Terence Tao

Author(s): M. A. (Ken) Clements

Source: Educational Studies in Mathematics , Aug., 1984, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Aug., 1984), pp.
213-238
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3482178

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3482178?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Educational
Studies in Mathematics

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

TERENCE TAO

ABSTRACT. The article is a biographical account of Terence Tao's mathematical develop-

ment. Born in 1975 he has exhibited a formidable mathematical precociousness which the
author describes in some detail. The paper also presents the social and family context
surrounding this precociousness and discusses the educational implications of this data.

1. INTRODUCTION

I first heard of Terence Tao on 27 April 1983, when an art

on the front page of the Adelaide daily morning newspaper, the Advertiser.
The article was headed:

TINY TERENCE, 7, IS HIGH SCHOOL WHIZ

The article explained that Terence spent two-fifths of his school time at
Blackwood High School, where he studied Year 11 Mathematics and Physics.
He spent the remainder of his school time at Bellevue Heights Primary School.
According to the article Terence learnt to read and write at the age of two by
watching Sesame Street, and his teachers thought that while he had the aca-
demic ability of a 16-year-old, his maturity was that of a seven-year-old.
Terence's mathematics teacher at Blackwood High School was quoted as saying
that Terence fitted very well into the class and found the work easy. 'There is
very little I actually teach him', the teacher said, 'he fiishes all the work two
lessons before the rest'. His primary school principal described him as 'a happy
little fellow who has a clear understanding of the fact that he is different'.
Terence's hobbies were said to include computing, playing with his electronics
kit and reading science fiction novels such as The Restaurant at the End of the
Universe. His father, Dr Billy Tao, a medical practitioner, was born in China
and his mother, Mrs Grace Tao, a graduate in Physics and Mathematics, was
born in Hong Kong. The parents met at the University of Hong Kong, where
both were educated before emigrating to Australia in 1972. They have two
children younger than Terence, Trevor and Nigel.
Having been interested in exceptionally capable children in mathematics
for many years (during my eight years at Monash University, 1974-1982, 1
gave many lectures on the subject; also, I both carried out research of my own
and supervised higher degree research in the general area), I read the Advertiser
article with interest. 'At least', I thought 'the parents and the teachers involved

Educational Studies in Mathematics 15 (1984) 213-238. 0013-1954/84/0153-0213$02.60

? 1984 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
214 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

were courageous enough to attempt something designed at meeting Terence's

special needs'. However, since leaving Monash University in February 1982, to
begin a Bible college course in Adelaide I had resolved not to become involved
in mathematics education matters anymore, I resisted the temptation to con-
tact the Tao family.
In June 1983 I was invited to address an in-service education conference for
teachers on 'the identification of exceptionally gifted children in mathematics'.
I agreed to do so (somewhat reluctantly, because of the -afore-mentioned
resolve). Soon after the beginning of my talk at the conference I made a passing
reference to the Advertiser article on Terence. When I had finished speaking
one of the conference participants introduced himself to me as Terence's
father, Billy. Dr Tao invited me to his home to speak to Terence, and to carry
out an assessment of his mathematical abilities and performance. How could
I refuse?

2. THE INITIAL ASSESSMENT

I went to Terence's home on the 16 July 1983, the day before his eighth
birthday. When I arrived Billy introduced me to his wife, Grace, and then to
Terence, who had been sitting in the far corner of a room reading a hardback
book with the title Calculus. Terence was small, even for a seven-year-old. After
meeting his two brothers, I was accompanied by Terence to his father's study,
where, after a brief chat, I began my usual assessment procedure for excep-
tionally bright primary school-age children. I asked Terence to attempt the 60
questions on Australian Council for Educational Research's Operations Test
(Cornish and Wines, 1977).
Before Terence began the Operations Test I told him that he'd find most of
the early questions easy, but said 'you shouldn't laugh at the questions, because
they get harder towards the end of the test'. I was intrigued by his reply: 'the
questions won't know if I laugh at them, because they haven't got ears'.
Terence got 60/60 on the Operations Test. As I watched him solve the
problems it became apparent to me that the test was far too easy for him. The
following shows his working for Question 58 of the test:

Question S8. If (p + q) + r = A + (q + r), find A.

Terence wrote: p/q A

r q/r

p A
qr q/r

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 215

p z
r l/r

According to ACER norms for the Operations Test, an average Year 12 student
could be expected to get a score of 53/60 on the test (see Cornish and Wines,
1977, pp. 21 and 38). Although I had given the test to many very bright
primary-school-age children before, none of them had ever got more than
57/60 - and Terence was probably the youngest person I had ever asked to
do the test.

QUESTIONS (to be presented to the students in written form; answers

should be worked out mentally)

Si Two circles have radii equal to 2 cm and 3 cm. The distance between
their centres is 4 cm. Do they intersect?

S2 What angle does an hour hand describe in 20 minutes?

Al A can of kerosene weighs 8 kg. Half the kerosene is poured out

of it, after which the can weighs 4L kg. What is the weight of the
empty can?

Vl What time is it now if the time which passed since noon constitutes
a third of the time that remains until midnight?

M2 I walk from home to school in 30 minutes and my brother takes

40minutes. My brother left 5minutes before I did. In how many
minutes will I overtake him?

A The perimeter of a right angled triangle is 5cm. Two of its sides

are each 2 cm long. How long is the third side?

D How many triangles are there?

E. A class received some regular and some special notebooks, and

altogether there were 80 notebooks. A regular notebook costs
20 cents and a special one 10 cents. How many of each kind of
notebook did the class receive?
Fig. 1. Eight questions, given in writing but to be solved mentally.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
216 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

Suitably impressed, I then showed Terence the set of written questions in

Figure 1, and asked him to solve them for me, 'in his head', without writing
anything down. Terence was instructed to speak out his thoughts, and as he
did so I recorded, in writing what he said. The questions are all from Krutetskii
(1976), and the symbols at the beginning of the questions correspond to
Krutetskii's classifications of them. Here is what Terence said when answering
the questions.

