HUMAN BODY ORIENTATION Human Body Planes

Levels of Structural Organization

Human Body Regional Terms

Body Cavities
Dorsal Body Cavities Golgi Apparatus Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in secretory vesicles
Lysosome Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
 Cranial Cavity- inside bony skull Peroxisome Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
 Spinal Cavity- Inside spine Mitochondrion Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis
Microtube Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms components of
Ventral Body Cavities
cilia and flagella
 Thoracic Cavity Centriole Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
 Abdominal Cavity Cilla Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
Flagella Propel sperm cells
 Pelvic Cavity
Microvilli Increase surface area of certain cells

Epigastric Regions and Quadrants Types of Junctions

Tight Junction- Zip-lock seal that prevents fluid from leaking; e.g.: cells between blood and
intestine

Anchoring Junction- Spot-weld that prevents cell from being pulled apart; e.g.: skin cells

Gap Junction- Protein channels that allows communication between the cell; e.g.: heart
muscle cells and embryonic cells

CELL

Cell Parts and Functions

Cell Parts Function

Nucleus Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli; site of RNA
synthesis and ribosomal
subunit assembly
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane Regulates the flow of substances into and out of the cell
Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis
Rough ER Has many ribosomes attached; site of protein synthesis
Smooth ER Site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification
 TISSUE

Primary Types of Tissue

 Epithelium Tissue
 Connective Tissue
 Nervous Tissue
 Muscle Tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Location: skin, gland linings/body covering

Classification According to:

Layer
Simple- one layer
Stratified- more than one layer

Shape of Cell
Squamous- flattened
Cuboidal- Cube-shaped
Columnar- column-like

Simple:
Simple Squamous- e.g.: air sacs of lungs
Simple Cuboidal- e.g.: walls of kidney
Simple Columnar- e.g.: lines of digestive tract
Pseudostratified- e.g.: respiratory tract
 Dermis- middle layer; dense irregular connective tissue
Stratified:  Hypodermis
Stratified Squamous- e.g.: skin (keratinized)
EPIDERMIS
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Layers:
Bone
Stratum Corneum- made of dead cells containing keratin (blister/callus if injured)
Cartilage Stratum Lucidum- palms and soles
[Hyaline Cartilage (most common found in nose, long bones, etc.); Fibrocartilage (e.g.: Stratum Granulosum- 2 or 3 layers of flattened cells
intervertebral disc); Elastic Cartilage (e.g.: external ear) Stratum Spinosum- (spine) protects stratum basale
Stratum Basale- (germinativum) contains keratinocytes (produces keratins; 90%),
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Melanocytes (8%; produce melanin), Langerhan’s Cell (phagocytes), and Merkel’s cells (touch
sensation)
Functions:
DERMIS
 Protection
 Heat regulation Layers:
 Excretion of urea and uric acid (sweat)
 Synthesize Vit. D Papillary Region- contains pain receptors (free nerve endings), touch receptors (Meissner’s
corpuscles); provides nutrients to epidermis
Skin Structure
Reticular Region- contains blood vessels, sweat (eccrine gland) and oil glands (sebaceous
 Epidermis- outer layer; keratinized stratified squamous epithelium gland), deep pressure receptors (Pacinian corpuscles)
HYPODERMIS

 Subcutaneous tissue
 Composed of adipose tissue (mostly)
 Anchors skin to underlying layer (muscles)
 SKELETAL SYSTEM

Functions:

 Support
 Protection
 Movement
 Hematopoiesis- blood cell formation
 Bone tissue- 18% of body weight
 Storage of minerals (calcium)

Basic Types Bone

Compact Bone- densely packed; hard; protection and resistance of stress; osteon and
haversian system; rich in mineral salts; diaphysis

Spongy Bone- epiphysis; blood cell formation (red marrow); lots of open spaces
 Muscular System

Function:

