Assignment

On
What is Sports Violence and it’s Causes?
Introduction

Sport plays an important part in human development and in strengthening the fabric
of society. It fosters social integration and participation and thereby makes a
valuable contribution to democracy. It promotes understanding between individuals
and groups from different countries and cultures. It also brings major economic
benefits at local, regional and national level. All of this is put at risk by violence.
Violence in sports involves the execution of behaviors that cause harm and happen
out of the rules and regulations of sports. Currie defines violence in sports as
"physical assault that is intended to cause physical pain or injury to another player
(or fan, coach, game official etc.), where such harmful actions bear no direct
relationship to the rules and associated competitive goals of the sport". Violence in
sports includes aggressive behaviors that are not related to the purposes of the given
sport. Reports indicate that there has been an increase in the severity and the
frequency of violence in sports. Surveys show that violence has been prevalent
mostly in sports such as football, ice hockey, and rugby. Although violence in sports
often stems from the players, other people among them being parents, media,
coaches, and fans have contributed to the epidemic of violence in sports presently.
Violence in sports can occur in various ways. Theories have been proposed to
explain their occurrence i.e. psychological, biological, and social learning theories.
Generally, the theories insinuate that instrumental violence which is usually non-
emotional and mission- oriented kind of violence has harm as its main objective. In
most instances of violence in sports, it is reactive violence that is depicted whereby
fans incite players to engage in violence on the one hand and reflect violence (the
fans) on the other. Therefore, violence in sports is an epidemic that is triggered by
the involvement of diverse groups of people including the media, fans, parents,
coaches, and the players themselves.
Theory
Theories that Explain Violence in Sports Basically, there are three theories that have
been proposed to explain violence in sports. These theories are the biological theory,
the psychological theory, and the social learning theory.
Biological Theory
Biological theory suggests that violence is a fundamental inherent human behavior.
It is on the basis of this theory therefore that sports have been perceived to be a
socially suitable way through which humans can discharge violence that has been
built up in them. The theory articulates that sport is an acceptable way for athletes
to release steam or aggression that has been pent-up. The theory upholds the need
for people to engage in sports because it helps them vent out aggression. However,
as it regards to violence in sports, the theory is of the opinion that it is the innate
feelings of aggression in people that prompts them to engage in violence behaviors
hence violence in sport is one of the ways that human beings use to release the vent
up aggression within them.
Psychological Theory
The psychological theory holds that violence is caused by dissatisfaction. That is,
violence results from the effect of a situation. For that reason, frustration is generated
when the person is blocked from achieving a certain goal. In sports particularly,
frustration can result from dubious calls made by the sports officials, inability to
make a certain play, injuries that cause interference with best possible performance,
boos from spectators, or jeering by players or coaches. The act of violence in sports
is thus attributed to the socialization process that has been undertaken on athletes
and their perception of aggression. This means that the occurrence of violence in
sports is dependent on the emotions that have been created in the minds of the
athletes especially by coaches. For instance, in the case where a coach emphasizes
winning and nothing less, frustration may accrue when the players do not achieve
this aim triggering the occurrence of violence. For that reason, the psychological
state created in the minds of the players is fundamental to the prevention or
occurrence of violence in sports.
Social Learning Theory
The Social learning theory on the other hand suggests that violent behavior results
from learning. According to the theory, persons learn new behaviors through
modeling and also through modeling by the use of punishments and rewards. In
sports, the young players perceive their sports heroes as role models and as a result,
they imitate their behaviors. At the same time, coaches, team mates, and parents may
also be taken to be role models and may depict support for violent playing styles.
Therefore, violence in sports can occur due to young sports persons imitating the
behaviors of their role models which may suggest aggression. Coaches depict the
values and skills of sports that are esteemed by youngsters and that is why Violence
in sports can occur in various ways. Theories have been proposed to explain their
occurrence i.e. psychological, biological, and social learning theories. Generally, the
theories insinuate that instrumental violence which is usually non-emotional and
mission- oriented kind of violence has harm as its main objective. In most instances
of violence in sports, it is reactive violence that is depicted whereby fans incite
players to engage in violence on the one hand and reflect violence (the fans) on the
other. Therefore, violence in sports is an epidemic that is triggered by the
involvement of diverse groups of people including the media, fans, parents, coaches,
and the players themselves. They tend to imitate these values and skills. Primarily,