Question 1: Yes. If they didn't intersect the distance between their centres
would be more than 5. (Terence then used hand movements to explain his
answer.)

Question 2: Simple. 1/3 of 1/12th of a full circle is 1/36th of a circle. 1/36th

of 3600 equals 100.

Question 3: You get an algebraic equation, but it's hard to work out in
your head.

Weight of Can + Weight of Kero = 8

Weight of Can + (weight of Kero) = 4'
So Weight of Kero = 7 kg wt
Weight of Can = 1 kg wt.

Question 4: 1 unit + 3 units = 12 hours

So 1 unit = 3 hours
So time is 3 p.m.

Question 5: 35 minutes. If you started at the same time as your brother you'd
arrive 10 minutes before him . . . Oh no. 15 minutes, because then you'd
both be halfway.

Question 6: The third side is 1 cm . . . That can't be true, by the way.

Pythagoras' Theorem says it has to be . .. . /8 or . . . it's impossible.

Question 7: 8 triangles.

Question 8: I don't know really (laughs).

r + s = 80.

All you're given is the cost.

It can't be done.
Could be 40 regulars and 40 specials, or 50 regulars and 30 specials.

Terence answered all the questions, verbally, in a total time of 9 minutes.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 217

He was the first primary-school-age child I had tested to get all eight questions
'correct'.
When Terence had been answering the questions on the A.C.E.R. Operations
Test I had noticed that he often justified an algebraic step by writing the
appropriate algebraic law (e.g., associative law for x n). This prompted me to
vary my normal testing procedure. After Terence had completed the eight
'Krutetskii' problems the following conversation took place (M.A.C. = author;
T.T. = Terence):

M.A.C.: What is the associative law for addition of real numbers?

T.T.: It doesn't matter where you put brackets: a + b . .. + c equals
a + . . . b + c.
M.A.C.: What about the commutative laws?
T.T.: You can juggle the order: a x b =b x a
a +b = b+a
M.A.C.: What is a group?
T.T.: A set which is mapped onto itself by a binary operation. The binary
operation is associative, and the set has an identity e such that e x x
equals x for all x in the set. Also, for each x in the set there is an
inverse x' in the set such that x' * x equals e.
M.A.C.: What about the commutative law?
T.T.: Holds for Abelian groups.
M.A.C.: What is a field?
T.T.: I don't know.
M.A.C.: What is the distributive law?
T.T.: * distributes over 0;
a * (b 0 c) equals (a * b) 0 (a * c)
M.A.C.: Give me an example.
T.T.: Multiplication over addition.
M.A.C.: Addition over multiplication?
T.T.: Only for Boolean algebras.

I was quite impressed by all this. Not only did he have an astounding grasp
of algebraic definitions, for someone who was still seven years old, but I was
amazed at how he used sophisticated mathematical language freely.
The next question I asked was also from Krutetskii. The question, together
with Terence's written solution to it, is shown in Figure 2.
I was beginning to form the impression that Terence preferred to use
analytic, non-visual methods in preference to making extensive use of visual
imagery (see Lean and Clements, 1981, pp. 280-288).

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 218 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

The length of each side of a square is increased by 3 m. The area of the

'new' square is 39 m2 more than that of the original square. How long are
the sides of the 'new' square?

Terence's solution

s U TM tw-r of4- MW S 15 2t3)P, or

,:.2+66>a e2- ma6vo ;re rin

~t Ctkr( til

10 i4 e tenltA al AX's is
Fig. 2. Terence's solution to a Krutetskii problem (16 July 1983).

We decided to break for afternoon tea, which occupied about 45 minutes.

Terence was then happy to return with me to his father's study for further
questioning. Once back in the study I gave him the three questions shown in
Figure 3 and told him to write his solutions, in full, on paper.
These are the 'solutions' Terence wrote for the three questions:

1 Suppose you decided to write down all whole numbers from 1 to

99,999. How many times would have have to write the number 1?

2 A car travelled from A to B at 20 km/hr and back at 30 km/hr. What

is the car's average speed for the whole trip?

3 In a supermarket there are 24 sacks of potatoes left, some of which

weigh 9 kg, and the others 15 kg. The potatoes in the 9 kg sacks are
smaller than those in the 15 kg sacks, and each of the 24 sacks con-
tain exactly the same number of potatoes.
If the total weight of all the 15 kg sacks equals the total weight of
all the 9 kg sacks, how many 9 kg sacks are there?

Fig. 3. Written questions, requiring written answers.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 219

Question 1. (Terence gave the following incorrect solution)

1 digit total 1
2 digit total 9 + 1 = 10
3 digit total 99 + 9 + 1 = 109
4 digit total 999+99+9+ 1 = 1018
5 digit total 9999+999+99+9+ 1 = 11017

There will be 12334 l's from 1 to 99999.

Question 2. Let D(AB) = x.

Then total distance
av. speed =
total time

distance = 2x

x x
time =-
20 30

SOx

600

=-X
60

_2x
average speed =-
-x
60

_2

1/12

= 24 km/h, assuming x #0, i.e., A and B are not in

the same position.

Question 3.

x+y = 24

9x = 15y

3x = Sy

x =y

y= 24

iy 3, y-9, x =15
So there are 15 9 kg sacks.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 220 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

Terence's solutions to Questions 2 and 3 strengthened my conviction that

he preferred to make use of analytic, non-visual solution strategies. While his
attempted solution to Question 1 contained arithmetic errors, the strategy
he applied was sound enough, though there are more elegant methods which
could be used: e.g., the number of ones would equal (100000 x 5) + 10 =
50000.
After Terence had finished writing his correct solution to Question 2, he
looked puzzled, and the following conversation ensued:

T.T.: You could say the average of 20 and 30 is 25?

