COM 111

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Notes/Handbook

1 – HANDBOOK/NOTES COMPILED BY M B M
Contents

1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
In this section, we shall examine the field of communication to serve as a foundation to what follows in the
course. Principally, we shall define communication; outline its elements, principles, and its importance in
academic and life in general. We shall also briefly examine the various types of communication.

1.1 Objectives of the topic

At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Define communication
b) Discuss the elements that constitute communication
c) Explain the importance of communication in academics and in life in general
d) Outline the important principles of communication
e) Discuss the various types of communication

1.2 What is Communication?

The term communication comes from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means to make common or share.
Therefore, communication is a process by which meaning is exchanged between individuals or an
individual and a group through a common system of symbols, signs, and behavior.
 The definition of communication is shared in the Webster's Dictionary as "sending, giving, or
exchanging information and ideas," which is often expressed nonverbally and verbally.
 A plethora of authors have defined communication including Gamble and Gamble, who define
communication as a desirable or accidental transfer of meaning.
 Communication is also a process of sharing or exchanging ideas, information, knowledge, attitude or
feelings through certain signs, symbols and behavior.
 Communication is more than transfer of ideas and thoughts; it is a dynamic process of action and
interaction towards desired goals.

1.2.1 Key phrases of definition

a) Communication is a process: it is an activity which is an exchange of meaning that is dynamic.
Communication is therefore not static. Communication as a process is a concept whose critical
element is the changing nature of its occurrence.
b) Communication involves meaning: Meaning is shared understanding of message. The
understanding of the meaning of another person’s message only occurs when you elicit common
meanings for words, phrases, and non-verbal messages.
c) Communication is a system of symbols, signs and behavior: the system may be in form of
language, gesture, demeanor, facial expressions etc.

1.3 Importance of Studying Communication

Communication is central to human life. You cannot avoid communication and you will engage in
communication nearly every minute of every day in your life. In addition, communication plays a major
role in every aspect of your life. Effective communication therefore both enhances your daily life and at the
same time solves problems in your professional and personal life. Communication experts believe that poor
communication is at the root of many of our problems.

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Therefore, there are various reasons why studying communication is important:
a) Studying communication helps in understanding and insight of oneself and others.
 Self-awareness is the way we see ourselves. Most of our self-knowledge comes from
communication with ourselves (intrapersonal communication) and communication with
other people (interpersonal communication). The message and feedback we receive from
others helps improve our self-concept.
b) Studying communication and using it effectively can lead to more positive feelings of ourselves.
Effective communication can improve our self-worth by enabling us to positively project ourselves in
what is called image management.
c) Studying communication can increase our knowledge about human relationships because studying
communication includes learning about how people relate with one another and about what
communication is appropriate for a given situation.
d) Studying communication can teach us important life skills. For instance, it can help us acquire
problem solving skills. Studying communication is also instrumental in helping us acquire important
life skills such as decision-making skills, public speaking etc. All these skills are important in academic
and career development.
e) Studying communication can help us succeed professionally. Employers regard highly written, oral,
and other communication competencies. The ability to listen and analyze messages is usually
considered an essential professional skill. Entrepreneurs too regard communication skills as top
priority skills for success.
f) Poor communication may lead to misunderstanding, frustration, being ignored by others,
unsuccessful careers, among many other negative consequences.

1.4 Elements of Communication

Elements of communication are the components that constitute the communication process. These are:
a) People
These are the participants in the communication process. People are involved in communication in two
roles. They are sources and receivers of messages. Sources initiate/compose the intended message.
S/he encodes the message, while receivers are the intended target of messages, i.e., a receiver is the
person who receives, decodes, comprehends and attaches meaning to the message sent. The
participants’ knowledge, interest and emotional state will affect how the message is sent or received. In
the communication process, people are sources and receivers of a message simultaneously and
continually.
b) Message
This is the verbal or non-verbal form of idea, thought or feeling that one person (source) wishes to
communicate to a group of people (receivers). The message, therefore, is the content of interaction.
A message may be easy to understand or long and complex, it may also be intentional or un-
intentional.
c) Channel
This is how a message moves from a source to a receiver. It is also called the medium of
transmission. The medium may be in form of sound waves (in oral-auditory messages) or as light
waves (in visual communication such as written communication).
d) Feedback
This is the receiver’s verbal, non-verbal or written response to the message from the source.
Feedback is part of any communication situation such that even non-response is feedback.
e) Code
This is the systematic arrangement of symbols used by the source or receiver to create meaning in
the mind of another person(s) or receiver(s). The code may be in form of
i) Language you choose to communicate in e.g., English, Kiswahili or Sheng.
ii) Grammatical structure, for instance, a statement, question etc.
iii) Words and phrases you choose to use.
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 iv) Non-verbal codes you may choose.
f) Encoding and decoding
Encoding is the act of putting ideas and thoughts into a code, while decoding is interpreting/making
sense those ideas or thoughts.

