want, like, another hit of Oxygen?",90203049
 
2) Create your control file.   Using any text editor, create a file (say, C:\mystates.ctl)
containing these lines:
LOAD DATA
INFILE 'C:\EMPLOYEE.csv'
REPLACE
INTO TABLE EMPL
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ',' OPTIONALLY ENCLOSED BY '"'
TRAILING NULLCOLS
(EMPNO,
 ENAME
INTEGER EXTERNAL)
The REPLACE keyword says, "remove any existing rows before starting the load."  There's
also an INSERT [into empty table] and APPEND [to existing rows] option.

State_Abbrev, State_Name, State_Slogan, and Nbr_Residents_WDBW are the actual

column names defined in the sp.mystates table.

Because the first three items are of character datatype, it was not necessary to further
describe them – character is the default.  The fourth column is numeric data – it totals the
number of state residents who drink bottled water.  The INTEGER EXTERNAL describes
the datatype in the C:\mystates.csv input file.

Notice there is some missing data in the data file -- Colorado has no state slogan.  The
TRAILING NULLCOLS statement handles the missing data; it tells SQL*Loader to load any
missing data as NULL values.  There are, as we said earlier, lots of available options
described in the Utilities User’s Guide.

3) Create a table with the name referred in ctl file with required columns 

4) Run SQL*Loader.
 
Prerequisites:

 You must have SQL*Loader and SQL*Net installed on your machine.  The
SQL*Loader program may have a version number included as part of its name,
something like sqlldr73.exe or sqlldr80.exe.  Or maybe it will be just
sqlldr.exe.  You can look for it in your ORAWIN95 or ORANT \BIN directory.  If
it's not installed, you can get the Oracle Client Software installation CD and install
"UTILITIES".

 You must have the target database (say, it’s called ‘ELTP’) configured as SQL*Net
service in your local tnsnames.ora file.  This is pretty standard stuff; it’s probably
already there.

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  You must have authorization to modify the sp.mystates table (INSERT, or DELETE
and INSERT if you're using the REPLACE option in the control file.  In the example
below we assume that user SCOTT with password TIGER has appropriate
authorization.

 
At an MS-DOS prompt (or the Start, Run menu) , execute SQL*Loader as follows:
 
sqlldr scott/tiger@ELTP control=C:\mystates.ctl

When the load completes, look in the file C:\mystates.log.  This log file will
contain information about how many rows were loaded, how many rows -- if
any -- were NOT loaded, and other information that may be useful to reassure
or debug.

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How to convert Excel Sheet into CSV(Comma separated variable) file
This article describes how to convert a single column of addresses in a Microsoft Excel worksheet
into a comma-separated value (CSV) file that you can import into another program (for example,
Microsoft Word).

Note For the address example in this article, the Excel worksheet contains the following address
information:
A B
1 ravi

2 kris

3 babu

1. On the File menu, click Save As.

Note In Excel 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Save As.
2. In the Save As dialog box:
a. In the Save as type box, click CSV (Comma delimited) (*.csv).
b. In the File name box, type a name for your CSV file (for example, Address.csv), and then click
Save.
c. Click OK when you receive the following message:
The selected file type does not support workbooks that contain multiple sheets.

• To save only the active sheet, click OK.

• To save all sheets, save them individually using a different file name for each, or select a file type
that supports multiple sheets.
d. Click Yes when you receive the following message:
Address.csv may contain features that are incompatible with CSV (comma delimited). Do you want
to keep the workbook in this format?

• To keep this format, which leaves out any incompatible features, click Yes.
• To preserve the features, click No. Then save a copy in the latest Excel format.
• To see what might be lost, click Help.
3. On the File menu, click Close, and then exit Microsoft Excel.

Note In Excel 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, click Close, and then click Exit Excel.

Note You may be prompted to save the file again. When you are prompted, you can click Yes, repeat
steps c and d, and then exit Excel.

Edit the CSV File in Microsoft Word

Start Microsoft Word.
1.
2. On the File menu, click Open.

Note In Word 2007, click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Open.
3. In the Files of type box, click All Files (*.*).
4. Click the CSV file that you saved in step 4 of the "Edit the Excel Worksheet" section, and then click
Open.
5. On the Tools menu, click Options.

Note In Word 2007, skip this step.

6. On the View tab, click to select the All check box, and then click OK.

Note In Word 2007, follow these steps:

a. Click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Word Options.
b. Click Display.
c. Click Paragraph marks under the Always show these formatting marks on the screen.

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 ANNEXURE

Table : Studies

NAME NULL TYPE

(PNAME) NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) NAME
SPLACE NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) STUDIED PLACE
COURSE NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) COURSE STUDIED

TABLE : SOFTWARE

NAME NULL ? TYPE

(PNAME) NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) NAME
TITLE NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20) DEVELOPED
PROJECT NAME
DEV_IN NOT NULL VARCHAR2(10) LANGUAGE
DEVELOPED
SCOST NUMBER(7,2) SOFTWARE COST
DCOST NUMBER(7,2) DEVELOPMENT
COST
SOLD NUMBER(4) NO OF SOFTWARE
SOLD

Data in Table : STUDIES

PNAME SPLACE COURSE COST

ANAND SABHARI PGDCA 45000
ALTAF COIT DCA 7200
JULIANA BITS MCA 22000
KAMALA PRAGATHI DCP 5000
MARY SABHARI PGDCA 4600
NELSON PRAGATHI DAP 6200
PATRICK SABHARI DCA 5200
QADIR APPLE HDCP 14000
RAMESH SABHARI PGDCA 4500
REBECCA BPILLANI DCA 11000
REMITHA BDPS DCS 6000
REVATHI SABHARI DAP 5000
VIJAYA BDPS DCA 48000