 Movement
 Posture
 Stabilize the joints
 Generate heat

Types of Muscle

Smooth Muscle Tissue- involuntary; found in gastrointestinal tract; uninucleate

Cardiac Muscle Tissue- involuntary; heart muscles; made of intercalated disk; regular
rhythmic; uninucleate
Skeletal Muscle- multinucleate; voluntary; attached by tendon to bone
 NERVOUS SYSTEM Ependymal cells
-cuboidal cells (circle)
 The master control of system of the body along with Endocrine System -has Cilla (to circulate cerebrospinal fluid)
 Provide electrical impulses (action potential/electrical)
 Muscle contracts are dependent on the electrical signals on the nerve Oligodendrocytes
 CNS (Brain and Spinal Cord) -can be destroyed due to multiple sclerosis (drooping of the eye; numbness in several parts
 PNS- Outside the cranial (cranial nerves- nerves inside the brain) and spinal (spinal of the body)
nerves- located in the spinal cord) cavity -produces myelin sheath (for faster conduction of electrical current) around the nerve fibers
in the CNS
Major Functions of Nervous System
GIAL CELLS IN THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensory input (Afferent (blue) fibers)- receptor (from skin-free nerve endings); to carry or
conduct sensory impulses to the brain/CNS Schwann cells
-counterpart of oligodendrocytes
Integration- processing of the impulse
-located in PNS
Motor output (Efferent (red) fibers)- response (for muscle/glands) to integrated stimuli -produces myelin sheath
(changes) -Guillain Barre Syndrome no myelin sheath in the PNS; slow sensation; glob stock (hardness
feeling of existence of stocking in their foot)
Two subdivisions of motor:
Satellite cells
Somatic Nervous System- (Soma-Muscle) voluntary actions; we can control/regulate; e.g.: -counterpart of astrocytes
skeletal muscles -protects the ganglion (group of neurons/cell bodies in PNS)
Autonomic Nervous System- (Automatic) involuntary actions e.g.: constriction/dilation of PARTS OF THE NEURONS
the pupils to light; sweating; muscles in the heart
CELL BODY:
Subdivision of Autonomic Nervous System (still under motor/efferent):
Neurolemma- cell covering/cell membrane of neuron
Parasympathetic-
Cytoplasm- between nucleus and neurolemma membrane
Sympathetic-
Neurofibril- nerve fibers in neuron
CELLS IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Dendrites- to carry impulses/electrical conduction towards the cell body; afferent
Glial cells/neuroglia cells/supporting cells in the Central Nervous System: (support or nerve/sensory nerve
protects the neurons-uninucleate-nuclei)
Nucleus- processing of the impulse and integrating
Astrocytes
-most abundant in the central nervous system AXON:
-braces/covers the nuclei (group of neurons/cell body in CNS)
-efferent nerve
-protects the neurons
-star-shaped (asto) -carry impulses/electrical current away from the cell body towards the organ (usually muscle)
-e.g.: blood brain barrier
Schwann cells- produces the myelin sheath
Microglia
-for phagocytosis/phagocytic Myelin Sheath- segments of the axon; for greater conduction
-engulfing unwanted substances such as damaged neurons which can cause infection
Node of Ranvier- separates the segments (myelin sheath); conduct the electrical current; for
-to protect the brain
saltatory conduction (fast jumping of the current from one node to another);
-spider-like cells
Axon hillock- start Depolarization- changing of polarity inside the membrane due to stimulus;
Na+ ions go inside the membrane/Sodium influx- Sodium rushes inside the nerve;
Axon terminal- ending 30+ mV action potential/impulse
SYNAPTIC END BULB- (synap: junction/space) to the organ/muscle Repolarization- to relax the nerve to avoid fatigue (continuous depolarization);
Synaptic Vesicle- reservoir; neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) for nerve and muscle Going back to its original state
K+ goes out (Potassium efflux) because of it repel Na+
KINDS OF NEURONS (based on no. of dendrites and axons):
Resting membrane potential- going back to its resting state;
Multi-polar- more than one axons/dendrites; most-neurons of the brain and spinal cord
active transport acts (sodium potassium pump) that throws out the Na+ ions to reach -70mV
Bipolar- one dendrites and one axon; e.g.; nerve in the retina of the eye, nerve in the inner
ear, and nerve in the olfactory area Reflex- rapid, predictable and involuntary (protective) response to a stimulus