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 g) Noise
Noise is any interference in encoding or decoding process that reduces the clarity of a message.
Noise can be in the form of:
i) Physical noise, which can be in form of distracting sounds or sights. Such noise is usually easier
to prevent in a speaking or listening situation. For example, closing doors to a noisy room,
wearing ear plugs etc.
ii) Psychological/noise, mental and emotional interferences that distract communication, such as
daydreaming, pain, hunger and the like.
iii) Semantic noise, which is the use of expressions that are unknown to the receiver or are too
complex in grammatical structure. They include language differences, inattention and
misunderstanding caused by different interpretations of a word or an expression. Cultural
diversity can also lead to semantic noise.

1.5 Principles of communication

There are important properties of communication that we need to keep in mind as we study and employ
communication. The properties constitute the invaluable attributes of communication:
a) Communication is inescapable: communication is always occurring in human life at various levels, for
instance, at the intra-personal level when you are thinking, planning, meditating, as well as when you
are observing, gathering information, and making conclusions. It also occurs at the interpersonal level
as you interact with one another.
b) Communication is irreversible: you cannot take back something once it is communicated. Even if you
can, what has been communicated cannot entirely be erased. Traces of the effect of the
communication will always remain.
c) Communication is dynamic: all elements in communication (i.e., setting, participants, their
knowledge, their roles etc.) affect each other as communication progresses.
d) Every communication interaction has a content dimension and relationship dimension: Content
dimension is the information or message that a source desires to communicate, which must be
packaged in a strategic manner to elicit a desired reaction. The relationship dimension of
communication constitutes the elements in the communication that seek to signal and acknowledge
the state of the social relation between the communicating parties. The relationship dimension ‘oils’
the attainment of communication goals. For instance, if you lecturer entered the lecturer room with
unzipped trousers and you wanted to alert him to this fact, you will not just blurt out to him the
content of what you want to say to him! You will need to do a lot of damage control about the
awkward situation, while at the same time recognizing his superior position in relation to you as a
student. Just think of the exact kind of language you would use and point out the content and
relationship dimension of what you will say.
e) Communication is contextual: communication does not occur in a vacuum. It involves various
aspects of context in communication. The context of communication is the environment in which
communication takes place. The context of communication involves:
i) Psychological context: that is the needs, desires, values, personality, and so on that people
communicate and bring to the communication activity.
ii) Situational context: this involves the place and time of communication, which affects what and
how we communicate.
iii) Environmental context: this involves the physical features of the communication setting, such
as, noise level, cultural context, objects available in setting etc.
f) Communication is complicated: Communication is complicated in several respects. For instance:
i) It involves choice about multiple aspects of message i.e., we must make verbal and code
choices, as well as non-verbal behavioral aspects to be used in communication. We also must

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 make choices of channel, and all these aspects must be combined strategically to pass across a
unified message.
ii) Communication is also complicated because of our differing perception of the same object that
we may wish to communicate about.

1.6 Types of Communication

Communication can be categorized in three ways.
a) By the number of people involved in the communication process.
b) By the channel or medium used in the communication process.
c) By direction of flow.
a) Communication categorized by number of peopled involved:
i) Intrapersonal communication: this is the process of sharing meaning within oneself in the
mind, which involves such activities as reflection, problem solving, planning, and solving
internal conflict among others. This is a continuous process we always engage in but rarely
realize we are involved in it.
ii) Inter-personal communication: this involves exchanging meaning between at least two
people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.
Interpersonal communication can be of two types:
 Dyadic communication: involves two people in communication such as a doctor and
a patient, a lecturer and a student.
 Small group communication involves three to ten people such communication
includes that which takes place in families and work groups.
iii) Public communication: it involves one person communicating to a large group of people.
iv) Mass communication: this is communication mediated via a technological transmission
system involving a source (professional communicator often representing an organization),
and many unseen receivers spread over a wide geographical area. The transmission system
might be in the form of electronic, audio, audio-visual signal or visual technologies such as
publication in form of books or newspapers.

b) Communication Categorized by Channel or Medium

Communications creates links between people for different functions or purposes. If several links are
missing, broken or not aligned properly, the communication becomes wobbly and may eventually
break. The following are communication situations that represent a different flow of communication
depending on the purpose:

i) Verbal communication: this type of communication relies on the oral-auditory signal for
communication.
ii) Graphic communication: this communication is also known as visual communication. It involves
visual representation of ideas facts and objects other than written communication e.g., cartoons,
graphs, charts, models, objects etc.
iii) Written communication: this is the use of visual symbols, representing language, on a surface
which is read by receivers.
iv) Non-verbal communication: this is the use of visual or oral auditory signals that do not primarily
rely on language or verbalized message for communication to take place.
The term verbal communication is often used broadly to capture all spoken and written forms of
communication, and used in opposition to non-verbal
Non-verbal communication may sometimes contradict and override verbal messages.

