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Ore Geology Reviews 127 (2020) 103773

as an immiscible liquid migrating outwards. Sulfide segregation can be deposits within this particularly variable group. Some of the main
triggered by several processes (Barnes et al., 2016), and magmatic characteristics are: (1) hydrothermal features with marked structural
sulfide liquids can accumulate away from the source, especially along control; (2) generally forms breccia-type ores; (3) temporal association
zones with preexisting weakness planes and in dynamic environments with magmatism, but not as directly as observed in porphyries; (4)
such as conduits (Barnes et al., 2016). Alternatively, Ni deposits in the LREE and polymetallic enrichment; and (5) a highly saline, aqueous-
Yilgarn craton associated with komatiitic flows were significantly de- carbonic fluid requirement
formed and partially concentrated the Ni-sulfide mineralization along Assuming an IOCG-related mineralization hypothesis for the GT-34
geological structures (Duuring et al., 2007, 2010; Collins et al., 2012). would explain several mineralogical and geochemical features. The
In the Carajás Domain, komatiite occurrences were only identified on deposit displays a hydrothermal alteration sequence, is structurally
the Sapucaia and Selva groups (Araújo and Maia, 1991; Siepierski and controlled and Ni-sulfide breccias constitute the main ore type, despite
Ferreira Filho, 2016), but there is no evidence for such a volcanic flow the unusual alteration assemblage, the lack of economic Cu-Au as the
in the surroundings of the GT-34 deposit. Furthermore, either in a primary commodity and the very low Fe-oxide content. Another
magmatic conduit or a deformed komatiite flow, the ore would have striking signature of the GT-34 deposit is the LREE and P enrichment,
been superimposed by the hydrothermal alteration here described. Still, revealed by the whole-rock chemistry and reflected as abundant mon-
whether a superimposed magmatic sulfide mineralization is the case, azite and other rare-earth-rich minerals (Fig. 14).
the GT-34 deposit would represent the first magmatic Ni massive-sul- The hydrothermal alteration sequence in the GT-34 starts with the
fide deposit in the Carajás Domain, potentially pushing new exploration scapolite-orthopyroxene assemblage (marialite and enstatite rich, re-
frontiers. spectively), representing a qualitative Na-Mg hydrothermal alteration,
However, considering an orthomagmatic model for the GT-34 ar- developed in a Si- and Al- rich host rock. The same rationale can be
gues against the whole-rock geochemistry for the GT-34 Ni ore samples applied to the hornblende-chlorapatite ± plagioclase alteration and
(Siepierski, 2008). In Fig. 14 C, CaO, P2O5, and REE + Y show ex- phlogopite ± talc ± actinolite alteration, where the main qualitative
tremely high values and render a positive correlation only in the ore change in the bulk system is the Ca-(P) addition followed by K addition,
samples (data from Siepirski (2008)). Also, a 103 enrichment in LREE respectively. The initial Na(-Mg) alteration, followed by Ca(-P) and
(relative to chondrite) is evident, resulting in a steep fractionation potassic alterations are typical of IOCG alteration zones and commonly
pattern, as well as in a pronounced negative Eu anomaly (Fig. 14 D). described in the Carajás IOCG system (Grainger et al., 2008; Monteiro
Such geochemical behavior most likely reflects the REE controlling et al., 2008a, 2008b), supporting that the GT-34 hold a similar IOCG
effect of Cl-apatite, which is abundant in the breccia. Although apatite hydrothermal alteration sequence.