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TABLE : SOFTWARE

PNAME TITLE DEV_IN SCOST DCOST SOLD

ANAND PARACHUTES BASIC 399 6000 43
ANAND VIDEO TITLING PACK PASCAL 7500 16000 9
JULIANA INVENTORY COBOL 3000 3500 0
CONTROL
KAMALA PAYROLL PACKAGE DBASE 9000 20000 7
MARY FINANCIAL ACC.S/W ORACLE 18000 85000 4
PATRICK CODE GENERATION COBOL 4500 20000 23
QADIR READ ME C++ 300 1200 84
QADIR BOMBS AWAY ASSEMBLY 750 5000 11
QADIR VACCINES C 1900 3400 21
RAMESH HOTEL MANAGEMENT DBASE 12000 3500 4
RAMESH DEAD LEE PASCAL 599 4500 73
REMITHA PC UTILITIES C 725 5000 51
REMITHA TSR HELP PACKAGE ASSEMBLY 2500 6000 6
REVATHI HOSPITAL PASCAL 1100 75000 2
MANAGEMENT
REVATHI QUIZ MASTER BASIC 3200 2100 15
VIJAYA ISR EDITION C 900 700 6

Data in Table : PROGRAMMER

PNAME DOB DOJ S PROF1 PROF2 SALARY

E
X
ANAND 21-APR-66 21-APR-92 M PASCAL BASIC 3200
ALTAF 02-JUL-64 13-NOV-90 M CLIPPER COBOL 2800
JULIANA 31-JAN-68 21-APR-90 F COBOL DBASE 3000
KAMALA 30-OCT-68 02-JAN-92 F C DBASE 2900
MARY 24-JUN-70 01-FEB-91 F C++ ORACLE 4500
NELSON 11-SEP-85 11-OCT-89 M COBOL DBASE 2500
PATRICK 10-NOV-65 21-APR-90 M PASCAL CLIPPER 2800
QADIR 31-AUG-65 21-APR-91 M ASSEMBLY C 3000
RAMESH 03-MAY-67 28-FEB-91 M PASCAL DBASE 3200
REBECCA 01-JAN-67 01-DEC-90 F BASIC COBOL 2500
REMITHA 19-APR-70 20-APR-93 F C ASSEMBLY 3600
REVATHI 02-DEC-69 02-JAN-92 F PASCAL BASIC 3700
VIJAYA 14-DEC-65 02-MAY-92 F FOXPRO C 3500

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QUERY – I

 Find out the selling cost average for packages developed in pascal.
 Display the names and ages of all the programmers
 Display the names of those who have done the DAP course
 What is the highest number of copies sold by a package
 Display the names and date of birth of all programmers born in
January
 Display the lowest course fee
 How many programmers have done the PGDCA course
 How much revenue has been earned through sale of packages
developed in C
 Display the software’s developed by Ramesh
 How many programmers studied at Sabhari?
 Display the details of the packages whose sales crossed 2000 mark.
 Find out the number of copies which should be sold in order to
recover the development cost of each package.
 Display the details of packages for which development cost have been
recovered.
 What is the price of the costliest software developed in BASIC
 How many packages were developed in DBASE?
 How many programmers studied at Pragathi?
 How many programmers paid 5000 to 10000 for their course?
 What is the average course fee?
 Display the details of programmers knowing C
 How many programmers know either COBOL or PASCAL?
 How many programmers don’t know PASCAL and C?
 How old is the oldest male programmer?
 What is the average age of female programmers?
 Calculate the experience in years for each programmer and display
along with the names, in descending order.
 Who are the programmers who celebrate their birthday’s during the
current month?
 How many female programmers are there?
 What are the languages known by the male programmers
 What is the average salary
 How many people draw 2000 to 4000?
 Display the details of those who don’t know Clipper, COBOL or Pascal
 Display the details of those who will be completing 2 years of services
this year?

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  Calculate the amount to be recovered for those packages whose
development cost has not yet been recovered?
 List the packages, which have not been sold so far?
 Find out the cost of the software developed by Mary?
 Display the institute names from the studies table without the
duplicates
 How many different courses are mentioned in the studies table?
 Display the names of the programmers whose names contain 2
occurrences of the letter ‘A’
 Display the names of the programmers whose names contains 5
characters
 How many female programmers knowing COBOL have more than 2
yrs experience
 What is the length of the shortest name in the programmer table
 What is the average development cost of a package developed in
COBOL
 Display the name,sex, dob(dd/mm/yy format) , DOJ(dd/mm/yy
format) for all the programmers
 What is the amount paid in salaries of the male programmers who
don’t know COBOL
 Display the title , scost, dcost and difference between scost and dcost
in descending order of difference
 Display the names of the packages whose names contain more than 1
word
 Display the name, dob, doj of those month of birth and month of
joining are same

QUERY – II

 Display the cost of the package developed by each programmer

 Display the sales values of the packages developed by the each
programmer
 Display the number of packages sold by each programmer
 Display the sales cost of the packages developed by each programmer
 Display each language name with average development cost, average
selling cost and average price per copy

 Display each programmer’s name, costliest package and cheapest

packages developed by him / her.
 Display each institute name with number of courses , average cost
per course
 Display each Institute name with number of students
 Display the names of male and female programmers
 Display the programmer’s name and their packages
 Display the number of packages in each language except C and C++
 Display the number of packages in each language for which
development cost is less than 1000
 Display the average difference between SCOST and DCOST for each
language

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  Display the total SCOST, DCOST and amount to be recovered for each
programmer for those whose dcost has not yet been recovered
 Display the highest, lowest and average salaries for those earning
more than 2000

QUERY – III

 Who is the most experienced programmer knowing pascal?

 Which course has been done by the most of the students?
 Which course has the lowest selling cost?
 Display the courses whose fees are within 1000/- ( + or - ) of the
average fee
 Who developed the package that has sold the least number of copies
 Which language was used to develop most number of packages
 Display the names of the packages which have been sold less than
the average number of copies
 Who is the youngest male programmer born in 1965
 In which year most number of programmers born
 Which female programmer earning more than 3000/- does not know
C,C++, ORACLE OR DBASE
 Which programmer has developed highest no of packages
 Who are the male programmers earning below the average salary of
female programmers
 Display the details of those who are drawing salary
 Display the details of the software developed by the male
programmers earning more than 3000
 Display the details of the software developed in C by female
programmers of Pragathi
 How many months it will take for each programmer to recover their
cost of study
 Display the details of the software developed in the language which is
not the programmers first proficiency
 Display the details of the software developed in the language which is
neither the first nor second proficiency of the programmer
 Who are the programmers who joined in the same day
 Display the programmers who are drawing same salary
 Which is the costliest package developed by a person with under 3
years experience
 What is the average salary for those whose software sales value is
more than 50,000
 How many packages were developed by the person who developed the
cheapest package . Where did he / she study.
 How many packages developed by female programmers earning more
than the highest paid male programmer
 How many packages were developed by the most experienced
programmer from BDPS

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QUERY - IV

 Write a query to display the last name, department number, and salary of any employee
whose department number and salary both match the department number and salary of any
employee who earns a commission.