M.A.C.: Which is right 25 or 24?
T.T.: 25?
M.A.C.: So, what's wrong with your working? Have you made a mistake when
you got 24 km/h?
T.T.: Yes.

Perhaps my mode of questioning pushed him to say that 25km/h was the
correct solution.
When Terence had completed his solution for Question 3 I asked him what
he thought of the question. He told me 'there's one piece of information you
don't need - where it says "the potatoes in the 9 kg sacks are smaller"'.
By this stage Terence was showing slight signs of fatigue (though his interest
was still high), so I decided to ask him only two more, relatively simple
questions. First, I asked him to sketch the graph of y = x2 + x, which he did,
immediately. I asked him to find the co-ordinates of the turning point, and
he wrote

dy = 2x + I
dx

x =-2, y =-

This response took about 20 seconds.

I then asked him to sketch y = X3- 2x2 + x. His rather untidy response
is shown in Figure 4.
Terence's response took about one minute. It is interesting to observe that
he had not yet begun to study calculus at school.
Additional questioning revealed that Terence had a sound grasp of most
topics in traditional school mathematics up to and including that expected of
Year 11 students. He also understood, and could apply, the first principles and
rules of differential calculus.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 221

<y, ~ ~ ~ ~ n I cS_s L)

%,'2)~~ A~~-~.4,h

Fig. 4. Terence's response to request to sketch the graph

(16th July 1983).

Before leaving the Tao household I spoke to Dr an

backgrounds and their attitudes towards Terence an
ment. Mrs Tao (Grace) has taught Science, Physics, Ch
in secondary schools in Hong Kong and Australia. She
times attempts to guide Terence's mathematical learn
much because 'he doesn't like to be told what to do in mathematics'. She
recalled that one night, in 1983, when Terence was thinking about how to
evaluate the continued fraction

2
1+2
1 + 2

1 + 2
1 +

She had said to him: 'try a quadratic'. Immediately Terence had written

2
x = 1 +-
x

x2-x-2 = 0

x = 2 or -1

x = 2 (mustbe+ ve).

Mrs Tao's role, then, is more one of guiding and stimulating Ter
ment than one of teaching him. She said that Terence likes to rea
by himself, and he often spent three or four hours after school
ematics textbooks.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 222 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

I made arrangements to come back in order to continue my assessment of

Terence. As I was leaving Billy showed me some of Terence's efforts, over the
last two years, on the family's Commodore computer. Terence had taught
himself BASIC language (by reading a book) and had written many programs
on mathematics problems. Some of the names of his programs were 'Euclid's
algorithm', 'Fibonacci' and 'Prime Numbers'. His 'Fibonacci' program, shown
in Figure 5, is interesting in that a careful reading of it will.reveal somethin
of Terence's creative, lively personality. Also, it is fascinating to observe that
Terence wrote many of his programs early in 1982, when he was 6 years old.

8 print "J"
10 print "here comes mr. fibonacci"
20 print "can you guess which year was mr. fibonacci born?"
30 print "write down a number please . . . ": input c
31 if c = 1 170 then print "you are correctl now we start": go to 150
50 if c > 1250 then print "no, he is already in heaven, try again": go to 30
60 if c < 1 170 then print "sorry, he wasn't born yet! try again": go to 30
70 if c > 1170 < 1250 then print "he would be ";c-1 170;" years old"
71 print "now can you guess?": input c
72 if c = 1170then 31
73 print "you are wrong. try again.": go to 71
150 print "up to which number do you want me tell you all the fibonacci numbers"
151 input n
160 print "J"
190 print "okay. here they go!"
200 s-1
210 t=1
220 if s > = n then 270
230 if t > = n then 270
240 print s; t;
250 s = s + t
260 t = t + s
265 go to 220
270 print
271 print "another game, while fibonacci is waiting (y), or no more? (n)": print
272 get c$: if c$ = ""then 272
273 if c$ = "y" then 150
274 if c$ = "n" then 300
280 go to 272
300 print "mr. fibonacci is leaving now,"
310 print "and wishes to see you again sometime in the future"
312 print
313 print
315 print "here goes his carl llIIIl"
320 print "(brmmmm-brmmmm-putt-putt-vraow-chatter-chatter bye mr. fibonacci )"
390 go to 450
410 print
420 print
445 nexti
450 end

Fig. 5. Terence's 'Fibonacci' program.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 223

3. THE SECOND ASSESSMENT

Five weeks after I had first worked with Terence I returned to the Tao house
(on 20th August 1983). He was now eight years of age, and during the five
weeks I had learnt that he had gained 19th place out of about 2000 South
Australian Year 11 entrants in a national school mathematics competition.
He had sat for the competition examination in June 1983 (when he was seven).
The fact that many schools encourage only their better students at mathematics
to enter the competition added further merit to Terence's performance.
Once again, my assessment of Terence took place in his father's study. To
begin, I asked Terence to consider whether

S = {a+bV2:a,bER}
is a group under the operation of 'addition'. He immediately showed that
(S, +) was a group. I then asked him if (S, +, x) was a field. His written reply
was as follows:

(5, +) is an Abelian group (last question).

For x, Assoc, Commutative laws hold (properties of real numbers)

1 = 1 + 01/2 is x-identity

x-inverse

1 a-bV _ a b
a + bv/ a-b/2 a2 - 2b2 a2 -2b2V2,

so every el. in S has x -inverse in S except 0.

Distributive law holds (properties of real numbers).

Thus (S, +, x) is a field.