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 Non-verbal communication can be used effectively to reinforce one’s verbal message, to express
emotions and attitudes, and to express one’s personality

1.6.1 Categories of non-verbal communication

Paralanguage

Haptics

Kinesics

Olfactics

Chronemics

Proxemics

1.6.2 Communication according to direction of flow

Communications creates links between people for different functions or purposes. If several links are
missing, broken or not aligned properly, the communication becomes wobbly and may eventually break.
The following are communication situations that represent a different flow of communication depending
on the purpose:

i) Upward communication

This is communicating with people who rank above you, such as your boss or instructor.

ii) Lateral or horizontal communication

This is communicating with people who are at the same rank or level as you – your co-workers or
classmates.
iii) Downward communication
This is communicating with people who rank below you, such as the people you might manage at
work.
iv) Internal communication
This is a communication situation that takes place in a company or an organization. Internal
communication is the transmittal of information between and among persons within a business or
organization. It is used to accomplish company goals and objectives. For example, managers
communicating deadline on assignments or employees seeking promotions.
v) External communication
This is the transfer of information to and from people outside the company or organization. The
goal is to persuade the recipients to respond favorably to company needs. For example, a job
advert tries to attract qualified personnel to fill a certain position.
vi) Cross-cultural communication
This refers to communicating, either in writing, verbally or non-verbally, with people who are from
a culture different from your own. This calls for an understanding and respect of cultural
differences and being adaptable.

vii) Grapevine communication

This refers to informal communication within a company/organization, where information spread
bypasses the formal communication structure. It spreads in random ways, irrespective of the
authority levels.

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NOTE: The direction your communication flows at any given time will influence how you communicate –
the words you use and the method you choose.

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1.6.3 7 Cs’ of Communication

Effective communication must apply the following 7 essentials, whether you are speaking or writing. Using
these 7Cs will ensure that your communication is coherent and easy to follow.

1. Clarity

This refers to being specific rather than vague while communicating.

You must communicate so clearly that you cannot be misunderstood, i.e. it is not enough to communicate
so you can be understood.

Ask the following key questions to test how clear your communication is:

 Have you used familiar words, short sentences?

 Have you presented only one idea in each sentence?
 Have you avoided "business" and technical terms?
 Have you used the reader's language?

2. Completeness

Complete communication includes enough details so that the recipient will not need to ask for more
information. For example – if you receive a message from your lecturer asking you to pick your graded
papers on Wednesday, how do you know which Wednesday it should be?

To be complete, a communication should answer the following questions: Who? What? Where? When?
Why? How? or How much?

Ask the following key questions to test how complete your communication is:

 Have you given all the facts?

 Have you covered the essentials?
 Have you answered all his/her questions?
 Did you PLAN what you said?
3. Conciseness

1.6.2.1 Concise communication avoids unnecessary words that could hamper the same communication.
Such extra words may clutter the message and distort it all together. Conciseness makes the
message more understandable and comprehensible.

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For conciseness:

 Eliminate wordy expressions

 Include only relevant material
 Avoid unnecessary repetition

Look at the following examples:

WORDY CONCISE
Due to the fact that Because
In due course Soon
At this time Now
Few in number Few
On a weekly basis Weekly
In spite of the fact that Although
Until such time as Until
Meet together Meet

In-class exercise:

Revise the following statement, which is too wordy and eliminate seven unnecessary words (‘fillers’).

“I am writing this letter to inform you that your airline tickets will be mailed ten days before your scheduled
departure”.

4. Consistency

All communication should be consistent in FACT, TREATEMENT and SEQUENCE.

Consistency in fact refers to agreement with a source document or an established fact. For example, an
exam scheduled for 31st April should be questioned since April has only 30 days.

Consistency in treatment means treating similar items the same way. For example using the courtesy title
(Mr., Mrs., Miss., or Ms.) with names of all recipients of a letter or indenting all paragraphs in a report.

Consistency in sequence refers to the arrangement of listings such as alphabetical, chronological or

numerical order. For example, if an exam is scheduled for 3days, the dates should be given in chronological
order: June 14, June 15 and June 16.

5. Correctness

This refers to all the information in the message being accurate – the content, the spelling, the
capitalization and the punctuation. The following guidelines can ensure your communication achieves
correctness:

 Use the correct level of language

 Check accuracy of figures, facts and words

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  Maintain acceptable writing mechanics

 There should be proper grammar, punctuation, spelling and paragraphing

Ask the following questions to test for correctness:

 Have you checked all facts for correctness?

 Have you spelled the reader's name correctly?
 Have you verified all numbers and amounts?
 Is the appearance of the letter effective? Is it clean, well-spaced?
 Have you checked your spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc.?

6. Consideration

This refers to the use of the ‘You-attitude’ instead of the ‘I’ or ‘We-attitude’. Consideration applies
sympathy, the human touch and understanding of human nature. It means the message is sent with the
receiver in mind. You should try to visualize your readers; their desires, problems, emotions, circumstances
and possible reaction to your communication.

The following actions can ensure that your communication is considerate:

 Focus on ‘You-attitude’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’

 Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver
 Emphasize positive pleasant facts

Look at the following examples:

NEGATIVE EMOTION/EXPRESSION TRANSFORMS INTO

Anxious A little concerned, expectant
Confused Curious
Destroyed Set back
Disgusted Surprised
Failure Learning
I hate I prefer
Insulted Misunderstood
Lost Searching
Painful Uncomfortable
Stressed Busy

GOOD WORD GREAT WORD

Attractive Gorgeous
Confident Unstoppable
Curious Fascinated
Fast Ballistic
Fortunate Blessed
Interesting Captivating
Like Relish
Nice Fantastic
Quick Explosive

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Smart Gifted

Ask the following questions to test your communication for consideration:

 Have you put the client first?