 Display the last name, department name, and salary of any employee whose salary and
commission match the salary and commission of any employee located in location ID
1700.

 Create a query to display the last name, hire date, and salary for all employees who have the
same salary and commission as Kochhar.
Note: Do not display Kochhar in the result set.

 Create a query to display the employees who earn a salary that is higher than the salary of all
of the sales managers (JOB_ID = 'SA_MAN'). Sort the results on salary from highest to
lowest.

 Find all employees who are not supervisors.

a. First do this using the NOT EXISTS operator
b. Can this be done by using the NOT IN operator? How, or why not?

 Write a query to display the last names of the employees who earn less than the average
salary in their departments.

 Write a query to display the last names of the employees who have one or more coworkers in
their departments with later hire dates but higher salaries.

 Write a query to display the department names of those departments whose total salary cost is
above one eighth (1/8) of the total salary cost of the whole company

 Write a query to display the last name, department number, and department name for all
employees

 Create a unique listing of all jobs that are in department 80. Include the location of the
department in the output.

 Write a query to display the employee last name, department name, location ID, and city of
all employees who earn a commission.

 Display the employee last name and department name for all employees who have an a
(lowercase) in their last names

 Write a query to display the last name, job, department number, and department name for all
employees who work in Toronto.

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  display all employees including King, who has no manager. Order the results by the
employee number.

 Create a query that displays employee last names, department numbers, and all the
employees who work in the same department as a given employee. Give each column an
appropriate label.

 Show the structure of the JOB_GRADES table. Create a query that displays the name, job,
department name, salary, and grade for all employees.

 Create a query to display the name and hire date of any employee hired after employee
Davies.

 Write a query to display the following for those employees whose manager ID is less than
120:
• Manager ID
• Job ID and total salary for every job ID for employees who report to
the same manager
• Total salary of those managers
• Total salary of those managers, irrespective of the job IDs

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 OCP SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Question: 1

Which SELECT statement should you use if you want to display unique
combinations of the POSITION and MANAGER values from the EMPLOYEE
table?

1. SELECT DISTINCT position, manager FROM employee;

2. SELECT position, manager DISTINCT FROM employee;
3. SELECT position, manager FROM employee;
4. SELECT position, DISTINCT manager FROM employee;

Question: 2
You need to produce a report for mailing labels for all customers. The
mailing label must have only the customer name and address. The
CUSTOMERS table has these columns:

CUST_ID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL

CUST_NAME VARCHAR2(100)
CUST_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(150)
CUST_PHONE VARCHAR2(20)

Which SELECT statement accomplishes this task?

1. SELECT* FROM customers;

2. SELECT name, address FROM customers;
3. SELECT id, name, address, phone FROM customers;
4. SELECT cust_name, cust_address FROM customers;
5. SELECT cust_id, cust_name, cust_address, cust_phone FROM
customers;.

Question: 3

Evaluate this SQL statement:

SELECT e.EMPLOYEE_ID,e.LAST_NAME,e.DEPARTMENT_ID,
d.DEPARTMENT_NAME.
FROM EMP e, DEPARTMENT d
WHERE e.DEPARTMENT_ID = d.DEPARTMENT_ID;
In the statement, which capabilities of a SELECT statement are performed?

1. Selection, projection, join

2. Difference, projection, join
3. Selection, intersection, join
4. Intersection, projection, join

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 5. Difference, projection, product

Question: 4

Which two statements are true regarding the ORDER BY clause?

1. The sort is in ascending by order by default.

2. The sort is in descending order by default.
3. The ORDER BY clause must precede the WHERE clause.
4. The ORDER BY clause is executed on the client side.
5. The ORDER BY clause comes last in the SELECT statement.
6. The ORDER BY clause is executed first in the query execution.

Question: 5

From SQL*Plus, you issue this SELECT statement:

SELECT * From orders;

You use this statement to retrieve data from a data table for __________.
1. Updating
2. Viewing
3. Deleting
4. Inserting
5. Truncating

Question: 6

Which SQL SELECT statement performs a projection, a selection, and join

when executed?

1. SELECT p.id_number, m.manufacturer_id, m.city

FROM product p, manufacturer m
WHERE p.manufacturer_id = m.manufacturer_id AND m.manufacturer_id =
'NF10032';

2. SELECT id_number, manufacturer_id FROM product

ORDER BY manufacturer_id, id_number;

3. SELECT id_number, manufacturer_id

FROM product
WHERE manufacturer_id = 'NF10032';

4. SELECT manufacturer_id, city

FROM manufacturer
AND manufacturer_id = 'NF10032'

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 ORDER BY city;

Question: 7

The CUSTOMERS table has these columns:

CUSTOMER_ID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL
CUSTOMER_NAME VARCHAR2(100) NOT NULL
STREET_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(150)
CITY_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(50)
STATE_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(50)
PROVINCE_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(50)
COUNTRY_ADDRESS VARCHAR2(50)
POSTAL_CODE VARCHAR2(12)
CUSTOMER_PHONE VARCHAR2(20)

Which statement finds the rows in the CUSTOMERS table that do not have a
postal code?

1. SELECT customer_id, customer_name

FROM customers
WHERE postal_code CONTAINS NULL;

2. SELECT customer_id, customer_name

FROM customers
WHERE postal_code = '________';

3. SELECT customer_id, customer_name

FROM customers
WHERE postal_code IS NULL;

4. SELECT customer_id, customer_name

FROM customers
WHERE postal code IS NVL;

5. SELECT customer_id, customer_name

FROM customers
WHERE postal_code = NULL;

Question: 8

Evaluate these two SQL statements:

SELECT last_name, salary , hire_date

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 FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY salary DESC;

SELECT last_name, salary, hire_date

FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY 2 DESC;
What is true about them?
1. The two statements produce identical results.
2. The second statement returns a syntax error.
3. There is no need to specify DESC because the results are sorted in
descending order by
default.
4. The two statements can be made to produce identical results by adding a
column alias for the
salary column in the second SQL statement.