I deliberately asked about a field, because it will be recalled, during the initial
assessment Terence had told me he did not know what a field was. I was
impressed that he had obviously taken the trouble to remedy this situation;
further, the sophistication and succinct nature of his response on this occasion
was something of which a university student in mathematics should have
been proud.
Next I tested Terence's knowledge of some standard results and concepts in
integral calculus. He could tell me antiderivatives of x2, / sin x, sec2x,
1/(1 + x2), 1/1(1 1-x2), but when asked for an antiderivative of 1/x he told
me that he had 'not got up to that yet' in his reading. When I asked him to find
an antiderivative of 1/(1 -x2) he used the substution x = cos 0 to show that

S
I _ x2 1-x2=f-cosecodO.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 224 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

11A01 7t OX

Fig. 6. An integration problem.

He then said that he couldn't do this. I mentioned the words 'partial fractions'
to him, but this didn't help. He said he would read more on integration during
the next few weeks.
I then drew, freehand, the sketch shown in Figure 6 and asked him to find
the shaded area. He immediately wrote

r w r 77r/6
J6 sin x dzx + J (-sin x) dx

= [-cosxB,6 + [cosx]1'6

= 1+X~/2-4~/2+1

= 2.

When asked to find the area between the graph of y = 1/x2 and the x-
for all x > 1, Terence wrote

2 -[-l/x]7 = 0-(-1)= 1.

Terence then attempted the Monash Space Visualization Test (see

Wattanawaha and Clements (1982) for examples of items on this test), and
obtained a score of 27/30. Norms for the test indicate that the mean score
of Year 12 students is 24/30. One of the three questions which Terence got
wrong is shown in Figure 7.
After Terence had completed the test I asked him to verbalize the methods
he had used when attempting the questions on the test, and these verbal
responses were taped. With respect to the question in Figure 7 he explained

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 225

F If the shape in Figure 1 was

/ ' / t / ! / placed in the position shown in
I - E Figure 2, which would be the
KS --- --- G lettersforthecorners 1 and 2

L.- L p | 1, which are indicated by the arrows.

N B

p 0

Fig. 7. A question from the Monash Space Visualization Test.

that he had used two mental rotations to try to move Figure 1 into exactly the
same position as Figure 2. He correctly identified Corner 1 as J, but thought
that Corner 2 was N. He told me he found it difficult to carry out the required
visualization exercise. One of his other errors on the test was also due to his
inability to carry out reasonably complex manipulations of visual images.
Analysis of the methods Terence said he used when attempting the questions
on the Space Visualization Test strongly suggested that he preferred to use
non-visual, analytic methods whenever these occurred to him, even if they
required more complicated thinking than more visual methods which could be
used. Thus, for example, for the question shown in Figure 8, he said that he
checked each shape by the reflection law (each point has an image on the
other side of the mediator), and he did not imagine each shape being folded
along the dotted line.
Terence's performance on the Space Visualization Test suggested that his
spatial abilities are exceptionally well developed. However, on questions which
can bg done by more analytic, less visual methods, he is happy to use these in

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 226 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

QUESTION 9. Which of A, B, C, D, E cannot be folded along the dotted

line so that one half fits exactly over the other half?

A B C D E
Fig. 8. A question which Terence did by an analytic method.

preference to methods which require manipulation of visual imagery. Burden

and Coulson (1981), after a detailed study of methods used by persons
attempting a variety of spatial tasks (from widely used spatial tests), have
reported that persons who prefer analytic to more visual methods tend to
perform better on spatial tests. Thus, while Terence does experience some
difficulty when attempting complex manipulations of visual images, his pref-
erence for more analytic methods served him well on the Space Visualization
Test. In this context, it is interesting that Krutetskii (1976, p. 351) claimed
that neither an ability for spatial concepts nor an ability to visualize abstract
mathematical relationships are obligatory in the structure of mathematical
giftedness. However, the degree of their development in an individual does
influence that individual's mathematical cast of mind (see also Shepard, 1978,
pp. 133-184).
While Terence was attempting the Space Visualization Test I made up a list
of 22 books on mathematics which, according to records he kept, he had ready
over the past two years. Among these books were:

K. K. Ko Matrices and Vectors. Hong Kong: 1971

Numbers, Inequalities, Linear Programming. Hong Kong: 1971
E. A. Abbott Flatland. New York (Dover): 1952
Irving Adler Readings in Mathematics I, II. Lexington (Mass.): 1972
S. F. Barker The Elements of Logic. New York: 1974
S. L. Greitzer International Mathematical Olympiads 1959-1977. Washington
D.C.: 1978
A. J. Sherlock, E. M. Roebuck, M. G. Godfrey Calculus: Pure and Applied.

Terence tends to read whole books rather than parts of books. He is keen to
receive advice on which books he should read next. His father told me that he
has a remarkable memory for virtually everything he reads. On several occasions

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 227

when I spoke with Terence about mathematics he punctuated the conversation

by saying 'Oh yes, I've read about that'. He then went and got a book, quickly
found the relevant section, and showed it to me.
After Terence had completed the spatial test I then gave him an open-
ended task involving the following sequences, in which each term after the
first is the sum of the squares of the digits in the preceding term. Figure 9
shows the infornation Terence was given and the questions which he was
asked to answer.

2 -4- 16 -+37 -58 -89 - 145 -42-+ 20-+4

3 -9-+
4
5
6
7 o49-97- -130 o- 1 o
8

Questions:
1 Which natural numbers produce sequences 'like' those for 2 and 3?
2 Which natural numbers produce sequences 'like' those for 1 and 7?
3 Which natural numbers produce sequences which are not 'like' those
for 1 or 7?
4 Any other points of interest.

Fig. 9. An open-ended task.