 Have you floodlighted his/her interests?
 Have you walked in his/her moccasins?
 Have you talked his/her language?

7. Courtesy

This always refers to the building of goodwill.

 Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and appreciative

 Use expressions that show respect
 Choose non-discriminatory expressions

Ask the following questions to test your communication for courtesy:

 Will it win good will?

 Have you used positive, "pleasant-toned" words?
 Have you used "I appreciate," "please", and "thank you" somewhere in your message?
 Would you enjoy reading what you have said?

NOTE: Concreteness: (sometimes used in the place of consistency – either one of them is ok.)

This refers to when communication is specific definite unambiguous and vivid rather than vague and
general. The following guidelines lead to concreteness.

1. Use specific facts and figures

2. Put action in your verb

3. Choose vivid image building words.

Ask the following questions to test your communication for concreteness:

 Have you given the crisp details the client needs?

 Have you made the details razor and needle-sharp?

 Have you flashed word pictures, made facts vivid?

The chief art in communication is to know:

1. How much to put in.

2. What to leave out.

3. When to quit.

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 1.7 The objectives of communication
Whether we are speaking, writing, persuading, informing, entertaining, explaining, convincing, educating or
any other objective behind the communication, we always have four general objectives:

 To be received (heard or read)

 To be understood
 To be accepted
 To get action (change behavior or attitude)

1.8 Specific barriers to communication

Human communication is fraught with problems and difficulties such as:

1. Differences in opinion

Our worldviews are largely determined by our past experiences. As vast as these experiences are, so are
the perceptions and interpretations of the world that people have. Age, nationality, culture, education,
occupation, sex, status, personality etc, all bring to bear the difference in perception.

2. Jumping to conclusions

We often see what we expect to see, thus hear what we expect to hear, rather than what is intended. This
may lead us to unnecessary conclusions.

3. Stereotyping

Our experiences could run us the risk of treating different people as if they were the same.

4. Lack of knowledge

Communication is adversely affected if it is exchanged between persons whose knowledge of the subject is
varied or whose backgrounds regarding the subject are too different.

It requires skill on the part of the communicator to be aware of the discrepancy between the levels of
knowledge, thus communicate accordingly.

5. Lack of interest

This is lacking alertness to the message being sent. As an effective communicator, you should avoid
assuming that your interest in the specific subject is everyone’s interest, thus angle your message to appeal
to the interests and needs of the receiver.

6. Difficulties with expression

This refers to difficulty expressing or conveying your message as clearly as possible. It includes lack of
vocabulary as well as lack of confidence, both of which can be overcome by improving your vocabulary and
preparing carefully respectively.

7. Emotions

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Both the receiver and communicator could harbor strongly felt emotions that could prevent almost
anything from being communicated. Such emotions could entirely distort the communication and should
be avoided.

However, any audience knows that a speaker without emotion and enthusiasm is likely to be a dull speaker.
Emotion just needs a clear balance.

8. Personality

Our personality traits/behaviors can affect the behavior of others in a communication situation. We may
not be able to change the personalities of others, but at least we should be prepared to consider our own
personality to see if change in behavior may result in more satisfactory relationships, thus better
communication.

2 LISTENING AND CRITICAL THINKING

2.1 Introduction
In this section, we are interested in discussing listening as an invaluable skill in the communication process.
We shall also endeavor to show how listening is connected to critical thinking.

2.2 Objectives of the topic

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Distinguish between hearing and listening
b) Outline the importance of listening in our lives
c) Explain the essential aspects in the listening process
d) Discuss the various types of listening
e) Demonstrate knowledge of effective listening strategies

2.3 Definition of Listening

Hearing is the act of receiving sound. Listening is the act of receiving sound, constructing meaning and
responding to the spoken message. Listening also involves the ability to retain information as well as react
emphatically to the spoken message.

2.4 Importance of Listening in our lives

a) Listening is an essential task for effective communicators. We actually do spend the largest part of
our time listening, for instance it has been observed that college students spend up to 50% of their
time listening.
b) Listening helps us build and maintain relationship. Part of our ability to build and retain
relationships involves our ability to understand and respond empathetically to messages from
others.
c) Listening can help us determine whether people we are communicating with are honest or
deceitful.
d) Listening is an essential skill for success in academics and business world.
e) Listening is directly linked to our ability to remember information.

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 2.5 The Listening Process
The listening process involves receiving oral stimuli (music, words or sounds) in the ear ( Hearing). The ear
translates the vibration from oral stimuli into sensation that is registered by the brain (Listening). The brain,
using attention and working memory, interprets the sensation and gives it meaning ( Interpretation). The
interpreted message is then stored in short term memory for immediate use ( Retaining) or long term
memory for future recall (Recalling).