grains from highly differentiated rocks in ferrobasaltic layered intru- Talc commonly forms from non-aluminous Mg silicates as part of
sions show similar REE values and distribution patterns (Duchesne the hydrothermal alteration in volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits
et al., 2006), which could account for a mafic–ultramafic filiation for (Shanks III, 2020). However, its occurrence together with K-alteration
the Ni ore. However, in such highly evolved systems, sulfide saturation minerals, as described in the GT-34, is unusual. Although talc does not
would not be expected due to the prevailing elevated fO2 conditions. occur as a major phase, it forms as part of the phlogopite- association
Additionally, magnetite should be a common phase, which is not the (Fig. 8 B), implying that those minerals crystallized together from the
case in the GT-34 deposit. same fluid source. Talc crystallizes locally as a hydration product of Mg-
Another problematic with a magmatic mineralization is that most rich minerals, particularly orthopyroxene, whereas phlogopite is
known mafic–ultramafic intrusions of the Cateté Suite did not experi- widespread as the main alteration mineral. The composition of the host
ence a voluminous sulfide saturation (Rosa, 2014; Siepierski, 2016; rock is also a determining factor once talc formation is more common
Mansur, 2017), except for the Serra Leste intrusions, in the northeastern when the veins crosscut orthopyroxene rich rocks.
most part of the Carajás Domain (Teixeira et al., 2015; Mansur et al., Furthermore, different degrees of nickel enrichment in IOCG de-
2020). Also, no mafic or ultramafic protoliths were observed hosting or posits, although not well understood, are also described among dif-
occurring nearby the deposit. Thus, collectively with the textural, mi- ferent IOCG provinces, occurring as diverse Ni minerals or Ni-rich mi-
neralogical and geochemical evidences above, a hydrothermal origin nerals, such as millerite and Ni-pyrite (e.g., Eloise and Mt. Elliot,
for the GT-34 must be evaluated. Cloncurry district, Australia – Williams and Pollard, 2003; Terra,
Hydrothermal Ni deposits comprise a low-temperature assemblage Norrex and Silver Bear, Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Canada – Corriveau
composed chiefly of Ni-rich sulfides, such as millerite, bravoite, vaesite, et al., 2016; Tocopilla, Gatico and Tamaya, Central Andes – Sillitoe,
and gersdorffite, as well as sulfosalts. In such, Ni might even partition 2003). In the Carajás Domain, Ni-rich zones are also recognized at the
into certain silicates as chlorite and serpentine (González-Álvarez et al., Castanha (Pestilho, 2011, this issue), Jatobá (Veloso et al., this issue),
2013). This class of small-scale Ni deposit occurs invariably nearby and Jaguar (Ferraz, 2016) deposits. Further associated metals, in-
primary, “classical-type” orthomagmatic occurrences, and the available cluding Co, Au, Pd, Te and Ag, as detected by EPMA analyses, might be
models suggest they form due to the leaching, remobilization, and re- enclosed within pentlandite and pyrite lattice. The presence of Ni in GT-
precipitation of the igneous metals by focused fluids. However, under 34 and the other deposits highlights the polymetallic enrichment
typical geological conditions, Ni has always been considered immobile characteristic of IOCG mineralization, although forming a quite distinct
in fluids. Also, neither the mineralogy of hydrothermal Ni deposits nor mineral assemblage.