within any given social environment, actions that are exhibited are usually motivated
by others and the social circumstances present. In terms of leadership and role
models, the behaviors they hold up are the behaviors that will be imitated by those
that they lead. Therefore, children will imitate the virtues or the vices as they are
executed by coaches. In the case where violence is portrayed by coaches, then the
possibility of violence in sports is enhanced.
Violence in Sports
Violence in sports can be undertaken by spectators or by players. According to a
wide range of research studies, spectators can incite or reflect sports violence based
on the cues that they are given by players, other spectators, cheerleaders, and
coaches. In the norm, spectators obtain a sense of self confidence and social identity
from their teams. This causes them to emulate the behaviors of these players in order
to show identification. It is the connection with a given team that creates group unity
between the players, fans, and coaches hence they perceive opposing teams as being
enemies. The perception of other teams as enemies promotes hostility towards the
enemy groups and the hostility extends to supporters, geographical location,
ethnicities, and the alleged social class. Furthermore, spectators can engage in
violence due to reinforcement of aggressive acts by either players, coaches, parents,
or mass media. For example, when a player portrays an aggressive style of playing
and he or she is immensely rewarded or paid a huge amount of salary, spectators
read such cues and support aggression or engage in aggressive behaviors as well.
However, when violence behavior by players is criticized by either parents, media,
or coaches, the spectators are not prone to engage in violent behaviors. In that case,
violence in sports is dependent on punishments or rewards that are given to reinforce
sports. According to Jamieson and Orr, the values and skills that are supported by
coaches influence how the players play and interact with opponents on the field. In
turn, the same attitude is transferred to the spectator’s hence causing or preventing
violence in sports depending on the values that have been supported by the coaches.
In most cases, players engage in physical violence against the other teams as a
strategy developed by coaches to defeat rival teams. When that happens, the players
may opt to fighting instead of playing and the effects of the fights may extend to the
fans and the whole field would be chaotic. Apart from the spectators, players can
also be involved in violent behaviors during or after the game. Violence in sports by
players is often vented on opposing players. As stated by the social learning theory,
it is the reinforcements and punishments at hand that in one way or the other
influence the occurrence or the absence of violence in sports. When violence in
sports is punished, there is a low likelihood of the same violence being repeated. For
example in February 2, 2000 in Gm Place, Vancouver, a cowardly swing was made
by Marty McSorley who hit the head of Donald Brashear from behind using a hockey
stick. The issue was negatively perceived since Marty was an elite athlete hence his
loss of cool through violence in the field was punished by being suspended from the
league for the longest time in history of sports confederation. Such incidences reduce
cases of violence in sports because players are encouraged to avoid aggressive
behaviors and do not create negative cues to spectators or fans. In other cases,
violence in sports can result from verbal abuse by players, parents, coaches, and fans
when they do not like moves by the other teams' fans, players, and coaches. These
abuses make the opposing teams or supporters angry and eventually release their
anger through violence. An example is when fans chant racist chants; the verbal
abuse against the opponents augments frustration and forms a stage for violence to
occur. Therefore, the loyalty that the fans, players, coaches, and parents have
towards a team can prompt them to verbally abuse the supporters of the opposing
team and consequently engage in violent behaviors. Mass media also plays a role in
promoting sports and in triggering violence in sports. The main aim of the media is
to provide its recipients who include sports fans with entertainment. For that reason,
the media airs all the leagues, money, and records which in turn stimulate the players
to desire excellence leading to the creation of intense competitive sports for the
spectators or fans. The media can show how competition in sport is healthy e.g. it
promotes the development of sportsmanship skills. Similarly, the media can
encourage rough and violent play by giving violent plays more airtime compared to
other normal plays. By using television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, they
inform the public about issues surrounding sports and even glamorize famous
players. The media may also expose the viewer to information on how to control and
curb violence in sports. On the other hand, the media can show sports and violence
related to sports. Consequently, children access examples of sports violence which
they may emulate. Some of the commentaries may provide the viewers with
descriptions that suggest a link between excitement and violence.
Causes
There are two major theories on the cause of violence in sports. One theory holds
that humans have an instinct for violence, developed during a time when early
human ancestors had to resort to violence and aggressiveness to survive and
reproduce. Another theory deals with the sociological aspects of violence in sports,
stating that sports are "mock battles" which can become actual battles due to their
competitive nature.