Terence was allowed about twenty minutes on this task. He quickly estab-
lished that 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 produced sequences 'like' 2 and 3. He stated that no
natural number would produce a sequence 'different from' the two which were
already obvious, but did not offer a proof of this conjecture. He did not show
any evidence of having considered the kinds of sequences produced by natural
numbers with two or more digits. For Question 4 he raised the interesting
question of whether similar patterns would hold for arithmetics other than
base 10 arithmetic. This constituted Terence's total reply and, I must confess,
I was disappointed that he did not provide a longer, more profound analysis
of the situation.
For the second assessment I had been accompanied to the Tao household
by Dr Max Stephens, Principal Curriculum Officer in the Curriculum Branch of
the Education Department of Victoria. I asked Dr Stephens if he would like to
ask Terence a question. Dr Stephens has provided the following report on
what ensued:

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 228 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

I drew pictures of the 6 Australian coins: lcent, 2cent, Scent, 10cent, 20cent and
50 cent, and then asked Terry how many different totals he could make using the coins.
He replied 720, but then added, "They will all be the same." I realised that my question
should have indicated that the coins could be taken one at a time, two at a time, three at
a time, up to all six at once. Having heard this question rephrased, Terry said, "There are
2' - 1 ways of making totals out of these six coins". I asked him whether he was familiar
with the notation for writing a selection of one or two or more things from a group of
six. He said that he was. We then wrote down the six possible groupings of the coins
involved, and showed that the result was 63. He had already obtained that result on his
own, using the formula 2' - 1. I said to him, "Perhaps, some of these groupings give the
same total as other groupings. What do you think of that possibility?" Straight away, he
replied, "That can't be so. If you take any coin, its value- is greater than the total of all
the coins smaller than it".

We then had afternoon tea. Terence seemed happy to continue working

with me, so after afternoon tea I asked him to attempt the following well-
known addition problem.

A
MERRY
XMAS

TURKEY

He was told that the letters represented the digits 0, 1, 2, . . . 9, that K = 3,

and that whenever a letter appears more than once it must take the same value
for each appearance. The problem is to find the value for each letter. I asked
Terence to verbalise his thoughts as he attempted the problem, and his verbal-
izations were taped for later analysis.
Terence quickly solved the problem correctly. The most interesting feature
of his strategy was an obvious liking for writing down and solving relevant
simultaneous equations. Once again, his preference for using an analytic, highly
logical problem-solving strategy was revealed.
This completed my second assessment session with Terence. After the session
Mrs Tao provided the summary of Terence's school timetable for Term 3, 1983
(see Table I). The entries marked with an asterisk (*) were to take place at
Bellevue Heights Primary School (Year 5) and the others at Blackwood High
School (year 8: General Studies, Year 11: Physics, Year 12: Mathematics).
Mrs Tao would provide the necessary transport between schools.
Because Terence had already studied all of the topics which would have
been taught in Year 11 Mathematics at Blackwood High School in term 3, it
had been decided that he should attend Year 12 Mathematics classes, at the
School, during the term.
At my request Dr Tao provided me with copies of three reports, by a

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 229

TABLE I

Terence's School Timetable for Term 3, 1983

Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

9:00- 9:45 Maths 2 Maths 2 Spelling* Maths 2 Maths 1

9:45-10:30 Maths 2 Physics Reading* Maths 1 Library
10:30-11:15 Maths 1 Library Physics Physics Physics

RECESS

11:30-12:15 Gen. Stud. Maths 1 Library Gen. Stud. Drama*

12:15- 1:00 Fitness* Fitness* Maths 1 Fitness* Fitness*

LUNCH

1:40- 2:25 Physics Soc. Stud.* Maths 1 Health Sc.* Art*

Music*
2:25- 3.10 Soc. Stud.* Phys. Ed.* Maths 2 Poetry* Maths 2

clinical psychologist, on Terence. These reports were based on data gained at

interviews with Terence when he was 4 years 7 months (February 1980),
5 years 9 months (May 1981), and 6 years 4 months (November 1981).
In the first report the clinical psychologist stated that although Terence was
only 41 years old he was functioning intellectually more like an 8 to 10 year-
old. He added that Terence would require careful supervision during his school-
ing to see that his intellectual, social and emotional needs were met adequately.
In the second report the psychologist stated that Terence was in the 95th
percentile range for 11 year olds on the Raven's Controlled Projection Matrices
test (a primarily non-verbal test of reasoning). In the third report Terence, at
age 6 years 4 months, is said to have gained maximum or near maximum scores
on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children, with there being no difference
between his verbal and performance (practical, non-verbal) intelligence. His
overall Mental Age was 14 years (very superior range of intellect for a 6 year-
old). The psychologist indicated that while the situation seemed quite favour-
able at that time, with Terence accepting normal progression through the
school grades, special arrangements might have to be made for his transition to
secondary and tertiary education.
I first met Terence almost twenty months after the third report was written.
Much had been done during this period and special arrangements' had been, and
were being, made for his secondary and tertiary education. I had to admire the
efforts which his parents, Billy and Grace, had made on his behalf, despite the
danger that they would be labelled 'pushy' by persons who did not understand.
As Julian Stanley and Camilla Benbow (1982, p. 8) have noted, there is
great hostility towards precocious intellectual achievement in many quarters.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 230 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

The following statement is a challenge, not only to educators but to the

whole community:

Why is a child violinist, composer, chess player, cinema star or athlete lauded, whereas the
child who excels mathematically or writes splendid poetry is sometimes regarded as a
"freak"? This attitude may be stronger in the United States than in some other countries
such as the Soviet Union and China. Whether or not it is, however, the deleterious influence
on intellectual achievements is probably great. Furthermore, many people consider
attempts to provide special educational opportunities for the inte}lectually talented as
elitist. This, we believe, is based on a misconception: democracy does not mean that
children must receive the same education, but instead that they should have equal oppor-
tunities to develop their abilities.
(Stanley and Benbow, 1982, p. 8)

In a society where hostility towards parents who regard their children as

sufficiently bright to warrant extra-special educational consideration is endemic,
it is refreshing to discover parents as courageous and realistic as Grace and
Billy Tao.