2.5.1 Important aspects of the Listening Process

a) Attention – At any one time there are many oral-auditory stimuli such that our mind must focus on
specific stimuli and block others. This process is called attention. Attention is selective or
automatic.
i) Selective attention – This is sustained focus we give to information we deem important.
Selective attention can be obstructed by our mind’s instinct to pay automatic attention to
certain stimuli.
ii) Automatic attention – this is instinctive focus we give to stimuli signaling a change in our
surrounding. We give automatic attention to stimuli that we deem important or that which we
perceive to signal danger. Automatic attention, therefore, competes with selective attention.
b) Working memory – This is the part of our consciousness that interprets and assigns meaning to
stimuli we pay attention to. We may use it without ‘thinking’ about it. It looks for shortcuts when
processing information e.g. patterns of letters or words in assigning meanings. The working
memory works in conjunction with the long term memory.
c) Short term memory – Once information is interpreted in working memory it is either sent to the
short term or the long term memory. The short term memory is part of the memory that acts as a
temporary storage place for information. The information stored in short term memory is that
which we want to use immediately but not necessarily in future. It is the least efficient of our
memory resources because information stored here is easily forgotten unless some strategy like
rehearsal is used. Unfortunately most people, students included, rely on short term memory for
information that deserves to be recalled in the long term.
d) Long term memory – This is the permanent storage place for information including past
experiences, language, values, knowledge, images of people, memories of sights, sounds, smells
and even fantasies. Unlike short term memory, long term memory has no known limitation on the
quantity or duration of stored information. Long term memory is organized in schema, which are
organizational filling systems for thoughts held in long term memory. We access such information
through stimulus cues that constitute words, images, sights, smells or tastes that serve as triggers,
which signal the mind to activate information held in schema. If we encounter information for first
time, which is not in the long-term memory, a new schema will be created, and this information
stored. The long-term memory plays a key role in the listening process because it is instrumental in
recalling stored information and helps in creating meaning between what we hear and our
background knowledge.

2.6 Types of Listening

There are various types of listening, which can be used for various purposes either independently or in
combination. These are:
a) Active listening – It involves listening with a purpose and comprises:
i) Listening carefully using all our available senses.
ii) Paraphrasing what we hear both mentally and verbally.
iii) Checking our understanding to ensure accuracy.
iv) Providing feedback positively or negatively.
b) Empathetic listening – It is a form of active listening where we attempt to understand the other
person by perceiving their world view as if it is our own. It is putting we in the shoes of another
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 person to feel and understand what the person is going through. This kind is very useful in
sustaining relationships, counseling process, resolving disputes, as well as dealing with traumatic
situations.
c) Critical listening – This is listening those analyses, evaluates, critiques or challenges a speaker’s
message by evaluating its accuracy, meaningfulness and utility. This goes hand in hand with critical
thinking and it involves asking question such as:
i) Is the speaker’s message possible? Is it realistic?
ii) Does the speaker back up his or her claims? Are these claims reliable?
iii) Is the speaker credible or an authority?
iv) Is the message free of contradiction and inconsistencies?
Critical listening is very useful when we are confronted with persuasive messages such as
advertisements, political communications, propaganda and the like.
d) Listening for enjoyment – This type of listening helps us to relax like when we enjoy listening to, for
instance, music.
e) Reflective listening

This refers to attentively listening to the speaker’s actual words, as well as tone of voice, and observing
the body language and emotions displayed. Reflective listening is particularly an important tool in one-
on-one situations. It is not practical in a speaker-audience situation.

f) Passive listening
This means concentrating at a low level and absorbing just enough of the speaker’s words to stay involved
in a conversation or speech. Such listening is characterized by:

- Listeners remembering little of what is said

- Listeners let the speaker’s inflection or tone of voice signal when they should react by nodding,
smiling or saying, “I see”
- Listeners may suggest that the speaker has the listener’s attention, even though that may not be
the case
- It is appropriate when you listen for pleasure and when it doesn’t matter whether you retain what
you hear.

2.7 Effective Listening Strategies

Effective listening is a life-long skill that is of paramount importance in academic life. There are various
ways of improving listening skills that can make your life in academics and beyond very fruitful. Strategies
that improve your listening skills include:
a) Listen and think critically – This involves analyzing the speaker, the situation and the message in
order to make critical judgment about messages being presented.
b) Identifying and understanding barriers to the listening process and genuinely working towards
eliminating them. Such barriers may include noise of various types, which should be eliminated in
the listening process.
c) Identifying patterns in what we are listening to – Understanding the overall message, its main
points and the supporting points is essential in having a graphical impression of messages and is an
important aid in the recall process.
d) Applying memory retention skills such as:
i) Rehearsing and rephrasing what we listen to.
ii) Using mnemonic devices (using a series of letters forming a meaningful or pronounceable
word where each letter stands for a particular concept, idea or point for easy recall).

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 2.8 Improving Listening skills
Listening behavior also varies from culture to culture. For instance, African listeners may look away from
you instead of maintaining eye contact, while Japanese listeners often close their eyes when they are
concentrating.