the lower T of formation are compatible with the GT-34 geology. Additionally, geochronology data obtained in this study yielded
Nevertheless, recent experimental studies (Liu et al., 2012; Tian ages within the Neoarchean IOCG mineralization time interval defined
et al., 2012; Scholten et al., 2018) have shown that Ni may be partially for the Southern Copper Belt (Moreto et al., 2015a, 2015b). However,
remobilized in solutions rich in Cl ligands, which enhance the solubility the dates obtained from pre-mineralization hydrothermal zircon crys-
of primary pentlandite with increasing HCl molality. As previously tals, recovered from the high-temperature scapolite-orthopyroxene al-
discussed, the high Cl content in chlorapatite and the scapolite chem- tered rocks (Fig. 12), and from phlogopite ± talc ± actinolite al-
istry indicates the crystallization in a Na-Cl-rich hydrothermal system, teration (post-mineralization) result in values which spam from
which could have acted as a complexant mobilizing Ni in the fluids. 2751 ± 5 (individual date in zircon grains; Fig. 12) and to
Iron oxide-copper–gold systems are known today as widely variable 2724 ± 4 Ma (Discordia upper intercept; Fig. 12B). Nevertheless, these
deposits marked by pervasive Fe-alkali metasomatism (Porter, 2010). data should be evaluated carefully, since it doesn't necessarily mean
Several studies (Hitzman et al., 1992; Williams et al., 2005; Grainger that the hydrothermal system was active for 30 Ma. Considering the
et al., 2008; Xavier et al., 2010; Groves et al., 2010; Barton, 2014) have complex and irregular zircon internal features herein described and that
identified characteristics that allow clustering complex polymetallic these rocks have been hydrothermally altered, it is evident that these

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V.B. Garcia, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 127 (2020) 103773

grains have been recrystallized due to a coupled dissolution-re- previously discussed, based in existing experimental results, predicts
precipitation process. Such mechanism promotes the opening of the pressures between 5 and 7 kbar and temperatures above 700 °C. Under
chemical and isotopic systems and, consequently, leads to a partial to such conditions, hypersaline brines, as those suggested for the initial
total resetting of the U-Pb ages (Putnis, 2002; Geisler et al., 2007; Della alteration fluids in Carajás (Xavier et al., 2012), would have a reduction
Giustina et al., 2011; among others). Thus, the interval between in- in the aH2O (Aranovich and Newton, 1997), allowing orthopyroxene to
dividual U-Pb zircon dates obtained from the scapolite-orthopyroxene form from a similar fluid as in other Carajás IOCG deposits. These
alteration (ca. 2.75 Ga) and the Discordia upper intercept at conditions suggest that the Ni-rich GT-34 deposit represents the deepest
2.739 ± 21 Ma (Fig. 12) may be taken as a rough estimative of the alteration zone so far documented in the Carajás Domain and may re-
timing of the Ni mineralization in the GT-34. Moreover, since the po- present a rare trans-crustal exposure of the IOCG roots zone.
tassic alteration postpone the ore deposition, ages obtained in con- Even though locally the temperature was initially higher than
cordant grains from the Phl-Tlc rocks (~2.72 Ga) should be evaluated 700 °C, it cannot be deliberately assumed that this condition was ubi-
with caution, since they may be interpreted as a partial reset of the quitous in all deposits. Apparently, the IOCG metasomatic alterations
isotopic system under lower temperatures. Since the younger zircon started developing at around 700 °C and cooled to 500 °C, when the
grains may merely define a lower limit for the closure of the isotopic calcic alteration amphiboles, widely present in Carajás Domain de-
system, these ages could be geologically meaningless. Thus, further posits, formed (Gomes and Lindenmayer, 2003; Dreher, 2004; Monteiro
geochronology studies are needed in order to provide a better under- et al., 2008a, 2008b; Xavier et al., 2010; Pestilho, 2011; Craveiro et al.,
standing of the mineralization ages at the GT-34 Ni deposit. 2012; de Melo et al., 2017).
A recent paper by Pollard et al. (2018) revealed an 40Ar-39Ar age of
2512 ± 7 Ga in phlogopite grains from the GT-34 deposit, which is 8. Conclusions
here described as part of the phlogopite ± talc ± actinolite alteration
that crosscut the Ni mineralization. Nevertheless, as previously dis-
cussed, zircon crystals from this stage yield older, Neoarchean ages at • The GT-34 is a structurally controlled unusual Ni-sulfide deposit
located in the Carajás Domain. An atypical Mg-alkali alteration
ca. 2.72 Ga. This difference is expected and likely due to the particu- zone, composed of an association of orthopyroxene and scapolite,
larities of both isotopic systems and geochronometers, which show very
followed by calcic-altered zones host the breccia-type ore.