4. THE THIRD ASSESSMENT

The Tao's invited me to their home on 17 September 1983 in order to join

them in discussions with Dr Tom van Dulken, a senior tutor in the school of
mathematics sciences of Flinders University (Adelaide), concerning the possi-
bility of Terence's early entry to Flinders University.
After Dr van Dulken had spoken with Terence, mostly on aspects of various
mathematical topics, I asked Terence a few more questions. Terence found, at
my request, antiderivatives of x sin x and ex cos x. I asked him to find an anti-
derivative of sin x/(sin x + cos x) and was impressed by his written reply:

sin x 1 cos x-sin x

dx = - _ dx
sin x + cos x J 2 2(sin x + cos x)

= ix-4lnlsinx+cosxI+C.
I noticed that he now knew that ln x I is an antiderivative of I/x (something
he had not known at the time of the second assessment).
When I asked Terence to find the constant form in the binomial expansion
of (2x - 4/x)10 he told me that he had not yet done much on the binomial
theorem and proceeded, laboriously, to construct Pascal's triangle in order to
obtain an answer. I told him not to worry about it, but to find out how to do
it quickly before I saw him 'next time'. A couple of weeks later, when the Tao
family visited my home, I asked Terence to find the constant term in the
binomial expansion of (2x - 5Sx)'0. He told me he could do it quickly now,
and wrote:

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 231

(n + 1)th term = ( (2

= (10)

When n = 5 the constant term is

(10
25 (- 5)s 252 x (- 10)5

=-25200000.

Indeed, Terence could now do such problems quickly.

Since Terence had already been speaking with Dr van Dulken for some time
before I started with my questions, I decided not to ask him any more ques-
tions. However, he agreed to my borrowing an exercise book which contained
some of the mathematics exercises he had done at home over recent weeks.
On examining this book I found that often Terence wrote the date at the
bottom of the page, and this enabled me to see that on many days he had done
from three to five pages of work (by himself, at home). The following solutions,
taken from the exercise book, indicate the level of work which Terence had
been doing.

1. d 2y dy dy
- _-6- + 5y = ? Y=3 --1 whenx = 0

K2 _6K+ 5 = 0

(K-5)(K-1) = 0

K = 5, 1

y =A esx+Bex A +B= 3
SA + B = -1
dy
I- 5Ae5x+Bex A=-1, B=4

y = 4ex eSx

2. dx t - tan ix
1 + sinx + cosx

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 232 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

_2 dt
+ +I
r _ __ l - t 2
+2t 1-t2
1+ i ~+t t+ 1 + t2

2 dt

J1+,t*.+2t+1-I
. lnll+t l+C

= lnI1 + tan ixl+ C

3. 3(x+1) Ax+B Cx +D
=+
x2(X2 + 3) x2 x2+ 3
3x+3 -Ax3+Bx2+3Ax+3B+Cx3+Dx2

3x + 3 = (A+Ox3+(B+D)X2 + 3Ax + 3B
A = 1, B = 1, C =-1, D = -1

3(X + 1) cix _ X+ I oix _ X + I cix

1x2(X2 +3) Jx21dJ~+
dx 1 r 2 x dx
Jx J 2 2X2 +3X Jx2 +3

= ln I---- ln (X2 + 3)-- Itan-' x + C

x 2 VN 3 V-

His use of partial fractions in this last example is in

that during my assessment of him, on 20 August 19
find an antiderivative of 1/(1 -x2). Terence learns
With respect to Terence's future schooling, Billy
that in 1984 he will not study any mathematics a
to work at home in such areas as algebraic structu
computing, and analysis. In 1984 he will spend all his school time at
Blackwood High School, where he will study humanities subjects in Year 8
classes, Geography in Years 10 and 11, Chemistry in Year 11 and Physics in
Year 12. Provided Terence's interest in academic maths remains, and he appears
to be socially and emotionally ready, he will begin a degree course in math-
ematics at Flinders University in 1985. Dr van Dulken believes that, even
though he will be nine years old at the beginning of his university career
(assuming everything goes as planned), he would be far more advanced math-
ematically than most, if not all, of his fellow first-year students; special

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 233

provisions may well have to be made for him. I would concur with his judge-
ment. I have no doubt that, purely from the cognitive point of view, Terence
would have no difficulty coping with first-year university courses in math-
ematics if he began the courses in 1984. This is not part of the Tao's plan,
however, for Billy and Grace Tao are reluctant to place their son in a situation
in which he might not cope emotionally. While there is nothing that I have
seen or heard concerning Terence which would suggest that he might not
'fit in' at a university, I believe, nevertheless, that the parents' caution is wise.
While at the Tao's with Tom van Dulken I heard Terence mention to Tom
that he was especially pleased with a computer program he had written on
perfect numbers. Having always had an interest in number theory I asked
Terence if I could see the program. Terence told me that he had submitted
it, for possible publication, to Trigon, a student mathematics journal published
in South Australia. Subsequently, the program together with some comments
by Terence, was accepted for publication. As Billy Tao told me: "So Terence
has gained his first publication". Terence's Trigon submission appears as
Appendix 1 in this paper.
Although the perfect numbers program is Terence's first publication, the
first published statement about Terence appeared several years ago. Newsletter
13 of the South Australian Association for Gifted and Talented Children,
August 1980, contained the following excerpt (Leon = Terence Tao):

Leon (not his real name), one of our Saturday Club children, enjoyed Mae Cuthbert's
Calculator Games afternoon at Putteney. At one point the calculator threw up the num-
ber sequence 9182736. Mae challenged the children to find the next four numbers in the
series. Leon thought for a moment and then replied '4554'. He was right. (Had you worked
out that the number series consisted of the answers to the 9 times table?)
Leon has just turned five. He starts school in a month's time.