However, even such cultural orientations are not an excuse to effective listening.

You can us these five strategies to enhance, reinforce and develop your listening skills:

 Read to gain background information

 Repeat a person’s name when you are introduced to someone
 Ask questions to clarify information
 Take good notes
 Use a tape recorder, when permitted, to record a lecture or a meeting

Good listening skills enable you:

 To absorb an instructor’s lectures, explanations and directions for assignments

 Understand what the speaker is saying
 Combined with note-taking, listening skills enable you record information and review it at a later
time

2.8.1 Overcoming listening barriers

Becoming an effective listener requires conscious effort and practice.

Listening barriers are any distractions that interfere with listening, for example:

 Not concentrating on what is being said

 Being distracted by noise
 Talking instead of listening
 Having preconceived thoughts and opinions
 Not being interested in what is being said

These can be overcome through:

 Concentrate on the speaker’s message – it is your responsibility to stay focused.

 Use filters to manage and control noise – control the two basic kinds of noise; 1) external noise,
which includes sounds from conversations, radio, television, CD players, machinery etc and 2)
internal noise, which includes distractions such as pain, fatigue, preoccupation with other thoughts,
hunger, worry or a personality conflict with the speaker. To this end, you can turn down the
volume of unnecessary sounds, take a pain reliever or get enough sleep.
 Resist talking instead of listening – it is impossible to be both sender and receiver of information at
the same time. You can even become your own distraction.
 Focus on the message – make sure that your own ideas do not interfere with listening to the ideas
of another.
 Listen with a positive attitude – you do not have to agree with the speaker, but good listening
requires you to keep an open mind and believe that the speaker might have something useful to
offer.

2.8.2 Improving listening skills

1. Paraphrasing: this is summarizing the speaker’s message in your own words and allowing the speaker
to correct any discrepancies from the intended message. That is, the listener crystallizes his/her own
understanding of the content presented.

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2. Evaluate your skills: everyone has listening weakness; you must therefore identify your weaknesses.
3. Prepare yourself physically and mentally: listening is a combination of physical and mental activities.
4. Set listening priorities: because you are bombarded with several messages at once, decide which ones
deserve your focus.
5. Make efficient use of available time: do not rush through your conversation as you may lack full
understanding of the message.
6. Listen attentively: be attentive and show interest in the speaker’s message.
7. Listen for ideas and feelings: look out for information as well as the speaker’s tone of voice.
8. Establish eye contact: do not stare at the speaker, instead, glance away periodically to reflect on the
topic.
9. Use body language to show you are listening: body language can convey you level of interest. Employ
appropriate non-verbal cues.
10. Overlook personal characteristics of the speaker: do not prejudge a speaker based on distracting
personal characteristics such as mannerisms, voice, speech patterns or appearance.
11. Choose strategic seating: posture can affect listening; therefore choose a physical location that is
conducive, comfortable and practical.
12. Ask questions if permitted: this helps clarify the speaker’s information.
13. Take notes: jot down key ideas or concepts for further referencing.

One method to help you retain the content of a speaker’s message is to think of the strategies represented
by the letters in the sentence “IS A FACT”:

Identify – identify the speaker’s ideas and connections among the ideas
Summarize – summarize the main points of the message
Assess – assess the correctness or validity of the message
Formulate – formulate appropriate questions
Associate – associate the speaker’s ideas with other known concepts
Consider – consider specific ways the information might be used
Take notes – take notes to assist in better recall (to bring to mind)

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3 READING SKILLS

3.1 Introduction
In this section, we shall examine reading as an important communication skill that you as a university
student will be constantly engaged in as you research, conduct routine study as well as during revision for
examinations. We shall therefore be concerned with how you can develop effective reading skills that you
can use in your university studies and life after college.

3.2 Objectives of the topic

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a) Define reading
b) Outline how you develop a purpose for your reading
c) Explain what the various types of reading entail
d) Expound on the effective reading and comprehension techniques
e) Discuss the skill of note taking

3.3 What is Reading?

Reading is the process of interpreting, analyzing and understanding written messages. Reading for study at
university level is an active integration of the text involving interpretation and thinking as you read.
Reading is, therefore, a dynamic process involving the following properties:
a) Decoding or interpreting written symbols
b) It is a physical and mental activity
c) It requires attention and thought
d) It is an interaction of the language of the text and background knowledge of the reader, such that,
the written message focuses the reader on what background knowledge (in long term memory), the
reader should bring to the interpretation of written message being read.

3.4 Developing a Purpose for Reading

Before we engage in reading we need to establish the purpose for which we seek to read. We engage in
reading for the following purposes:
a) We read to entertainment or leisure
b) To acquire information and knowledge
c) As a means of preparing for successful life i.e. as means of acquiring useful life skill.
d) To improve quality of life.
At the university level reading is particularly more focused and rigorous and would normally entail the
following purposes:
a) To gain an overall understanding of main ideas presented in some reading.
b) To find specific information such as a name, date or a definition of a concept.
c) To gain understanding of material to recall it as presented in the text.
d) To evaluate, critique or analyze some material.
The purpose of our reading will, to a large extent, determine the type of reading of style we adopt as the
discussion below will indicate.