Question: 9

Evaluate the set of SQL statements:

CREATE TABLE dept
(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCNAR2(14),
loc VARCNAR2(13));
ROLLBACK;
DESCRIBE DEPT

What is true about the set?

1. The DESCRIBE DEPT statement displays the structure of the DEPT table.
2. The ROLLBACK statement frees the storage space occupies by the DEPT
table.
3. The DESCRIBE DEPT statement returns an error ORA-04043: object
DEPT does not exist.
4. The DESCRIBE DEPT statement displays the structure of the DEPT table
only if the COMMIT statement introduced before the ROLLBACK statement..

Question: 10

Examine the data of the EMPLOYEES table.

EMPLOYEES (EMPLOYEE_ID is the primary key. MGR_ID is the ID of
managers and refers to
the EMPLOYEE_ID)
EMPLOYEE_ID EMP_NAME DEPT_ID MGR_ID JOB_ID SALARY
101 Smith 20 120 SA_REP 4000
102 Martin 10 105 CLERK 2500
103 Chris 20 120 IT_ADMIN 4200
104 John 30 108 HR_CLERK 2500
105 Diana 30 108 HR_MGR 5000
106 Bryan 40 110 AD_ASST 3000
108 Jennifer 30 110 HR_DIR 6500

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110 Bob 40 EX_DIR 8000
120 Ravi 20 110 SA_DIR 6500

Evaluate this SQL statement:

SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",

e.salary, m.employee_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.employee_id AND e.salary > 4000;

What is its output?

1.
EMP_id EMPLOYEE SALARY Mgr_id Manager
------- ---------- --------- ------------- --------------
110 Bob 8000 Bob
120 Ravi 6500 110 Ravi
108 Jennifer 6500 110 Jennifer
103 Chris 4200 120 Chris
105 Diana 5000 108 Diana

2.
EMP_id EMPLOYEE SALARY Mgr_id Manager
------- ---------- --------- ------------- --------------
120 Ravi 6500 110 Bob
108 Jennifer 6500 110 Bob
103 Chris 4200 120 Ravi
105 Diana 500 108 Jennifer

3.
EMP_id EMPLOYEE SALARY Mgr_id Manager
------- ---------- --------- ------------- --------------
110 Bob 800
120 Ravi 6500 110 Bob
108 Jennifer 6500 110 Bob
103 Chris 4200 120 Ravi
105 Diana 5000 108 Jennifer

D
EMP_id EMPLOYEE SALARY Mgr_id Manager
------- ---------- --------- ------------- --------------
110 Bob 8000 110 Bob
120 Ravi 6500 120 Ravi
108 Jennifer 6500 108 Jennifer
103 Chris 4200 103 Chris

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 105 Diana 5000 105 Dina

5. The SQL statement produces an error.

Question: 11

Which /SQL*Plus feature can be used to replace values in the WHERE

clause?
1. Substitution variables
2. Replacement variables
3. Prompt variables
4. Instead-of variables
5. This feature cannot be implemented through /SQL*Plus.

Question: 12

You are formulating queries in a SQL*Plus. Which of the following statement

correctly describes
how to specify a column alias?
1. Place the alias at the beginning of the statement to describe the table.
2. Place the alias after each column separated by a space to describe the
column.
3. Place the alias after each column separated by a comma to describe the
column.
4. Place the alias at the end of the statement to describe the table.

Question: 13

You want to use a function in you column clause of a SQL statement. The
NVL function
accomplishes which of the following tasks?

1. Assists in the distribution of output across multiple columns.

2. Enables you to specify alternate output for non-NULL column values.
3. Enables you to specify alternated out for NULL column values.
4. Nullifies the value of the column out put.

Question: 14
You want to use SQL*Plus to connect to the oracle database. Which of the
following choices
does not indicate a component you must specify when logging into the
oracle?

1. The SQL*Plus Keyword.

2. The username
3. The password.

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 4. The database name.

Question: 15

The EMPLOYEE_HISTORY table contains these columns:

EMPLOYEE_ID NUMBER
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(25)
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(25)
DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER
POSITION VARCHAR2(30)
SALARY NUMBER(6,2)
HIRE_DATE DATE
DEPART_DATE DATE
The EMPLOYEE_HISTORY table contains only former employees.
You need to create a report to display all former employees that were hired
on or
after January 1, 1996. The data should display in this format:
Former Employee Term of Employment
---------------------------- ----------------------------------
14837 - SMITH 10-MAY-92 / 01-JUN-01
Which SELECT statement could you use?

1. SELECT employee_id||' - '||last_name AS Former Employee,

hire_date||' / '||depart_date AS Term of Employment
FROM employee_history
WHERE hire_date > '31-DEC-95';

2. SELECT employee_id||' - '||last_name "AS Former Employee",

hire_date||' / '||depart_date "AS Term of Employment"
FROM employee_history
WHERE hire_date > '31-DEC-95';

3. SELECT employee_id||' - '||last_name 'Former Employee',

hire_date||' / '||depart_date 'Term of Employment'
FROM employee_history
WHERE hire_date > '31-DEC-95' AND depart_date > NULL;

4. SELECT employee_id||' - '||last_name "Former Employee",

hire_date||' / '||depart_date "Term of Employment"
FROM employee_history
WHERE hire_date > '31-DEC-95' AND depart_date <> NULL;

5. SELECT employee_id||' - '||last_name "Former Employee",

hire_date||' / '||depart_date "Term of Employment"
FROM employee_history
WHERE hire_date > '31-DEC-95' AND depart_date IS NOT NULL;

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Question: 16

The EMPloyee table contains these columns:

Empno Number(4)
Ename Varchar2(10)
job Varchar2(10)
sal Varchar2(10)
You need to display the employees information by using this query.
How many columns are presented after executing this query:
SELECT Empno||','||Ename||','||Job "Employee Information" FROM
employee;
A) 1
B) 2
C) 3
D) 0
E) 4

Question: 17

Examine the data of the EMPLOYEES table.