Unipolar- usually in the touch pressure and pain or thermal (temperature); (kind of) united Free nerve endings- pain receptors in the skin
dendrites and axon Reflex Arc- direct route from a sensory neuron to an interneuron (integration) to an effector
FUNCTION OF THE NEURONS Simple Reflexes: e.g.: tapping of the tendon of the knee
Irritability- respond/conversion of stimulus into nerve impulse TYPES OF RECEPTORS:
Conductivity- transmission of the impulse to another neuron/muscle/gland Pacinian Corpuscles- responsible for touch and vibration; nerve (large diameter and myelin
NERVE IMPULSES sheath-faster conduction)

Polarized nerve cell (cell at rest)- charge across membrane;

does not conduct electrical current;
-70mV; arrangement of electrical current:
negative inside (intracellular), positive outside (ECF)

Arrangement:

P-otassium
I-nside
S-odium
o-utside
ION CELL mM (Inside) ECF mM (outside)
K 139
Na 12 145
Cl (-) 4 116
Ca <0.0002 1.8
HCO (-) 12 29
Mg 0.8 1.5
Proteins (-) 138 9

Cation- positive ion Golgi Tendon Organ- (Tendon- muscle to bone articulation)

Anion- negative ion For assessing the position of the joint (whether it is flexed or bent) and also for the rate of
movement (fast/slow)
 Made up of large-diameter and myelinated axon (which means the conduction is fast) Temperature- lower speed in cool; faster in heated axons

Free Nerve Endings- for pain and temperature/thermal stimuli NEURODEVELOPMENTAL

Small-myelinated and unmyelinated axons
 Ectoderm and mesoderm formed first
Merkel Disk/Meissner Disk- mild touches/touch therapy  Neuroectodermal tissues- nervous system started in primitive layer: Ectoderm
Touch therapy decrease in sensation of pain  Ectoderm- outer later
Myelinated axon (faster than free nerve endings)  Mesoderm- inner layer
 Endoderm- last layer
Krause and bulb- cold temp sensation/thermal sensation
 After 30 days the fertilization, neural plate separates from ectoderm that forms
Myelinated small axon
neural tube
Muscle Spindle- receptor for stretching of muscle/muscle length and contraction  Neural tube grows into brain and spinal cord
Fast conduction (Large-diameter myelinated axons) (along w/ Golgi tendon)
Formation:
Erlanger and Gasser Classification

Fiber Type Function Fiber Conduction

Diamete Velocity (m/s)
r
(μm)
A α Proprioception; 12-20 70-120
somatic motor
β Touch, 5-12 30-70
pressure
γ Motor to 3-6 15-30
muscle spindle
Δ (small Pain, touch, 2-5 12-30
myelinated temperature
axon) (Skin-
sensory)
B (autonomic Preganglionic <3 3-15
sympathetic autonomic
motor)
C Dorsal root
Pain, 0.4-1.2 0.5-2
(skin/autonomic temperature
(motor) (free nerve
endings), some
mechano-
reception,
reflex
responses
Sympathetic Postganglionic 0.3-1.3 0.7-2.3
ORGANOGENESIS
Sympathetic
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PROPAGATION ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM
Epidermis (sweat glands, Notochord Epithelial lining
Amount of myelination- myelin sheath the faster the conduction than unmyelinated sheath
hair follicles) of digestive
Axon Diameter-larger diameter the faster than small axons tract
Epithelial lining of mouth Skeletal System Epithelial lining
and rectum of respiratory Neurons
system
Sense receptors in Muscular Lining of
epidermis System urethra, urinary
bladder and
reproductive
system
Cornea and lens of the eye Muscular layer Liver
of stomach,
intestine, etc.