More than three years after this episode took place, Terence, still a little boy,
happily played hide and seek with his two younger brothers when the Tao
family visited the Clements household. He is a happy, well-mannered lad who
obviously loves and respects his parents and his two brothers. He gets on well
with others, too. Mr John Fidge, his Year 11 Mathematics teacher at Blackwood
High School for the first two terms of 1983, told me that after he had been
attending the Year 1 1 Mathematics classes for about a fortnight he was accepted
as just another member of the class. He is always willing to volunteer answers
to questions asked by his teachers and was regarded as a friendly, humble, but
very bright boy by his classmates.
As a postscript to the above discussion of data concerning Terence's intellec-
tual ability and performance, it is fascinating to note that in November 1983
he upofficially sat for the Matriculation Mathematics I paper of the Public

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 234 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

Examinations Board of South Australia. This was a 3-hour paper for Year 12
students seeking to qualify for entrance to South Australian universities.
Terence finished the paper in less than two hours and scored an unofficial
93% on it - a result which would certainly place him in the top bracket of
matriculation mathematics students.

5. SOME REFLECTIONS ON TERENCE'S EDUCATION,

ASPIRATIONS AND LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS

It is interesting to reflect on the fact that thus far Terence's mathematical

education has not been a carefully planned affair; he has not followed some
carefully constructed sequence of topics. Rather, he has moved from topic to
topic depending on his own interests and on certain external, guiding factors.
The most important, and constant guide has been his mother, Grace, who, as
a mathematics graduate, has been able to keep her eye on the sequencing of
topics studied by Terence. Terence's leaming has also been influenced by the
topics he has studied at school, and by advice given to him by mathematicians
and mathematics educators. Dr Billy Tao, although a busy pediatrician, has
given much of his time to seek out the best advice on appropriate courses of
action with respect to Terence's education.
While some might think that Terence's education, thus far, has been too
much subject to the influence of fairly random forces, I would disagree strenu-
ously with such a view. There is no single 'best way' of educating an exception-
ally capable child, and the Tao method of getting the best possible advice yet,
ultimately, allowing Terence to pursue those topics which interest and challenge
him most, has been successful. Terence loves mathematics, and efforts have
been made to ensure that he does not become bored and frustrated with non-
challenging work (see Vance, 1983, p. 22).
Those who have worked with Terence would find any suggestion that he
should spend all of his school time with children of his own age as bordering on
the absurd (see the story of Evariste Galois, in Be}l (1962, pp. 362-377), and
Charles Fefferman's (1983) account of his own mathematical education, for
notable instances of how exceptionally capable students in mathematics found
their school mathematics classes totally unrewarding). It is likely that Terence
is one of the most mathematically precocious children in the world. Recently
(in May 1982), Jay Luo became the youngest university graduate in the history
of the United States of America when he gained a degree in mathematics at
Boise State University, Idaho, at the age of twelve (see Stanley and Benbow,
1983, pp. 21-22, for details of the careers, thus far, of Luo and other young
mathematics graduates in U.S.A.). If Terence begins his university career in

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 235

1985, as is likely to be the case, then he would be twelve when he completed

his degree (assuming this takes the normal three years). But such an achieve-
ment would be beside the point, for already, at the age of eight, he has mastered
not a small part of the work covered in undergraduate mathematics programs
in good American universities.
For the next ten years Billy and Grace Tao are keen that Terence should
identify fully with his family, his local community, and the Australian way
of life. On the other hand, they want to help him to develop his rare talents
to the fullest, and to that end they are thinking about the possibility of
Terence gaining his Ph.D. in mathematics at Flinders University by, say,
the age of seventeen. Terence will be able to attend Flinders University
without much disruption to the family since the University campus is
very close to the Tao's home. After Terence has completed his doctorate
he might then be mature enough to pursue post-doctoral research at a top
American, European, or Australian University. Such plans are tentative, of
course, because Billy and Grace realize that Terence will have an increasing
say in what he does in the future. At this stage, Billy and Grace try to
encourage Terence to be as creative as possible - the acceptance, by Trigon,
of his paper on perfect numbers especially pleased them because he con-
structed the computer program from algorithms he himself had developed
(see Appendix).
From my assessment of Terence's mathematical abilities and interests the
following characteristics stand out:
1. He has a prodigious long-term memory for mathematical definitions,
proofs and ideas with which he has become acquainted;
2. While he has well developed spatial ability, when attempting to solve
mathematical problems he has a distinct, though not conscious, preference for
using verbal-logical, as opposed to visual, thinking (see Lean and Clements,
1981, pp. 267-299; Sheckels and Eliot, 1983, pp. 811-816);
3. He is capable of understanding mathematical writing even when such
writing makes considerable use of sophisticated mathematical terminology
and symbolism;
4. He especially likes analysis (differential and integral calculus), algebraic
structures, number theory, and computing;
5. He tends to grasp abstract concepts quickly, and does not need to have
these concepts presented to him by means of concrete embodiments;
6. While he is capable of formulating appropriate solution strategies for
unseen, challenging problems, at present he is usually happy to immerse him-
self further into the world of mathematics. He especially enjoys reading about
the history of mathematics, and learning how to apply those algorithms which

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 236 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

are needed in his special fields of interest (e.g., algorithms for solving second-
order differential equations);
7. He learns mathematics at an amazing rate. In 1983, for example, he
seems to have learnt most of the mathematics normally covered in syllabuses
for Years 11 and 12 and, in addition, has mastered much of the mathematics
typically found in first-year university programs (speed in learning is a charac-
teristic of most exceptionally gifted children in mathematics - see House, 1983,
p. 231; Vance, 1983, p. 22);
8. If he finds he does not know some area of mathematics which interests
him (or he needs) he consults books to find out the information he needs. He
learns well, from books, without the aid of a tutor;
9. Once having obtained a 'solution' to a problem he does not like to check
his work and, if asked to do so, sometimes gives an impression that he would
rather proceed with new work;
10. He does not take pride in setting out his work in a way that will com-
municate easily with others. In presenting written solutions he is usually con-
tent to write just enough to convince the reader he can do the problem.