EMPLOYEES (EMPLOYEE_ID is the primary key. MGR_ID is the ID of

managers and refers to
the EMPLOYEE_ID)

EMPLOYEE_ID EMP_NAME DEPT_ID MGR_ID JOB_ID SALARY

101 Smith 20 120 SA_REP 4000
102 Martin 10 105 CLERK 2500
103 Chris 20 120 IT_ADMIN 4200
104 John 30 108 HR_CLERK 2500
105 Diana 30 108 HR_MGR 5000
106 Bryan 40 110 AD_ASST 3000
108 Jennifer 30 110 HR_DIR 6500
110 Bob 40 EX_DIR 8000
120 Ravi 20 110 SA_DIR 6500
Which statement lists the ID, name, and salary of the employee, and the ID
and name of the employee's manager, for all the employees who have a
manager and earn more than 4000?
1. SELECT employee_id "Emp_id", emp_name "Employee",
salary, employee_id "Mgr_id", emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 4000;

2. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",

e.salary, m.employee_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.mgr_id AND e.salary > 4000;

3. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",

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 e.salary, m.employee_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.employee_id AND e.salary > 4000;

4. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",

e.salary, m.mgr_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.mgr_id = m.employee_id AND e.salary > 4000;

5. SELECT e.employee_id "Emp_id", e.emp_name "Employee",

e.salary, m.mgr_id "Mgr_id", m.emp_name "Manager"
FROM employees e, employees m
WHERE e.employee_id = m.employee_id
AND e.salary > 4000;.

Question: 18
You need to display the last names of those employees who have the letter
“A” as the second
character in their names.
Which SQL statement displays the required results?
1. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last_name LIKE ‘_A%’;
2. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last name =’*A%’
3. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last name =’_A%’;
4. SELECT last_name FROM EMP WHERE last name LIKE ‘*A%’

Question: 19

In which scenario would TOP N analysis be the best solution?

1. You want to identify the most senior employee in the company.
2. You want to find the manager supervising the largest number of
employees.
3. You want to identify the person who makes the highest salary for all
employees.
4. You want to rank the top three sales representatives who have sold the
maximum number of
products.

Question: 20
Evaluate this SQL statement:
SELECT c.customer_id, o.order_id, o.order_date, p.product_name
FROM customer c, curr_order o, product p
WHERE customer.customer_id = curr_order.customer_id AND o.product_id
= p.product_id
ORDER BY o.order_amount;

This statement fails when executed. Which change will correct the problem?
1. Include the ORDER_AMOUNT column in the SELECT list.
2. Use the table name in the ORDER BY clause.
3. Remove the table aliases from the WHERE clause.

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 4. Use the table aliases instead of the table names in the WHERE clause.
5. Remove the table alias from the ORDER BY clause and use only the
column name.

Question: 21

You want to display the titles of books that meet these criteria:
1. Purchased before January 21, 2001
2. Price is less then $500 or greater than $900
You want to sort the results by their data of purchase, starting with the
most recently bought
book.
Which statement should you use?

1. SELECT book_title
FROM books
WHERE price between 500 and 900 AND purchase_date < ’21-JAN-2001’
ORDER BY purchase_date;

2. SELECT book_title
FROM books
WHERE price IN (500,900) AND purchase_date < ’21-JAN-2001’
ORDER BY purchase date ASC;
3. SELECT book_title
FROM books
WHERE price < 500 or > 900 AND purchase_date < ’21-JAN-2001’
ORDER BY purchase date DESC;

4. SELECT book_title
FROM books
WHERE (price < 500 OR price > 900) AND purchase_date < ’21-JAN-2001’
ORDER BY purchase date DESC;

Question: 22

For which task would you use the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement?
1. to designate the ORDER table location
2. to compare PRODUCT_ID values to 7382
3. to display only unique PRODUCT_ID values
4. to restrict the rows returned by a GROUP BY clause

Question: 23

The STUDENT_GRADES table has these columns:

STUDENT_ID NUMBER(12)
SEMESTER_END DATE
GPA NUMBER(4,3)

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 The registrar has requested a report listing the students' grade point
averages (GPA), sorted from
highest grade point average to lowest within each semester, starting from
the earliest date. Which
statement accomplishes this?

1. SELECT student_id, semester_end, gpa

FROM student_grades
ORDER BY semester_end DESC, gpa DESC;

2. SELECT student_id, semester_end, gpa

FROM student_grades
ORDER BY semester_end ASC, gpa ASC;

3. SELECT student_id, semester_end, gpa

FROM student_grades
ORDER BY semester_end, gpa DESC;

4. SELECT student_id, semester_end, gpa

FROM student_grades
ORDER BY gpa DESC, semester_end DESC;

5. SELECT student_id, semester_end, gpa

FROM student_grades
ORDER BY gpa DESC, semester_end ASC;.

Question: 24

The ORDERS table has these columns:

ORDER_ID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL
CUSTOMER_ID NUMBER(12) NOT NULL
ORDER_TOTAL NUMBER(10,2)
The ORDERS table tracks the Order nnmher, the order total, and the
customer to whom the
Order belongs. Which two statements retrieve orders with an inclusive total
that ranges between
100.00 and 2000.00 dollars?

1. SELECT customer_id, order_id, order_total FROM orders

RANGE ON order_total (100 AND 2000) INCLUSIVE;

2. SELECT customer_id, order_id, order_total FROM orders

HAVING order_total BETWEEN 100 and 2000;

3. SELECT customer_id, order_id, order_total FROM orders

WHERE order_total BETWEEN 100 and 2000;

4. SELECT customer_id, order_id, order_total FROM orders

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 WHERE order_total >= 100 and <= 2000;

5. SELECT customer_id, order_id, order_total FROM orders

WHERE order_total >= 100 and order_total <= 2000;

Question: 25
Examine the structure of the PRODUCT table.
PRODUCT Table
PRODUCT _ID NUMBER Primary Key
PRODUCT_NAME VARCHAR2(25)
SUPPLIER_ID NUMBER references SUPPLIER(SUPPLIER_ID)
CATERORY_ID NUMBER
QTY_PER_UNIT NUMBER
LIST_RRICE NUMBER (5,2)
COST NUMBER (5,2)
You want to display all product identification numbers of products for which
there are 500 or more
available for immediate sale. You want the product numbers displayed
alphabetically by supplier,
then by product number from lowest to highest. Which statement should
you use to achieve the
required results?

1. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit >= 500
ORDER BY supplier_id, product_id;

2. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit >= 500
SORT BY supplier_id, product_id;

3. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit >= 500
ORDER BY supplier_id, product_id DESC;

4. SELECT product_id
FROM product
WHERE qty_per_unit > 500
SORT BY supplier_id, product_id;

Question: 26
Examine the data in TEACHER table.
ID LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME SUBJECT_ID
88 Tsu Ming HST_AMER
70 Smith Ellen HST_INDIA
56 Jones Karen HST_REVOL

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 58 Hann Jeff HST_CURR
63 Hopewell Mary Elizabetn HST_RELIG

Which query should you use to return the following values from the
TEACHER table?
Name Subject
------------------------------------- -------------------
Jones, Karen HST_REVOL
Hopewell, Mary Elizabeth HST_RELIG

1. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"

FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id LIKE 'HST\_%' ESCAPE '\';

2. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"

FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id = 'HST\_R%';

3. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"

FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id LIKE '%HST\_R%' ESC '\ ';

4. SELECT last_name||', '||first_name "Name", subject_id "Subject"

FROM teacher
WHERE subject_id LIKE 'HST_%';

Question: 27

You query the database with this SQL statement:

SELECT bonus
FROM salary
WHERE bonus BETWEEN 1 AND 250 OR (bonus IN(190, 500, 600)
AND bonus BETWEEN 250 AND 500);
Which value could the statement return?

1. 100
2. 260
3. 400
4. 600

Question: 28
Examine the structure of the STUDENTS table:
STUDENT_ID NUMBER Primary Key
STUDENT_NAME VARCHAR2(30)
COURSE_ID VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL
MARKS NUMBER
START_DATE DATE

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 FINISH_DATE DATE
You need to create a report of the 10 students who achieved the highest
ranking in the course
INT SQL and who completed the course in the year 1999.
Which SQL statement accomplishes this task?

1. SELECT student_ id, marks, ROWNUM "Rank"

FROM students
WHERE ROWNUM <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND '31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL'
ORDER BY marks DESC;

2. SELECT student_id, marks, ROWID "Rank"

FROM students
WHERE ROWID <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND '31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL'
ORDER BY marks;

3. SELECT student_id, marks, ROWNUM "Rank"

FROM (SELECT student_id, marks
FROM students
WHERE ROWNUM <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND
'31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL'
ORDER BY marks DESC);

4. SELECT student_id, marks, ROWNUM "Rank”

FROM (SELECT student_id, marks
FROM students
ORDER BY marks DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM <= 10
AND finish_date BETWEEN '01-JAN-99' AND '31-DEC-99'
AND course_id = 'INT_SQL';

Question: 29
Examine the structure of the LINE_ITEM table.
LINE_ITEM_ID NUMBER(9),
ORDER_ID NUMBER(9) NOT NULL,
PRODUCT_ID NUMBER(9) NOT_NULL,
QUANTITY NUMBER(9),
Constraint primary key (LINE_ITEM_ID, ORDER_ID),
Constraint foreign key ORDER_ID REFERENCES
CURR_ORDER(ORDER_ID),
Constraint foreign key PRODUCT_ID REFERENCES
PRODUCT(PRODUCT_ID));

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 You must display the order number, line item number, product
identification number, and quantity
of each item where the quantity ranges from 10 through 100. The order
numbers must be in the
range of 1500 through 1575. The results must be sorted by order number
from lowest to highest
and then further sorted by quantity from highest to lowest.

Which statement should you use to display the desired result?

1. SELECT order_id, line_item_id, product_id, quantity
FROM line_item
WHERE quantity BETWEEN 9 AND 101 AND order_id BETWEEN 1500 AND
1575
ORDER BY order_id DESC, quantity DESC;

2. SELECT order_id, line_item_id, product_id, quantity

FROM line_item
WHERE (quantity > 10 AND quantity < 100) AND order_id BETWEEN 1500
AND 1575
ORDER BY order_id ASC, quantity;

3. SELECT order_id, line_item_id, product_id, quantity

FROM line_item
WHERE (quantity > 9 OR quantity < 101) AND order_id BETWEEN 1500
AND 1575
ORDER BY order_id, quantity;

4. SELECT order_id, line_item_id, product_id, quantity

FROM line_item
WHERE quantity BETWEEN 10 AND 100 AND order_id BETWEEN 1500
AND 1575
ORDER BY order_id, quantity DESC;

Question: 30
The ITEM table contains these columns:
ITEM_ID NUMBER(9)
COST NUMBER(7,2)
RETAIL NUMBER(7,2)
You need to create a report that displays the cost, the retail price, and the
profit for item number
783920. To calculate the profit, subtract the cost of the item from its retail
price, and then deduct
an administrative fee of 25 percent of this derived value.

Which SELECT statement produces the desired results?

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 1. SELECT cost, retail, (retail - cost) - ((retail - cost) * .25) "Profit" FROM item
WHERE item_id = 783920;

2. SELECT cost, retail, (retail - cost) - retail - (cost * .25) "Profit" FROM item
WHERE item_id = 783920;

3. SELECT cost, retail, (retail - cost - retail - cost) * .25 "Profit" FROM item
WHERE item_id = 783920;

4. SELECT cost, retail, retail - cost - retail - cost * .25 "Profit" FROM item
WHERE item_id = 783920;

Question: 31

The ITEM table contains these columns:

ITEM_ID NUMBER(9)
COST NUMBER(7,2)
RETAIL NUMBER(7,2)
The RETAIL and COST columns contain values greater than zero.
Evaluate these two SQL statements:
1. SELECT item_id, (retail * 1.25) + 5.00 - (cost * 1.10) - (cost * .10) AS
Calculated Profit
FROM item;
2. SELECT item_id, retail * 1.25 + 5.00 - cost * 1.10 - cost * .10 "Calculated
Profit"
FROM item;
What will be the result?
1. Statement 1 will display the 'Calculated Profit' column heading.
2. Statement 1 and statement 2 will return the same value.
3. Statement 1 will return a higher value than statement 2.
4. One of the statements will NOT execute.