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 3.5 Types of Reading
Types of reading refer to styles we may adopt in our reading as determined by the purpose for which we
are reading. Types of reading include:
a) Scanning – This style or technique is used when you are looking for a name, definition or any other
specific piece of information in a text like a house in classified ads, addresses or phone in a
directory, an important concept, information for a research essay in a library catalogue, table of
content, index page etc. In using the technique you move your eye quickly over the page to find
particular words or phrases that are relevant to specific information you are looking for.

While scanning, a good reader should first:

 Ensure that the text he/she is scanning is the correct text and that he/she knows precisely what he
is looking for.
 Try to determine the text structure or its style of arrangement, i.e. clues or signals which can assist
in understanding the text pattern.
 Scan with speed without reading extraneous or irrelevant material.

b) Skimming – In this technique you read quickly through a text to get a grip of the main ideas or
general information about the text. In using this technique you intend to get a general grasp of
ideas presented by the author. This technique is useful when:
i) Trying to decide if a book in library is useful or right for your studies.
ii) Previewing books or texts before detailed reading.
iii) Refreshing your understanding of a text after you have read it in detail.

You can skim:

 Introductory paragraphs – to give the general theme

 Concluding paragraph
 Transitional paragraphs
 Subheadings
 Italicized, underlined and boldfaced items

As an efficient reading strategy, skimming is a very useful skill both for recreational and study reading. In
study reading, it is useful for the following reasons:

 It can be used at the preliminary stages of selecting texts for research or selecting reserved and
supplementary literature. It helps determine which texts merit more careful and thorough reading
and which specific parts of those texts are worth spending time on.
 It can be used as an exercise for improving speed and therefore performance and for coping with
high quantity work. It can enable a reader cover a lot of material in a short time, therefore saving
time.
 It is one of those skills used in the reading for the main idea only when the supporting details or
other extraneous materials are not important.

c) Active/detailed reading – This technique is used in serious study. It calls for an active involvement
in the reading process. In this type of reading you need to interrogate or think over what you read
so as to both evaluate what you have read and facilitate recall of read material. This is the kind of
reading that is most extensively used at university during study. As you use this type of reading the
following tips are important.
i) Always make notes
ii) Pick out what you think are the important points of what you are reading by highlighting these
points.

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 iii) Record main headings as you read, this helps you to see the flow of your reading and notes.
iv) As you prepare for active reading note down questions you want the material to answer.
v) After you have read a section of text and have made a summary of what you have read in your
notes, skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is. As you do this, fill in
gaps that you may notice in your notes.
d) Extensive reading is purposeful, organized, wide reading of long texts such as journals, novels,
magazines, periodicals etc, especially those that relate to one’s area of study, to enrich one’s
vocabulary, which is basic to all good reading.
e) Intensive reading is a concentrated, thorough, and comprehensive reading style. It is applied when
one wants to understand the contents of the reading deeply. It is an intellectually involving affair
that the reader will be trying to evaluate how the ideas involved could be applied or adapted to
different situations. It is also analytical, critical and interpretive. It could involve a paragraph, a
whole passage or even a whole book, like in the case of a literature book.
f) Light reading – this is the type of reading that we apply when reading papers and novels for leisure.
This does not involve any critical assessment or appraisal of the material one is reading. It is fast
and superficial.
g) Word by word reading – this is the style used by beginners when they are reading for the first time
and to understand each word or phrase at a time. It is also applicable when one is reading scientific
or mathematics process or formula.

3.6 EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT READING STRATEGIES

To read effectively means to be able to comprehend, evaluate and utilize that which one has read, while
reading efficiently means reading effectively with the least amount of physical (psycho-motor) effort and
time. To attain efficiency, one must:

1. Reduce certain poor reading habits

2. Utilize better psycho-motor reading strategies

3.6.1 Common poor reading habits

a) Vocalization (sounding out)

This is reading aloud (the tendency to register the sound of the words as you read), which wastes time and
creates a sub-process as follows:

According to Pearson (1981), the reading process involves a) visual perception, b) response to visual stimuli,
c) transmission to brain, d) decoding (giving meaning), e) vocalizing, f) response to mental stimuli
(understanding or not). As a result, vocalization slows down this reading process. Henry Pearson (1981)
observed that reading aloud takes at least twice as long as reading silently and yet it is not any more
effective.

b) Sub-vocalization

This is where the reader makes a conscious effort not to move his/her lips when reading but his/her
internal speech organs, larynx or vocal cords are mechanically working. That is, the tendency to internally
acknowledge or pronounce the sound of the words in your head.

c) Finger reading, pointing at words and head movement

These habits not only affect the rate of reading but also affect the comprehension, since they prevent the
reader from grasping full phrases and clauses, therefore hindering him/her from understanding the ideas
expressed fully.

d) Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement

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Recognition span is the number of words a reader can recognize while eyes are fixed at one point.

Fixations are the stops a reader takes to take in a word or phrase and then move on to the next.