Violence by Athletes
Through a "civilizing process", many modern sports have become less tolerant of
bloodshed than past versions, although many violent aspects of these sports still
remain. Athletes sometimes resort to violence, in hopes of injuring and intimidating
opponents. Such incidents may be part of a strategy developed by coaches or players.
In boxing, unruly or extremely violent behavior by one of the contestants often
results in the fighter breaking the rules being penalized with a point’s reduction, or,
in extreme cases, disqualification. Outlawed tactics in boxing include hitting the
opponent on the back of the head, under the belly during clinching, and to the back.
Other tactics that are outlawed, but less seen, are pushing an opponent extremely
hard to the floor, kicking, or hitting repeatedly after the round has ended. Similar
actions have also happened in ice hockey and Australian Football League matches.

Ritual Violence
High school, college, and even professional sports teams often
include initiation ceremonies as a rite of passage. A 1999 study by Alfred
University and the NCAA found that approximately four out of five college US
athletes (250,000 per year) experienced hazing. Half were required to take part in
alcohol-related initiations, while two-thirds were subjected to humiliation rituals.
Violence may also be related to nationalism or as an outlet for underlying social
tensions. It is often alcohol-related.
Violence by supporters of sports teams dates back to Roman times, when supporters
of chariot racing teams were frequently involved in major riots. Usually, underlying
political and theological issues helped fuel riots related to sporting events in the
Roman era. The Nika riots of 532 were especially deadly, with tens of thousands
reportedly killed.
In periods when theatre was considered a form of mass entertainment, there were
phenomena of rival fans supporting rival actors or theatrical teams, occasionally
leading to violent outbursts having many similarities to present-day violence of
sports fans – the Astor Place Riot in 1849 New York City being a conspicuous
example.
The actions of English football hooligans and firms in the 1980s caused English
teams to be banned from European competition for six years after the Heysel
Stadium disaster in 1985. Although the level of football-related violence was
significantly reduced in England after this event, in the recent Euro
2004 tournament, England were publicly warned that any violence by supporters at
matches could result in their ejection from the tournament. Many known hooligans
were prevented from traveling to the tournament in Portugal. There was a collective
sigh of relief from security experts in the USA when England failed to qualify for
the 1994 FIFA World Cup. Alan Rothenberg (chairman of the World Cup
organizing committee in the United States in 1994) said:
There were three countries in the world whose presence would have created
logistical and security problems, so we're very pleased they won't be coming: Iraq,
Iran and England.
From Munich to Christchurch: When Violence Hit Sports
The Bangladesh cricket team escaped unhurt and was not even the target but violence
has been specifically directed at sportspersons in the past, leading to bloody
repercussions. Here is a look at instances when sport, often a tool to propagate the idea
of world peace, found itself caught in the crossfire.
1972 Munich Olympics: The most gruesome incident of targeted violence against
sportspersons happened on September 5, 1972. Eleven Israeli athletes and coaches were
taken hostage and eventually murdered by terrorists during a 16-hour ordeal, during
which the world was witness to chilling images of athletes held captive on gunpoint.

1987 New Zealand tour of Sri Lanka (Cricket): It was to be a three-Test tour but
New Zealand abandoned it after just the first match when a bomb planted by separatists
exploded near the team hotel in Colombo, killing 113 civilians.

2002 New Zealand tour of Pakistan (Cricket): New Zealand's cricket team was
touring Pakistan in 2002 when a bomb went off outside their hotel, killing 12 people.
The players were unscathed but the Black Caps' Board decided to call back the team. A
year before this, New Zealand were on their way to Pakistan for a series before heading
back midway owing to the September 11 terror attack in the USA. The series was
eventually abandoned.

2009 Sri Lanka tour of Pakistan (Cricket): The Sri Lankan team was on its way to
play what was to be the third day of the second Test against Pakistan at the Gaddafi
Stadium in Lahore. The team bus was, however, intercepted by at least a dozen terrorists
who fired at the bus, resulting in injuries to six Sri Lankan players and the death of the
bus driver. Six policemen died protecting the players while two civilians were also
killed. The Lankan team returned home and Pakistan has not hosted an international
match since then.

2010 African Nations Cup Football Tournament: Togo's national football side was
travelling through the Angolan province of Cabinda for the African Nations Cup when
the team bus came under gun fire from separatists. The side's assistant manager and
media officer were killed in the attack.
2019 Bangladesh tour of New Zealand (cricket): A day before the start of what was
to be the third and final Test of the tour, Bangladesh's cricket team was on its way for
Friday prayers at the Masjid Al Noor mosque in Christchurch, which was to be followed
by a practice session. The mosque came under attack from a gunman, identified as an
Australian extremist, and led to the killing 49 people. The players remained safe but the
tour was called off.