Question: 32
The EMP table contains these columns:
LAST NAME VARCHAR2(25)
SALARY NUMBER(6,2)
DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER(6)

You need to display the employees who have not been assigned to any
department.
You write the SELECT statement:
SELECT LAST_NAME, SALARY, DEPARTMENT_ID FROM EMP
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = NULL;

What is true about this SQL statement?

1. The SQL statement displays the desired results.
2. The column in the WHERE clause should be changed to display the
desired results.

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 3. The operator in the WHERE clause should be changed to display the
desired results.
4. The WHERE clause should be changed to use an outer join to display the
desired results.

Question: 33

Which two statements are true about WHERE and HAVING clauses?
1. A WHERE clause can be used to restrict both rows and groups.
2. A WHERE clause can be used to restrict rows only.
3. A HAVING clause can be used to restrict both rows and groups.
4. A HAVING clause can be used to restrict groups only.
5. A WHERE clause CANNOT be used in a query of the query uses a HAVING
clause.
6. A HAVING clause CANNOT be used in subqueries.

Question: 34
You are sorting data in a table in you SELECT statement in descending
order. The column you
are sorting on contains NULL records, where will the NULL record appears?
1. At the beginning of the list.
2. At the end of the list.
3. In the middle of the list.
4. At the same location they are listed in the unordered table.

Question: 35

The ACCOUNT table contains these columns:

ACCOUNT_ID NUMBER(12)
PREVIOUS_BALANCE NUMBER(7,2)
PAYMENTS NUMBER(7,2)
NEW_PURCHASES NUMBER(7,2)
CREDIT_LIMIT NUMBER(7)

You need to display the account number, finance charge, and current
balance for accounts 1500
through 2000 with a current balance greater than the account's credit limit.
The finance charge is .9 percent (.009) of the previous balance. Adding the
previous balance
value, new purchases value, and finance charge value, and then subtracting
the payments value yields the current balance value.

Evaluate this statement:

SELECT account_id, NVL(previous_balance, 0) * .009 finance_charge,

NVL(new_purchases, 0) + (NVL(previous_balance, 0) * 1.009) -
NVL(payments, 0)

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 current balance FROM account WHERE (new_purchases +
(previous_balance * 1.009)) - payments > credit_limit AND account_id
BETWEEN 1500 AND 2000;

Which statement about this SELECT statement is true?

1. The statement calculates the finance charge incorrectly.
2. The statement calculates the current balance incorrectly.
3. The statement returns only accounts that have NO previous balance.
4. The statement returns only accounts that have new purchases, previous
balance, and
payments values.

Question: 36

Examine the description of the EMPLOYEES table:

EMP_ID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(30)
DEPT_ID NUMBER(2)
JOB_CAT VARCHARD2(30)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
Which statement shows the maximum salary paid in each job category of
each department?

1. SELECT dept_id, job_cat, MAX(salary)

FROM employees
WHERE salary > MAX(salary);

2. SELECT dept_id, job_cat, MAX(salary)

FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id, job_cat;

3. SELECT dept_id, job_cat, MAX(salary)

FROM employees;

4. SELECT dept_id, job_cat, MAX(salary)

FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id;

5. SELECT dept_id, job_cat, MAX(salary)

FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id, job_cat, salary;

Question: 37

Management has asked you to calculate the value 12*salary* comossion_pct

for all the
employees in the EMP table. The EMP table contains these columns:

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 LAST NAME VARCNAR2(35) NOT NULL
SALARY NUMBER(9,2) NOT NULL
COMMISION_PCT NUMBER(4,2)
Which statement ensures that a value is displayed in the calculated
columns for all employees?
1. SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commison_pct FROM emp;
2. SELECT last_name, 12*salary* (commission_pct,0) FROM emp;
3. SELECT last_name, 12*salary*(nvl(commission_pct,0)) FROM emp;
4. SELECT last_name, 12*salary*(decode(commission_pct,0)) FROM emp;

Question: 38

Examine the description of the STUDENTS table:

STD_ID NUMBER(4)
COURSE_ID VARCHARD2(10)
START_DATE DATE
END_DATE DATE.
Which two aggregate functions are valid on the START_DATE column?
1. SUM(start_date)
2. AVG(start_date)
3. COUNT(start_date)
4. AVG(start_date, end_date)
5. MIN(start_date)
6. MAXIMUM(start_date)

Question: 39

The EMPLOYEE tables has these columns:

LAST_NAME VARCNAR2(35)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
COMMISSION_PCT NUMBER(5,2)
You want to display the name and annual salary multiplied by the
commission_pct for all
employees. For records that have a NULL commission_pct, a zero must be
displayed against the
calculated column. Which SQL statement displays the desired results?

1. SELECT last_name, (salary * 12) * commission_pct FROM EMPLOYEES;

2. SELECT last_name, (salary * 12) * IFNULL(commission_pct,0) FROM
EMPLOYEES;
3. SELECT last_name, (salary * 12) * NVL2(commission_pct, 0) FROM
EMPLOYEES;
4. SELECT last_name, (salary * 12) * NVL(commission_pct, 0) FROM
EMPLOYEES;

Question: 40

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 You would like to display the system date in the format "Monday, 01 June,
2001".
Which SELECT statement should you use?