A narrow recognition span wastes time and energy and therefore affects one’s rate and comprehension.
Efficient readers take in several words per fixation, which should be at least a phrase. Thus, rhythmically,
eyes should move systematically from the middle of one phrase to another.

e) Regression (backtracking while reading)

This is glancing back and re-reading words, phrases and sentences that have already been read. It is a
characteristic of lacking concentration and poor reading. It affects comprehension because it interrupts the
reading process (though process). An efficient reader should always move forward.

NB: Regression is different from review, which is done after, for clarification.

3.4 Effective Reading and Comprehension Skills

One important technique that has been developed for effective reading and comprehension is summed up
as SQ3R, which stand for:
S – Survey
Q – Question
R – Read
R – Recall
R – Review

a) Survey – stands for a rapid preview of material to get an overview a topic, chapter, or book. The idea
here is to look for main points of the text, its content and approach. In doing this:
i) Read the title to help give you an idea of the subject.
ii) Read the introduction or summary to see what the author thinks are the key points.
iii) Notice boldface headings to see what the structure of the text is.
iv) Notice any maps, charts or graphs which give a summation of ideas in the text.
v) Notice reading aids and any questions at the end of chapter because they are meant to help you
understand and remember.
b) Question – When reading you should develop a questioning attitude. Questions help your mind to
engage and concentrate. This is because your mind is actively engaged when it is looking for answers
to questions. In using questions as you read, keep in mind the following:
i) Try to turn bold face headings into questions you think the section should answer.
ii) Ask yourself:
 What is the main point being made here?
 What is author trying to explain here?
 Have I understood the argument and conclusion?
c) Read – After formulating questions you can start reading the material carefully in detail. The approach
you take in reading may depend on subject. If the subject is complex your reading may be slower and
if the subject is familiar, you might adopt a faster pace. How you read may also be determined by
your personal approach. As you read:
i) Remember to take notes.
ii) Engage actively with your material.
iii) Look for answers to questions you have set for yourself and make up new questions if
necessary.
d) Recall – After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them from
memory. If not look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to. As you do this you may highlight
important points of your notes.

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 e)Review – Once you have finished reading, for instance, a whole chapter or section, go back over all
questions in all headings to see if you can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your
memory. Do this as an important part of your revision for exams.

3.6.2 The importance of SQ3R:

 It makes reading a conscious active effort.
 It enables a reader think constructively along similar lines as the writer.
 The prediction or question formulation stage is both a sign and an aid to understanding.
 The stages improve one’s concentration and retention ability.
 Reading is organized into stages, therefore it takes less time and effort and it is more effective.

3.6.3 Other important tips to effective reading and comprehension

a) Do not treat all books in same way, skim before you read a book to establish the type, for
instance, whether it is complex or elementary.
b) Do not start reading a book unless you have decided it is suitable.
c) Determine the purpose for reading a book.
d) You can switch from one way of reading to another, this is suitable particularly so when selecting
books or doing research.
e) Extract important reference information during your reading. This includes:
i) Name of Author
ii) Title and sub-title
iii) Date of publication
iv) Publisher and city of publication

3.7 Note taking

Notes are a shortened version of information. Note taking is an integral part of reading, listening as well as
during revision or study.

3.7.1 Advantages of Notes

1. Taking notes helps you to learn and understand by translating what you are studying into your own
words and thereby helping you to understand and remember what you are studying.

2. Taking notes helps you concentrate while you are studying because the note taking process helps
you process and digest the information.

3. Making notes helps you assess information because you are selecting the most important parts of
what you are reading or hearing. Through making notes, you are also spotting the key issues and
ideas of the materials.

4. Note taking also helps you think about the subject. Writing down ideas often produces ideas about
other ideas you already know. This makes you think and connect what you are noting down with
what you already know. This process, therefore, makes remembering of information more likely.

3.7.2 How to Take Notes

1. You should only choose the main points of what you are reading or listening to. Do not record all the
materials from your source.

2. Show the difference between main points, supporting points and examples. This can be done by use of
highlighting through the use of colours, underlining, or using various types of font or bolding for the
different aspects of your notes.

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3. Listen, read or watch closely the source of notes while carefully thinking about the subject and decide
which part of source material are most useful, then put them down in your own words as your notes.

4. Brevity is important in taking notes. Use abbreviations wherever possible. You could also achieve
brevity by adopting mathematical or scientific symbols or device your own personal code of symbols
and signs.

5. Use note cards and list each new idea on a new line
6. Use phrases, not complete sentences to save time
7. Use abbreviations when possible
8. Never take verbatim notes, unless you need a direct quote
9. Use pen rather than pencil
10. Use underlining and asterisks to indicate important points
11. Number items, put information in bulleted lists, or use an outline to make it easier to review notes
12. Leave space in the margins for additional notes
13. Write on only one side of the paper or note card
14. Watch for clues: repetition of words or topics, handouts with key phrases or terms
15. Create networks, just in case you miss out important points during a lecture
16. Use a second note page for listing questions and their answers
17. Begin each day’s notes with a heading that includes the name or number of the course,
instructor’s/speaker’s name, date and topic of the day

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