different closure temperatures and activities in metamorphic and me-
tasomatic conditions. The phlogopite 40Ar-39Ar system reset at • Two distinct models for the Ni mineralization are tested: a magmatic
Ni-sulfide superimposed by hydrothermal alteration or an IOCG-
300–420 °C (McDougall and Harrison, 1999), while zircon U-Pb ages related deposit. The latter hypothesis is favored based on the lack of
are only reset under high fluid/rock ratios or high-temperature meta-
sulfide saturation for most of the known mafic–ultramafic magma-
morphism. Therefore, the c.a. 2512 Ma age should reflect a period of tism in the Carajás Domain, the recurrence of Ni as a commonly
basement reactivation after the Neoarchean IOCG mineralization in the
associate metal in IOCG deposits regionally and worldwide, and
Southern Copper Belt, as suggested by Pollard et al. (2018). coeval geochronology data, despite the low concentrations of iron
Based on the above, the GT-34 deposit was most likely formed as
oxide, copper and gold.
part of the Neoarchean IOCG system and could represent one of the
many satellites (e.g., Castanha, Bacaba, Jatobá) of the Sossego mine. • Further evidence from pyroxene chemistry support the metasomatic
origin for the GT-34 deposit. Orthopyroxene chemistry differs from
The main difference would be the initial alteration mineralogy, sug- mafic-ultramafic orthopyroxene in terms of minor elements, as Cr,
gestive of higher P-T conditions, as well as the unusually elevated Ni Al, Ca and Ti. Also, regional granulite metamorphism re-
content associated with a high fS2 and low fO2. crystallization (ca. 2.89–2.85 Ga) is ruled out due to the textural
evidences, as well as the geochronology obtained on this study (ca.
7.5. Implications for the Carajás IOCG system 2.75 Ga), thus supporting an atypical metasomatic crystallization.

Temperature and pressure conditions for the IOCG deposits of the • The metasomatic assemblage of orthopyroxene and scapolite require
that fluids must have been hot, highly saline, and with low aH2O,
Southern Copper Belt have initially been defined for the Sequeirinho thus being comparable to the fluids described in the other Carajás
ore body (Monteiro et al., 2008a, 2008b). These conditions were de- IOCG deposits.
termined based on the extensive sodic, sodic-calcic, and magnetite-
apatite alterations, identified in both Sequeirinho and Cristalino deposit • Geochronological data support a Neoarchean mineralization event
starting at 2751 ± 5 Ma. Younger ages as 2724 ± 4 Ma should be
(Huhn et al., 1999). Amphibolite facies conditions (> 500 °C and 5 carefully considered since they might have been related to a lower
kbar) were initially obtained by Monteiro et al. (2008a) using the
temperature imprint, thus representing the closure of the U-Pb iso-
hornblende-plagioclase thermometer of Holland and Blundy (1994) and topic system under high fluid/rock conditions. Such ages do not
oxygen isotopes. A later refinement considering a paragenesis of albite,
necessarily imply that the mineralization was active for 30 Ma and
actinolite/Mg-hornblende, titanite, epidote, quartz, and calcite sug- represents just an estimate of the timing of the Ni mineralization.
gested temperatures of 500–550 °C and pressures around 1.4 kbar
Nevertheless, the data coincides with the time interval defined for
(Monteiro et al., 2008a, 2008b). Besides, a recent study in the Jatobá the IOCG deposits in the Southern Copper Belt, estimated around
Cu-Zn-Ni deposit (Veloso, 2017) revealed temperatures of 550 °C and,
2,72 to 2,68 Ga.
hence, the author considered it as the hottest IOCG in Carajás.