1. SELECT TO_DATE(SYSDATE, 'FMDAY, DD Month, YYYY') FROM dual;

2. SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'FMDD, DY Month, 'YYY') FROM dual;
3. SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'FMDay, DD Month, YYYY') FROM dual;
4. SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'FMDY, DDD Month, YYYY')
5. SELECT TO_DATE(SYSDATE, 'FMDY, DDD Month, YYYY') FROM dual;

Question: 41
Evaluate the SQL statement:
SELECT ROUND(TRUNC(MOD(1600,10),-1),2)
FROM dual;
What will be displayed?
1. 0
2. 1
3. 0.00
4. An error statement

Question: 42
Examine the description of the MARKS table:
STD_ID NUMBER(4)
STUDENT_NAME VARCHAR2(30)
SUBJ1 NUMBER(3)
SUBJ2 NUMBER(3)
SUBJ1 and SUBJ2 indicate the marks obtained by a student in two
subjects.
Examine this SELECT statement based on the MARKS table:
SELECT subj1+subj2 total_marks, std_id
FROM marks
WHERE subj1 > AVG(subj1) AND subj2 > AVG(subj2)
ORDER BY total marks;

What is the result of the SELECT statement?

1. The statement executes successfully and returns the student ID and sum
of all marks for
each student who obtained more than the average mark in each subject.
2. The statement returns an error at the SELECT clause.
3. The statement returns an error at the WHERE clause.
4. The statement returns an error at the ORDER BY clause.

Question: 43

Which three SELECT statements displays 2000 in the format “$2,000.00”?

1. SELECT TO_CHAR (2000, ‘$#,###.##’) FROM dual;
2. SELECT TO_CHAR (2000, ‘$0,000.00’) FROM dual;
3. SELECT TO_CHAR (2000, ‘$9,999.00’) FROM dual;
4. SELECT TO_CHAR (2000, ‘$9,999.99’) FROM dual;

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 5. SELECT TO_CHAR (2000, ‘$2,000.00’) FROM dual;
6. SELECT TO_CHAR (2000, ‘$N,NNN.NN ’) FROM dual;

Question: 44

Examine the description of the EMPLOYEES table:

EMP_ID NUMBER(4) NOT NULL
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(30).
DEPT_ID NUMBER(2)
JOB_CAT VARCHAR2(30)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)

Which statement shows the department ID, minimum salary, and maximum
salary paid in that
department, only of the minimum salary is less then 5000 and the
maximum salary is more than
15000?
1. SELECT dept_id, MIN(salary(, MAX(salary)
FROM employees
WHERE MIN(salary) < 5000 AND MAX(salary) > 15000;

2. SELECT dept_id, MIN(salary), MAX(salary)

FROM employees
WHERE MIN(salary) < 5000 AND MAX(salary) > 15000
GROUP BY dept_id;

3. SELECT dept_id, MIN(salary), MAX(salary)

FROM employees
HAVING MIN(salary) < 5000 AND MAX(salary) > 15000;

4. SELECT dept_id, MIN(salary), MAX(salary)

FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id
HAVING MIN(salary) < 5000 AND MAX(salary) > 15000;

5. SELECT dept_id, MIN(salary), MAX(salary)

FROM employees
GROUP BY dept_id, salary
HAVING MIN(salary) < 5000 AND MAX(salary) > 15000;

Question: 45

Which two are true about aggregate functions?

1. You can use aggregate functions in any clause of a SELECT statement.

2. You can use aggregate functions only in the column list of the SELECT
clause and in the

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 WHERE clause of a SELECT statement.
3. You can mix single row columns with aggregate functions in the column
list of a SELECT
statement by grouping on the single row columns.
4. You can pass column names, expressions, constants, or functions as
parameters to an
aggregate function.
5. You can use aggregate functions on a table, only by grouping the whole
table as one single
group.
6. You cannot group the rows of a table by more than one column while
using aggregate
functions.

Question: 46

Which four statements correctly describe functions that are available in

SQL?

1. INSTR returns the numeric position of a named character.

2. NVL2 returns the first non-null expression in the expression list.
3. TRUNCATE rounds the column, expression, or value to n decimal places.
4. DECODE translates an expression after comparing it to each search
value.
5. TRIM trims the heading of trailing characters (or both) from a character
string.
6. NVL compares two expressions and returns null if they are equal, or the
first expression of
they are not equal.
7. NULLIF compares two expressions and returns null if they are equal, or
the first expression if
they are not equal.

Question: 47

Examine the structures of the PATIENT, PHYSICIAN, and ADMISSION

tables.
PATIENT Table
PATIENT_ID NUMBER Primary Key
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2 (30)
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2 (25)
DOB DATE
INS_CODE NUMBER

PHYSICIAN Table
PHYSICIAN _ID NUMBER Primary Key
LAST_NAME VARCHAR2 (30) NOT NULL
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2 (25) NOT NULL
LICENSE_NO NUMBER (7) NOT NULL

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 HIRE_DTAE DATE

ADMISSION Table
PATIENT_ID NUMBER NOT NULL, Primary Key, References PATIENT_ID
column of
the PATIENT table
PHYSICIAN_ID NUMBER NOT NULL, Primary Key, References
PHYSICIAN_ID column
of the PHYSICIA table
ADMIT_DATE DATE
DISCHG_DATE DATE
ROOM_ID NUMBER Foreign key to ROOM_ID of the ROOM table

Which SQL statement will produce a list of all patients who have more than
one physician?

1. SELECT p.patient_id FROM patient p WHERE p.patient_id IN (SELECT

patient_id
FROM admission GROUP BY patient_id HAVING COUNT(*) > 1);
2. SELECT DISTINCT a.patient_id FROM admission a, admission a2 WHERE
a.patient_id = a2.patient_id AND a.physician_id <> a2.physician_id;

3. SELECT patient_id FROM admission WHERE COUNT(physician_id) > 1;

4. SELECT patient_id FROM patient FULL OUTER JOIN physician;

Question: 48

Which clause should you use to exclude group results?

1. WHERE
2. HAVING
3. RESTRICT
4. GROUP BY
5. ORDER BY

Question: 49

In a SELECT statement that includes a WHERE clause, where is the GROUP

BY clause placed
in the SELECT statement?
1. Immediately after the SELECT clause
2. Before the WHERE clause
3. Before the FROM clause

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 4. After the ORDER BY clause
5. After the WHERE clause

Question: 50
Which two are character manipulation functions?
1. TRIM
2. REPLACE
3. TRUNC
4. TO_DATE
5. MOD
6. CASE

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