Effects

The damaging impact of violence or the threat of violence at or in connection with

sports events can extend far beyond its victims or those who may witness it.
• It actively discourages families, women, children, older people, ethnic minorities
and people with disabilities from attending matches.
• It creates a climate of fear among local residents, particularly those from ethnic
minorities, around stadiums.
• It ties up police and medical resources that could more productively be deployed
elsewhere. • Additionally, it may disrupt road and rail travel across a wide area.

Preventing Violence in Sports

There are a number of ways through which violence in sports can be prevented.
Coaches and physical educators are the group of people who are in the best position
to curb violence in sports by helping to create positive thoughts in sports. Some of
the ways of preventing violence in sports include;
Putting Sports in Viewpoint: Coaches should avoid highlighting the attainment of
victory at all costs. It has been found that, some coaches stimulate players to make
sure that they win instead of encouraging them to enjoy themselves and seek to
develop their individual skills in sports. Coaches are expected to praise skill
development and not equate the performance of a player with that player's worth.
Similarly, coaches can demonstrate stoic value by not allowing injured players to
play. By doing this, coaches would have curbed violence in sports and encourage
enjoyment as well as skill development in players.
Provision of Positive Role Models: According to studies, violence in sports occurs
in professional sports. In order to reduce the possibility of violence, coaches should
avoid being symbolically associated with professional teams for example by using
their names or logos. In addition, coaches should not use coaching techniques that
are being used by professional coaches. Instead, it is paramount that coaches use
coaching strategies that encourage team work and ownership of the team by the
players. Coaches should encourage players to contribute to the success of the team
by allowing them to participate in decision making and listening to their feedback
about the team. When players develop ownership of the team, togetherness is
fostered hence facilitating for better performance.
Integration of Values That Encourage Intervention into Sports Curriculum:
Strategies that encourage moral development will produce improved or modified
behaviors towards sportsmanship. Coaches and teachers should teach positive values
related to sports so that when players are in the field, they will show positive
attitudes. The same attitudes may be encouraged among spectators. Therefore,
inculcation of positive values among players will enhance positive attitude among
players and spectators and hence reduce violence in sports.
Involvement of Parents: Parents have a great influence on the life of their children
and thus they can immensely influence the attitude that the child develops towards
sports. Coaches and physical educators can involve parents by educating them on
the activities and objectives of co-curricular activities and how to be vigilant on
aggressive behaviors. In addition, parents can be informed on how they can
encourage their children to have positive attitudes towards competition.
Consequently, this involvement will form a platform from which players and
spectators can have realistic anticipation for sports performances. Furthermore,
parents can be involved in reducing violence in sports by helping to reduce violence
among players in the same team. For instance, there can be a get together between
parents and the team players. During socialization, the team players and their parents
will develop a close relationship that will enable them work together as a team and
prevent cases of violence since they will be supporting one team and not an
individual child.
Fan Penalties: By initiating the use of fan penalties, violence in sports can be
reduced because the measure ensures that the behaviors of the fans are kept
constantly in check. Just as referees in normal plays use yellow cards as a warning
sign to the players for extreme fouls e.g. use of bad language or ferocious tackles,
the fans can as well be assigned a yellow card if the fans are unruly and when the
unruly behavior continues, the fans can be given a red card and be automatically
forfeited from watching the game.

Conclusion
Violence in sports is the depiction of aggressive behavior against the rules and
regulations of a particular sport. Biological, social learning and psychological theory
are the three theories that have been proposed to explain violence in sports. The
biological theory suggests that violence results from the innate being of a person, the
psychological theory asserts that violence results from frustration caused by lack of
achievement of certain goals while the social learning theory states that violence
results from imitation. Violence in sports is common in competitive sports notably
ice hockey, football, rugby, wresting, basketball and boxing. Violence in sports can
be in the form of verbal abuse, threats, or physical injury executed by players,
spectators, coaches, parents of young players, and fans or triggered by mass media.
However, there are measures that can be implemented to prevent or curb violence in
sports such as involvement of parents, fan penalties, putting sports in viewpoint,
provision of positive role models and integration of values that encourage
intervention into sports curriculum.