Regarding the depth of formation, both Sequeirinho and Cristalino • Pressure–temperature conditions obtained for the initial scapolite-
orthopyroxene alteration suggest T > 700 °C and P 5–7 kbar. These
deposits were formerly referred to as the deepest IOCG expression in conditions raise the temperature at least 200 °C and pressure up to 2
the Southern Copper Belt (Huhn et al., 1999; Monteiro et al., 2008a,
kbar higher than those previously defined in the literature (5 kbar –
2008b). In both deposits, an initial, pervasive Na alteration (albite- 500 °C, Monteiro et al., 2008a). Such parameters indicate that the
scapolite) is followed by a Na-Ca alteration (albite-actinolite), and are
GT-34 deposit represents the deepest and hottest IOCG occurrence
cut by a later, narrower potassic-alteration zone. Similar features, de- in the Carajás Domain and worldwide.
spite the distinct alteration mineralogy, are also present in the GT-34
deposit, in which the scapolite-orthopyroxene and hornblende-chlor-
apatite ± plagioclase alteration are dominants. Declaration of Competing Interest
However, the documentation of the first scapolite-orthopyroxene
alteration parageneses raises the P-T estimates of the Carajás IOCG The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
system. The initial scapolite-orthopyroxene alteration conditions, as interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to

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V.B. Garcia, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 127 (2020) 103773

influence the work reported in this paper. DOCEGEO, 1988 Revisão litoestratigráfica da Província Mineral de Carajás -
Litoestratigrafia e principais depósitos minerais. In: 35th Congresso Brasileiro de
Geologia, Belém. (Proceedings).
Acknowledgements Domingos, F.H.G., 2009. The structural setting of the Canaã dos Carajás region and
Sossego-Sequeirinho deposits, Carajás, Brazil. PhD thesis. Durham University, U.K,
The authors appreciate the logistical support provided by VALE pp. 504 pp..
Dreher, A.M., 2004. O depósito primário de Cu−Au de igarapé Bahia, Carajás: rochas
during sampling. Fernando Matos, Wolney Rosa and Dênisson Oliveira fragmentárias, fluidos mineralizantes e modelo metalogenético. PhD thesis.
are acknowledged for the discussions on the Carajás metallogeny and Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil, pp. 200 pp..
the constructive commentaries on the GT-34 deposit. The authors are Duchesne, J.C., Shumlyanskyy, L., Charlier, B., 2006. The Fedorivka layered intrusion
(Korosten Pluton, Ukraine): an example of highly differentiated ferrobasaltic evolu-
thankful for the continuous financial support received from CNPq and tion. Lithos 89, 353–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2006.01.003.
from The Swedish Research Council. This study was also financed in Duuring, P., Bleeker, W., Beresford, S.W., 2007. Structural modification of the komatiite-
part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível associated Harmony nickel sulfide deposit, Leinster, Western Australia. Econ. Geol.
102, 277–297. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.102.2.277.
Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001. Finally, we would like to
Duuring, P., Bleeker, W., Beresford, S.W., Hayward, N., 2010. Towards a volcanic-
thank Dr. Lena Monteiro, as guest editor, for her constructive com- structural balance: Relative importance of volcanism, folding, and remobilisation of
ments, and Dr. David Howell, Dr. Peter Pollard and two anonymous nickel sulphides at the Perseverance Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposit, Western Australia. Miner.
reviewers, whose suggestions significantly improved the paper. Depos. 45, 281–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-009-0274-y.
Endo, T., Tsunogae, T., Santosh, M., Shaji, E., 2012. Phase equilibrium modeling of in-
cipiente charnockite formation in NCKFMASHTO and MnNCKFMASHTO systems: A
Appendix A. Supplementary data case study from Rajapalaiyam, Madurai Block, southern India. Geosc. Fron. 3,
801–811.
Feio, G.R.L., Dall’Agnol, R., Dantas, E.L., Macambira, M.J.B., Gomes, A.C.B., Sardinha, A.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// S., Oliveira, D.C., Santos, R.D., Santos, P.A. 2012. Geochemistry, geochronology, and
doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103773. origin of the Neoarchean Planalto Granite suite, Carajás, Amazonian craton: a-type or
hydrated charnockitic granites? Lithos 151, 57–73.
Feio, G.R.L., Dall’Agnol, R., Dantas, E.L., Macambira, M.J.B., Santos, J.O.S., Althoff, F.J.,
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