APPENDIX: TERENCE'S FIRST PUBLISHED PAPER

PERFECT NUMBERS

A perfect number is one such that all its factors, including one but excluding
itself, add up to itself. For example, 6 is a perfect number since 6 has factors
1, 2, 3 and 6 and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. In fact, 6 is the smallest perfect number.
Euclid proved in his Elements that a number of the form 2P-1(2P - 1) is a
perfect number if 2P - 1 is a prime number.
I used this fact to write a programme in Basic to fmd perfect numbers but
first we need a programme on prime numbers for checking if 2P - 1 is prime.

r e:* adw

10 refit Prirtie numbers

11 remi to calculate Primie numbers up to a
20 input a
.22 if a=2 then Print"2"';loto 100
25 Print"2 3";
30 for i=2 to a
40 if i=a then 100
L;0 for d=2 to int(sqr(i)+2)
60 if i/d=int(i/d) then 90
70 next d
80 Pr i nt i;
90 next i
100 end

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 TERENCE TAO 237

So now let us see how we can use lines 40-60 to find perfect numbers.

re-ady.
1.0 remi Perfect numobers
15 rem- to calculate perfect nuAmXbers
20 i nput n
30 if n<:6 then Print. "none": toto 200
35 if n=6 then Print "6 onlY"l oto 200
40 Print"6""r
45 for i=3 to 26
46 rem,} limit n to 2t25*(2t26-1)
47 let v=2ti-1
5 0 remi next, loop is to check if 2ti-i is Prime
52 for l= 2- to int(sqr(y)))
53 if v/l=int(v/l) then 70
54 if v*2t(i-1).`:n then 200
55 nex t I
5J7 Pr int"t," llJ* 2)t ( i -t 1;
70 next i
200 Print
201 Print"(this PProtram was written on 26/8/83)"
300 endr

Unfortunately, line 45 limits us to 225 (226 - 1), but then the computer has
a limited range of numbers: it will never get to 225 (226 - 1) anyway. I have
computed perfect numbers up to 1013.

6, 28,496,8128,33 550 336, 8.58986906e + 09, 1.37438691e + 11

The last two, of course, are only approximations to the actual perfect num-
bers and are unacceptable in this form.

8.58986906e + 09 = 8 589 869 060 when the last two figures are in doubt.
In fact it is 8 589 869 056.
Terence Tao

From Trigon (School Mathematics Journal of the Mathematical Association of South

Australia) 21 (3), Nov. 1983, p. 7.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The editor gratefully acknowledges the permission given by

to reproduce Terence's first article.

REFERENCES

Bell, E. T.: 1962, Men of Mathematics, Simon and Schuster, New York.
Burden, L. D. and Coulson, S. A.: 1981, 'Processing of spatial tasks', M.Ed. Studies
Project, Monash University.

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 238 M. A. (KEN) CLEMENTS

Cornish, G. and Wines, R.: 1977, Operations Test, Australian Council for Educational
Research, Melbourne.
Fefferman, C.: 1983, 'An account of a mathematician's education', Mathematics Teacher
76, 228.
House, P. A.: 1983, 'Alternative education programs for gifted students in mathematics',
Mathematics Teacher 76, 229-233.
Krutetskii, V. A.. 1976, 7he Psychology of Mathematical Abilities in Schoolchildren,
University of Chicago Press (translated from Russian by J. Teller, edited by J. Kilpatrick
and I. Wirszup).
Lean, G. A. and Clements, M. A.: 1981, 'Spatial ability, visual imagery and mathematical
performance', Educational Studies in Mathematics 12, 26 7-299.
Shepard, R. N.: 1978, 'Externalization of mental inages and the act of creation', in B. S.
Randhawa and W. E. Coffman (eds), Visual Learning, Thinking and Communication,
Academic Press, New York 133-184.
Sheckels, M. P. and Eliot, J.: 1983, 'Preference and solution patterns in mathematics
performance', Perceptual and Motor Skills 57; 811-816.
Stanley, J. C. and Benbow, C. P.: 1982, 'Educating mathematically precocious youths:
Twelve policy recommendations', Educational Researcher 11, 4-9.
Stanley, J. C. and Benbow, C. P.: 1983, 'SMPY's first decade: Ten years of posing problems
and solving them', Journal of Special Education 17, 11-25.
Vance, J. H.: 1983, 'The mathematically talented student revisited', Arithmetic Teacher
31, 22-25.
Wattanawaha, N. and Clements, M. A.: 1982, 'Qualitative aspects of sex-related differences
in performances on pencil-and-paper spatial questions, grades 7-9', Journal of Edu-
cational Psychology 74, 878-887.

G-53 Saket,
New Delhi 11001 7,
India

Postscript. Terence's father reports that on an unofficial testing with SAT-M,

Terence scored 720 at age 8 years 6 months (Ed).

This content downloaded from

131.170.21.110 on Tue, 02 Nov 2021 03:19:51 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms