Chapter 7

Sampling Methods

Chapter Outline 7.3.4. Stack Sampling 128

7.1. Definition 117 7.3.5. Alluvial Placer Sampling 129
7.2. Sampling Equipment 117 7.3.6. Channel Sampling 129
7.2.1. Conventional Equipment 117 7.3.7. Chip Sampling 129
7.2.2. Drilling Techniques 118 7.3.8. Diamond Drill Core Sampling 129
7.2.2.1. Percussion Drilling 118 7.3.9. Sludge Sampling 130
7.2.2.2. Percussive Cum Rotary Drilling 119 7.3.10. RC Drill Sampling 131
7.2.2.3. Auger Drilling 119 7.3.11. Grab Sampling 131
7.2.2.4. Diamond Drilling 119 7.3.12. Muck Sampling 131
7.2.2.5. Wire Line Drilling 123 7.3.13. Car Sampling 131
7.2.2.6. RC Drilling 124 7.3.14. Bulk Sampling 131
7.2.2.7. Borehole Survey 124 7.3.15. Ocean Bed Sampling 131
7.2.2.8. Core Recovery 126 7.4. Sample Reduction for Chemical Analysis 132
7.2.2.9. Core Preservation 126 7.5. Accuracy and Due Diligence in Sampling 133
7.2.2.10. Core Logging 126 7.6. Quality Assurance and Quality Control 134
7.3. Sampling Methods 127 7.7. Optimization of Samples 135
7.3.1. Soil Sampling 127 Further Reading 135
7.3.2. Pitting 127
7.3.3. Trenching 128

statistical method. There are various sampling practices as

Sampling requirements are set by the orebody, not by the engineer.
suitable to the situation.
dAuthor.

7.2. SAMPLING EQUIPMENT

7.1. DEFINITION The samples are collected by various means and methods as
suitable and convenient to the situations without compro-
Sampling is the process of taking a small portion of an
mising the quality and reproducibility.
object such that the consistency of the part shall
symbolize the wholedentire property or only of adjacent
portion of the object under assessment. The objects in
7.2.1. Conventional Equipment
geological aspect are granite hill, limestone deposit, The most frequently used sampling tool, an indispensable
alluvial soil, weathered profile, beach sand, poly-metallic companion of a geologist in the field, is a hammer and
nodules, mineral occurrences, drill core, well water, gas. chisel. These handy tools are used for the collection of rock
The sample interval and quantity will depend on the samples, chip samples and channel samples. In case of grab,
homogeneity or complexity of the mineral under search. muck, car and bulk samples, when large volume of samples
The “unit” of the sample size i.e. millimeter (mm), is required, spade, shovel and mechanized loader are
centimeter (cm), meter (m), feet (f ), gram (gm), kilogram preferred. However, the most important sampling technique
(kg), pound (lb), liter (l) etc. must be specified in partic- required for establishing the continuity of mineralization in
ular to make it significant. The unit is needed for precise all directions, 3D visualization and assessment of a mineral
computation of the average grade by conventional and deposit is drilling holes. The technology needs elaboration.

Mineral Exploration. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416005-7.00007-6 117

Copyright Ó 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
118 Mineral Exploration

7.2.2. Drilling Techniques the various types of power units. The power units are
manual lift and drop, compressed air and electrically
The principle of drilling appears from the remote antiq- driven winches. The tungsten carbide bit fitted in
uity used for boring short holes in the construction of a hammer is lifted few meters and allowed to drop
pyramids by the Egyptians (2630 BCE). The first (Fig. 7.1) to hit the bottom of the hole. The process
machine was manufactured in 1862-1863. It was operated continues in succession. The churning motion of the bit
by hand rotation. The technology became popular for crushes and scraps the ground, and so a hole is dug. The
digging holes in different media with diverse applica- cutting of rocks thus produces mud or slurry by lowering
tions. The drilling is extensively employed in mineral water. The crushed material is removed from the bottom of
exploration. The increase of demand progressively stim- the hole at a regular interval to make a sample. Churn
ulated the manufacturers for effective design of machines drilling is suitable for soft and medium formation. In
and accessories with an aim to improve efficiency and harder formation resharpening of cutting bit is required
lower the cost. The search for deep-seated orebody, frequently resulting in lowering of progress. The capacity
petroleum and gas reservoir is unthinkable without of the churn drill is limited to relatively short holes say
availability of efficient drill machines which can collect 10-50 m.
samples at depth more than 2000 m. The cost of sampling is comparatively much lower than
There are essentially three methods of drilling: diamond drilling under similar conditions. But the chances
percussive, rotary, and combined effect of percussive and of contamination between sample depths are high. This
rotary movement. Rotary drilling methods include auger makes the method inefficient to demarcate correct orebody
drilling, diamond drilling and its variations. Jackhammer contacts and assessment of average grade. It can provide
and wagon drills fall in the percussive cum rotary drill type. information regarding presence of mineralization that can
be precisely explored by diamond drilling. The system has
7.2.2.1. Percussion Drilling been modified for collection of regular sample by con-
The percussion or churn drill digs a vertical hole. It necting water pump (Fig. 7.2). The return water brings the
employs the principle of freely falling chisel bit hung on rock cutting to the surface and a sample can be prepared.
a cable to which percussive motion is imparted by one of Another modification is by introducing a slit in the bit

FIGURE 7.1 Schematic conceptual diagram of

percussion drilling procedure often used in engi-
neering geology for foundation testing and occa-
sionally in the initial stage of mineral exploration
and particularly for low-profile budget.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 119

limited to 6 m. The drills are compressed air driven.

Water is injected through hollow steel drill rods to cool
the bit head from excessive heating. The return water
flushes out the crushed material from the hole for free
movement of bit and rods. If collected properly, it will
serve as samples for assaying to know the metal content
of the advancing face. These types of drills are used
primarily for development of tunnels, advance mining
faces and breaking big boulders in road and other
construction areas. It has limited use in mineral explo-
ration. The samples are used to estimate the approximate
metal content of big rock exposures, mine blast quality in
advance for grade control and scheduling purposes. It can
provide information of roof and floor of coal seam
including thickness of coal bands within.

7.2.2.3. Auger Drilling

Auger drills have limited use, but it plays a significant role
FIGURE 7.2 Percussion drilling in operation for rock quality and quick
in sampling and evaluation of soft and loose ground like
target test for mineral occurrences at low cost and time. The hammer is
detailed in the inset. soil, beach sand, mine dump, mill concentrate and tailings.
Auger drills can be hand operated (Fig. 7.4A) or mechan-
ically powered. Its advantages are low cost, speed and
which holds the rock cuttings for a sample at standard mobility. Hand-operated augers can operate up to 3 m with
interval. The method is regularly being used for tube wells hole diameter between 10 and 15 cm depending on softness
and foundation testing. of the material to cut. Mechanically driven augers with
efficiently designed cutter heads (Fig. 7.4B) can drill up to
7.2.2.2. Percussive Cum Rotary Drilling 30 m or more depending on the subsoil condition. Samples
out of multipurpose auger drilling are useful to provide
When the penetration of drill bit (integral or detachable grade and other specifications mentioned for above mate-
tungsten carbide) takes place due to the resultant action rial quickly at low cost. However, samples may often fail to
of both percussive and rotary movements it is known as provide accurate information due to wall collapse and
percussive cum rotary drill such as Jackhammer related contamination.
(Fig. 7.3) and Wagon drills. The percussive action
produces longitudinal impact on the rod to break the rock
particles. The rotational movement exerts force on the bit
7.2.2.4. Diamond Drilling
head to penetrate into the rocks. The depth of drilling is The surface and underground diamond drills are the most
versatile tools. It is extensively used for mineral explora-
tion, dam site and other foundation test works, information
on advance mine development face, drainage of mine
workings, mine ventilation, oil structure investigations and
oil-gas well drilling. Extreme hardness of diamond enables
it to cut all types of rocks and minerals found in the Earth’s
crust.
The diamond drill unit (Fig. 7.5) consists of an engine
(motor), attached to a drilling head and hoisting units, water
pump together with drill rods, core barrel, casing pipes,
cutting tools and a tripod stand. The engine is powered by
diesel, electricity or compressed air. The motor, mounted
on a cemented platform or truck, transmits revolving power
through a transmission and clutch to a set of gears to the
drilling head. There are usually three to four set of feed
FIGURE 7.3 Jackhammer drilling in rich sulfide mineralization for gears in the swivel head, with capacity ranging between
multipurpose use as underground mine face development and sample 100 and 1000 revolutions per inch of advance of the feed
source for ore continuity and grade control. screw. The chuck equipped with jaws is placed at the
120 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.4 Sketch diagram of (A) auger

drillingda simplified easy to hand operate low-cost
sampling unit and (B) cutter head.

bottom of the feed screw through which drill rods pass. The The hollow steel, flush jointed or coupled “drill rods”
drill rods are attached to core barrel and diamond bit. The are usually 10 feet (3.05 m) long through which water is
total drill string is forced downward with the high-speed pumped to cool the bit and flush the rock cuttings. “Dia-
revolution of the chuck by tightening jaws. This results in mond core bit”, the main cutting tool, is a cylindrical
cutting of core and making a hole. hollow tube made of special alloys with a crown at one end
A “tripod” is commissioned by erecting three poles of (Fig. 7.7). The crown is composed of superior diamond
about 30 feet long around the drill unit. The function of holding qualities of powered metal alloys on which dia-
tripod is to raise and lower 10 or 20 feet rods during drilling monds of different sizes, quantities and design are set
operation with the help of “hoist”. A “scaffold” is nailed depending on the rock types to be drilled. The fragment
and chained to the tripod where the helper can stand safely sizes are expressed as stones per carat (spc), say 80/120 spc
and operates the rod hoisting. The screwing and unscrewing i.e. between 80 and 120 spc (1 carat ¼ 200 mg).
of rods is done efficiently by automatic mechanized means. “Reaming shell” is mounted between the cutting bit and
The rods are withdrawn at intervals of 10 feet or less core barrel. It is an annular bit with diamonds set only on
depending upon the drilling condition. The core is removed the outer surface or periphery (Fig. 7.8). The reamer shell
from the barrel for geological studies (logging) and storage. widens the borehole diameter drilled by the diamond bit by
The modern diamond drill rig has capacity to sink about 0.30-0.40 mm. It maintains an uniform hole diam-
þ2000 m depth through fully mechanized operation with eter, reduces the wear and tear of the core bit and barrel, and
two to three crews (Fig. 7.6). improves flow of return water.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 121

FIGURE 7.5 Schematic diagram of surface diamond drilling unit showing various components and functions to sink a borehole for recovery of core
samples of all rock types passing through including structural features and mineralization.
122 Mineral Exploration

A “core barrel” is attached between the lower end of the “Double tube” core barrels are suitable for average core
drill rods and the reamer shell. The core barrel holds the recovery, where the inner and outer tubes are connected and
core inside while drilling and brought to the surface. Core rotate simultaneously. “Triple tube” core barrels are
barrels are “single tube” used for core drilling under best complex and expensive type used in broken, friable and
core recovery condition or noncoring bits in blast hole sheared formations where assay value of the samples is
drilling. necessary. “Core lifter” or core spring (Fig. 7.9) is placed at
the lower end of the barrel that holds the core from drop-
ping out of the barrel.
A cylindrical “core” (Fig. 7.10) of rock is cut with the
advancement of the bit. The core represents as sample and
provides physical and accurate records of formations
through which the drilling continues.
Water is essential for the drilling operation. Sometimes
drill sites are located at remote places. Therefore water is
stored to a tank dug close to the borehole collar. Water is
either pumped from a nearby source or periodically supplied
by tanker. Care is taken to recirculate the water after settling
of rock cutting in the tank. Water loss in the hole can be
prevented by “casing” the hole or localized cement grouting
of the fractured areas. In case of highly fractured ground
condition water can be substituted by use of “drill mud”

FIGURE 7.6 Truck-mounted diamond drill rig in operation for base

metal exploration in Australia and capable of drilling 50-100 m a day.

FIGURE 7.7 Standard diamond core bit studded with technically

designed tiny diamonds at the crown composed of superior quality alloy
grooved with channels to cool the bit head and flash the fine cuttings. FIGURE 7.9 Standard spring-type core lifter that protects the core from
slipping into the hole and regrind.

FIGURE 7.8 Standard reamer shell coupled behind the core bit FIGURE 7.10 Standard drill core showing stratiform sphalerite, galena
embedded with diamonds at the outer surface to increase the hole diameter in calc-silicate host rock with red pencil line marked for splitting into two
for easy flow of return water and fine cuttings. near-identical halves at Rajpura-Dariba Mine, India.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 123

(bentonite clay, polymer). It will significantly reduce fluid HX size and progressively reduces to NX, BX, AX, and
loss, hole collapse and improve drilling efficiency. rarely to EX (Table 7.1). The cost of drilling will be higher
When diamond bits and reaming shells are worn out with larger core diameter and more reliable sample
beyond further drilling the remaining diamonds are representation, and vice versa.
“salvaged” from the matrix by acid bath. The recovered The “collar”, starting point, of a surface exploration
stones are sorted for size and condition. It is then mixed drill hole must be closed after completion with wooden
proportionately with fresh diamond for setting new bits. plug to prevent pebbles and soil being dropped down the
The value of the recovered diamonds is credited to the hole, thus making it difficult to move back in the hole again
purchaser. if required. It is also desirable to fill the entire hole with
The underground drills are usually a lightweight cement at a later date to prevent inundation of underground
compressed air or electric-driven machine mounted on mine by water gushing during heavy rains or inter-
a single or double drill column (Fig. 7.11). The drill rods connected with water channels. The top of the collar should
are 5 or 10 feet pull due to narrow space of mine workings. be covered with a cemented platform marking the project
The drill units can work from horizontal to 90 up and and hole number, coordinates, angle and direction, depth,
down. But normal practice is to drill between 0 and 45 to start and end of drilling date etc., for future references. The
avoid excessive load of the rods and better safety of the drill collars of underground boreholes must be plugged to avoid
crew. The capacity is around 300 m. accident at upper or lower levels by explosive gases during
The capacity of drilling depth depends on the power mine blasts.
and condition of the machine, terrain, angle of the hole
and type of rocks to be penetrated. The efficiency will
reduce with steep-angle holes and extensive length of hole 7.2.2.5. Wire Line Drilling
depth. Drilling can be done over 2000 m depth. The size of The “wire line drilling” performs by withdrawing the core
core is decided by the exploration agency based on type of and inner tube assembly from the hole without pulling out
minerals under investigation and prevailing rock condi- the hollow drill rods by a separate hoisting unit fixed at
tion. The size of bit, reamer shell, barrel, and drill rods are a different pulley. The inner tube assembly is lowered down
arranged accordingly. Generally, the drilling starts with inside the barrel after taking the core out and drilling
continues. Therefore lowering and hoisting of drill string,
barrel and drilling head is not required after every run
drilled. It saves considerable time and energy.
“Continuous core drilling” works on the principle of
reverse circulation (RC). RC refers to circulating the water
down to the bit head outside the drill rods and returning it
up through inside the bit, core barrel and drill rods. The
effect of reverse circulating water is to continuously float
the core back to the surface through bit, barrel and rods. In
this case, the drill rods and barrel are hollow enough so that
the core can move upward as the drilling continues. The
cores are collected at the surface, placed in the core box
with proper orientation and depth. This type, being

TABLE 7.1 Standard Drilling Type, Hole Diameter

and Core Diameter

Drilling type Hole diameter (mm) Core diameter (mm)

HX 99.20 76.20
NX 75.60 54.70
BX 59.90 42.00
AX 48.00 30.00
EX 37.70 21.40
FIGURE 7.11 Typical compressed air-operated underground drill unit
that can operate at 0-360 rotations.
124 Mineral Exploration

a continuous core drilling process, can operate for long sequence in the cyclone above ground level (Fig. 7.12). The
duration till the bit is effective. It saves the time of lowering samples are separated at regular intervals representing
and hoisting of drill string at every 3 m, which was required particular depths.
in case of conventional diamond drilling. It avoids over- The RC drills (Fig. 7.13) are commonly used for open
grinding of core. Thus, the efficiency of drilling perfor- pit excavation of iron ore, bauxite, limestone, rock phos-
mance increases many times resulting in substantial cost phate, and coal seam. It drills 10- to 15-cm large diameter
reduction and improved core recovery. vertical blast holes at high speed and low cost. The modi-
fied RC drills can rotate the drill string from vertical to any
7.2.2.6. RC Drilling steep angle and became very popular for mineral pro-
specting throughout the world. The RC drill sample enables
In conventional diamond drilling, water is pumped through
quick testing of drill targets during Reconnaissance to
the drill string in the borehole to the bit head. The pressure
initial stages of exploration. It creates a rational base for
of the return water takes the rock cuttings and sludge
further diamond drilling program for obtaining more
through the annular space between drill rods and outer wall
precise sample location and high-quality core samples.
of the hole. The sludge gets continuously intermixed during
The advantage of RC drilling is its capability of drilling
the drilling operation.
in the hardest formation with easy penetration at high speed
RC drilling commonly prefers compressed air produced
and recovery of uncontaminated samples even in a broken
by a hydraulic top drive motor under dry drilling condition.
and fractured formation. The fast rate of drilling thereby
The compressed air is introduced into the drill through dual
promotes planning of future core drilling program and
concentric air pipe (between the outer and inner pipe) and
mining operation. It is exceptionally cost effective and
flows to the “down-the-hole or DTH” tungsten carbide
provides easy mobility of the rig from one location to other
hammer bit. The compressed air and hammering initiate the
for both prospecting and mining.
generation of chips at the drill head depth. The rock
cuttings created at the bit face are set in continuous motion
upward by high-pressure return air through the inner 7.2.2.7. Borehole Survey
sample tube. The return air is supplied by installing high- The boreholes have a tendency to deviate both in inclina-
pressure vacuum pump. The entire rock cuttings (no core) tion angle and direction from the original setting either due
are removed to the surface and collected as inverted to drilling through rock types with different hardness,

FIGURE 7.12 Conceptual framework of noncore

RC drilling and sample collection, widely adopted
by exploration companies all over the World due to
fast sampling at low cost with reasonable reliability.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 125

method could provide the deviation of angle only and used

in case of low-budget exploration for limestone etc.
The “Tropari” is a single-shot, micro-mechanical
borehole surveying instrument operated by a timing device.
The unit provides both direction and inclination at high
precision which can be used to define the attitude of the
borehole at the desired survey depth. The instrument is
essentially a pivoted ring-mounted compass (Fig. 7.15). It
is attached with a clock mechanism to lock the compass
needle and dip indicator within a preset delay within
5-90 min from lowering the unit. The unit is hoisted to the
surface after automatic locking of the system to record
azimuth direction and inclination. The device can record
FIGURE 7.13 RC drilling in operation and sample collection for iron ore one set of reading i.e. inclination and direction at a time.
deposits (Credit: Biplab Mukherjee). It has to be lowered repetitively to all desired depth
resulting loss of drill shifts. The time loss will be consid-
structures or due to unwanted over speed drilling, defective erable in case of drill hole with extended depth. It is not cost
drill rods, barrel, bits etc. The deviation at certain interval effective for long holes. Regular surveys at intervals as
of depth (say 30-50 m) is recommended and measured by the borehole progresses will allow a plot of the borehole to
various ways. be drawn from the data.
The simplest way to survey the angle of a hole is by This deficiency has been substituted by introducing
“etch testing”. It consists of a hollow container fitted at “reflex multishot borehole camera”. It is an electronic
the lowering end of the drill rod in place of the barrel and multishot instrument, ideal for carrying out surveys in
bit. A special type of glass culture test tube of about a nonmagnetic environment as the borehole progresses. The
13 cm long, partially filled with hydrofluoric (HF) acid features and benefits include capabilities like robust, reliable
and corked with a rubber stopper, is placed in the and fully integrated, perform on accurate electronic
container. The container is lowered to the desired depth of measuring principle, measures in all directions, fast and user
survey and kept stationary for about 45 min. During the friendly. The unit is comprised of a multishot camera, a tiny
period the HF acid reacts with the glass tube and forms magnetic compass, flashlight and auto-locking clock device
a horizontal etch in the inner surface. The container is (Fig. 7.16). The shot and flash are synchronized with the
then withdrawn from the drill hole, the tube is washed and clock. The angle and directional data are recorded on a
an etching line is marked with ink. The angle of the hole 16-mm film. The string is lowered slowly and kept stationary
at that point is measured as shown in Fig. 7.14. The for 2 min at desired depth of survey. Then the process
continues lowering the unit till end of the hole. The entire
drilling depth can be surveyed at one single run. The survey
film is developed in dark room for total set of inclination and
bearing at respective depths. The contemporary models are
capable to conduct borehole orientation survey and onsite
access to survey data for incorporating corrective measures.

FIGURE 7.14 Borehole survey by special type of glass test tube acid
etching method at lowest cost for measuring the deviation of angle only FIGURE 7.15 Borehole survey by Tropari unit capable of measuring
and not the direction. both angle and direction for one reading at a time (Credit: Vinod Jhanjari).
126 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.16 Borehole survey by reflex multishot camera competent to

measure both angle and azimuth with highest precision for several depth of
hole at one loweringda total borehole survey solution (Credit: Vinod
Jhanjari).

The device is useful to the geologists, drillers, minerals, FIGURE 7.17 Standard wooden, plastic and metallic (aluminum) core
tunnellers and ground engineers all over the World. box essential for drill core preservation.

7.2.2.8. Core Recovery view the core. Online core library data repository is new
Recovery of drill core is an important parameter for effi- technology under development.
cient mineral exploration program. Good core recovery is
the responsibility of the drill crews. Careless crew can ruin 7.2.2.10. Core Logging
core by drilling too fast, overdrilling a run beyond the core
“Diamond drilling” and “drill core” play key role in
barrel capacity, using undesired type of barrel and faulty
mineral exploration. The quality of drilling by best possible
core lifter. It can cause core drop in hole and regrinding. The
recovery, proper core placement in preservation box with
recovery of core is considered necessary to be 100% except
correct arrow marking and shifting to the core shade from
drilling through highly fractured, sheared and caved zones.
drill-site need extreme care before study of the core and
Minimum recovery through mineralized area must be more
sampling. Any slip in between will add uncertainty of
than 90%. Driller should use double or triple tube barrel in
accurate ore boundaries in space. The reason may be on
mineralized formation. He may even change to short run
account of misplacing or missing core during the drilling,
length with dry drilling, if necessary. Core recovery dictates
collection, placement and shifting. Apparently, it looks
the reliability and precision of estimation of a deposit. The
insignificant in comparison to shifting of contacts by
existing hole should be rejected in worse core recovery
fraction of meter, change of reserve by few 1000 tonnes and
condition and a fresh hole be drilled with utmost care.
metal grade in second decimal. But maintaining serious-
ness at each small and big issue is important. Therefore, the
7.2.2.9. Core Preservation core is spread initially on extra long conical plastic tray in
Drill hole costs millions of dollars in mineral exploration. the core laboratory. The arrow direction on each piece is
Valuable drill cores are collected carefully and kept in checked and the edges of two successive core pieces be
wooden or aluminum core boxes marking the direction of perfectly matched. Any discrepancy in identical matching
drill depth with/. Each run length is separated by peg must be sorted out without any compromise and recorded.
mark indicating the depth of drilling. Boxes are general- Now the core is washed thoroughly by water spray
ly1.5 m long and can hold about 8 m of core in five chan- (Fig. 7.18) and ready for geological study and sampling.
nels separated by thin plates (Fig. 7.17). Box may have The author experienced and appreciates the unique
hinged or nailed cover to protect the core while shifting. sincerity of the geologists at Lennard Shelf exploration
Drill core is a vital resource that needs to be accessed easily camp of Meridian Minerals Limited, Australia.
and kept in good condition. Many exploration companies “Core logging” is the geological study and recording of
around the World create core library facilities to store for drill cores. Records are made on printed sheets (Table 7.2).
15-30 years. Core boxes are stacked in order in uniquely It covers the general description of core i.e. from and to,
designed shacks. Each box in the library can be identified core size (NX, BX, AX, BQ), run and core length, percent
by project name, box and borehole number, drill run and recovery, color, grain size, textures, structures, foliation
date of drilling. During the mining stages of a deposit core with core axis, fractures, shears, folds, faults, mineral
of couple of standard sections is preserved for future study composition, alterations, visual estimates of metal values,
and rest can be destroyed. Special lighting is provided to sample number and finally rock name. Lines are marked on
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 127

7.3. SAMPLING METHODS

There are a variety of sampling practices as appropriate to
the specific situation. The sampling aims to generate the
best representative of the object under search. Pitting,
trenching, stack and placer sampling are practiced for
surface exploration. Diamond drill core, RC drill cuttings,
sludge, channel and chip sampling are suitable for both
surface and underground exploration. Grab, muck, car, bulk
sampling are carried out for quick estimation of run-of-
mine grade. This facilitates in grade monitoring and control
for blending purposes.

FIGURE 7.18 Checking of core in perfect order and thorough washing

before logging and sampling point to the sincerity and reliability of data 7.3.1. Soil Sampling
collection norm in mineral exploration at Lennard Shelf camp, Australia
(Alaik Kubra, Exploration Geologist, Meridian Minerals Limited). Soil samples, from residual or transported material, are
collected (Fig. 7.20) on a relatively closely spaced rectan-
mineralized core for splitting into two halves of identical gular or square grid pattern at specified interval designed
mirror images. Visual estimates are made before sample during orientation survey. Sieve analysis of samples indi-
preparation and assaying. Each visual estimate compares cates that minus 80 mesh fraction of the soil represents
with assay value, rechecks the core in case of major sufficient material for further processing as well as provides
difference and sends duplicate for reanalysis. “Tough-book maximum contrast between background and threshold
core logger” (Fig. 7.19), a portable rugged laptop, is value. It becomes standard practice to obtain minus
extensively used for recording at site. It is designed with 80 mesh fraction for analysis of various elements of
multiple Excel sheets for database like collar, survey, rocks interest.
and assay files. It can be interfaced to process computer by
both wireless and hardware transmission for 3D modeling
and reserve estimate. Many exploration companies conduct
7.3.2. Pitting
continuous color photographs of entire length of borehole It is commonly practiced during the initial stage of surface
for permanent records. geochemical exploration. The sampling is carried out by

TABLE 7.2 A Sample Borehole Core Log Sheet

Project: BH NO: Date of Logging: Logged by:

Run Core
From To Core % Core Grain
length length
(m) (m) size recovery Color size Structure RQD RFM OFM VE Remarks
(m) (m)

RQD: Rock Quality Designation RFM: Rock forming minerals OFM: Ore forming minerals VE, Visual estimate.
128 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.19 “Tough book”da high-tech Internet interfaced data

sharing drill core logger used at Lennard Shelf Exploration Camp,
Australia.
FIGURE 7.21 Trench sampling for platinum group of elements and
chromite during Reconnaissance survey at Sitampundi layered igneous
complex, Tamil Nadu, India.

can be sampled by channel cut or chipping for comparing

with results of stack sample to fix the mineral boundary.

7.3.4. Stack Sampling

Stack sampling is the collection of representative broken
material generated by pitting, trenching, mine production
or any other process. The samples are collected by auger
drilling principle by inserting 10- to 40-cm diameter
cylinder down to the base of the stack. It can also be done
by collecting bucket full of sample in the same way. A
number of collection points from a stack are selected. A
composite sample is prepared by combination of one from
FIGURE 7.20 Collection of soil sample during Reconnaissance/orien-
the central part and four more from halfway between the
tation survey for Pt-Pd target search around Tagadur chromite-magnesite
open pit mine at Nuggihalli Schist belt, Karnataka, India, (Finn Barrett, center and corners of the stack (Fig. 7.22). Alternatively,
Consultation Geologist, Goldstream Mining NL, Australia). particularly in case of small pits and narrow trenches, the
total recovered material can be reduced by successive
crushing, cone and quartering and treated for chemical
excavating about 1  1 m2 pits in rectangular or square grid
analysis.
pattern covering the entire target area. The depth of the pits
varies depending on the extent of weathering and nature of
the rocks. The material from each meter of vertical depth is
kept in separate low-height rectangular flat stacks to
determine the variation in grade and other distinctive
features. Each stack represents a sample. The pits showing
the presence of mineralization can be contoured (Fig. 4.2)
to identify the strike and depth continuity of the orebody for
drill testing.

7.3.3. Trenching
Trenches are often cut across the orebody (Fig. 7.21)
after the probable configuration of mineralization is
outlined either by pitting or by rock/soil sampling. The
material recovered from each meter of trench is stacked
separately as a sample for analysis to identify the varia- FIGURE 7.22 Stack sampling of chromite mine production ore at
tions across the mineralization. The walls of the trenches Sukinda belt, India.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 129

7.3.5. Alluvial Placer Sampling

Alluvial placer deposits are formed by weathering, trans-
portation and deposition of valuable minerals. The large
alluvial placer platinum deposit at Ural Mountains in
Russia is an example of such deposits discovered way back
in 1823. In general these deposits are less consolidated,
loose and soft materials. Scooping by hand spade or by
auger drills is employed to collect the loose sandy samples
at certain grid interval up to certain depth. Whereever
necessary a casing is driven into the deposit to protect wall
collapse and contamination during sample collection.2
FIGURE 7.24 Channel sample cut by pneumatic cutter for exploration
of platinum group of elements at open pit bench face, Boula-Nausahi
7.3.6. Channel Sampling chromite mine, Orissa, India.
Channel sampling is suitable for uniformly distributed
mineralization in the form of veins, stringers and dissemi- practice is to take samples by chipping off fragments of
nations. The sampling is performed by cutting of channels about 1-2 by 1-2 cm size covering the entire surface
across mineralized body in fresh surface exposures or exposure, underground mine face, wall and roof in a regular
underground mine workings, such as face, walls and roof. grid interval, say 25  25 cm (Fig. 7.25). The area is
The area is cleaned to remove the dusts, dirt, slimes and cleaned before sample cutting. The sampler chips off the
soluble salts by any of the three processes. These are fragments with the help of hammer and a pointed chisel.
washing with hosepipe (air/water) or scrubbing with a stiff The chips are collected in a clean box or satchel or on
brush or by chipping of outer part of the rocks to smoothen a canvas sheet spread on the floor. The weight of samples
the sampling face. A linear horizontal channel is cut from a 3  3 m area is generally between 1 and 2 kg.
between two marked lines at a uniform width and depth Channel sampling is laborious, tedious, time consuming
(Fig. 7.23). The width is generally 5-10 cm at a depth of and expensive compared to chip sampling. Chip sampling
1-2 mm. The length of sample varies depending on the is preferred for low-cost fast sampling, identification of
variation in mineralization across the orebody. But in mineralized contacts and quick evaluation of grade of the
practice, the length is kept at uniform unit between 1 and area.
2 m within the mineralization. The uniform length of
sample eased the statistical applications.
The tools are a hammer and sharp chisel (a pointed stub 7.3.8. Diamond Drill Core Sampling
of drill steel) or a pneumatic hammer with pointed or chisel The mineralized portion of core is sampled and analyzed
bit (Fig. 7.24). While the sampler cuts the channel, a second for metal content. The core is spitted into two identical
person collects the chips, fragments and fines in a clean halves lengthwise with respect to the mineral distribution as
box, sack or on a canvas sheet spread on the floor. A sample
of 1 m length will weigh around 1-2 kg.

7.3.7. Chip Sampling

If the mineralization is irregularly distributed or dissemi-
nated and not easily recognized by necked eye, channel
sampling may not be representative. The better alternative

FIGURE 7.23 Schematic presentation of channel sampling of mineral FIGURE 7.25 Chip sampling (þ) of wall/face in irregular vein-type
exposure at surface and underground mine crosscut wall at 1 m interval. deposits such as auriferous quartz veins.
130 Mineral Exploration

observed during logging. One half is grinded, reduced and The modified version works by electric power. The
sent to laboratory for chemical analysis. The other half is cutting head is either diamond core cutting unit or a blade
preserved in the core boxes as original record for future made of hard metal alloy (Fig. 7.27) that cuts core into two
check studies. The second halves can also be used as smooth identical halves (Fig. 7.28).
composite sample for metallurgical test works during the
initial stage of exploration to develop the laboratory scale
beneficiation process flow diagram. The metallurgical test 7.3.9. Sludge Sampling
work will indicate the amenability, optimum grinding,
liberation and recovery pattern leading to producing clean Sludge is the finer coproduct particles of diamond drilling
marketable concentrates. generated by cuttings of rocks between core and outer hole
A simple type of core splitter operates manually by diameter. The core recovery often becomes poor in case of
framing a splitting unit by a short piece of rail foundation, drilling through fractured mineralized zones. In such situ-
with a matching chisel fitted in the top and a hammer as ation the sludge forms an integral part of sample while
illustrated in Fig. 7.26. Core is placed tightly between the passing through the concerned mineralized horizon. It is
rail and chisel and hammered from the top to split the core relevant to recover the maximum portion of sludge in such
as sample. The hammering can be powered by compressed circumstances.
air. This is handy at low cost. The unit can be used in the Sludge collection can be done in various ways as suits to
camp site located at remote places. the operator. The simplest way is to put a plastic or metallic
tub and allow the return water to pass. The cuttings are settled
and can form a sample corresponding to drilling interval. The
method can be modified by using a large sludge box with
three to four longitudinal partitions. The return water can flow
in zigzag pattern between the successive partitions so that

FIGURE 7.27 Fully mechanized electric core cutter being used at

Lennard Shelf Exploration Camp, Australia.

FIGURE 7.26 Semi-mechanical core splitter used at Khetri copper mine FIGURE 7.28 Stratiform sulfide drill core split into two identical halves
during 1970s. by electric cure cutter at Rajpura-Dariba mine, India.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 131

settling of materials becomes better. Commercially designed heterogeneity of the deposit. This also helps to indicate the
sludge cutters with mechanical operation are available. intrinsic external dilution during mining.
Sludge samples are not incredibly authentic due to contam-
ination between drill runs. But it serves the purpose of exis- 7.3.13. Car Sampling
tence and to some extent the quality of mineralization in the
Car sample is composed of a hand full of broken pieces
absence of good core recovery.
picked up randomly from every 5th/10th/15th moving car
coming out from the underground mine (Fig. 7.30) or
7.3.10. RC Drill Sampling dumpers/trucks of surface mine or aerial ropeway tubs
which transport ore to integrated or third party beneficia-
Sample from RC drilling is the collection of rock cuttings
tion plant and smelters. This is compared between the run-
with respect to the drill depth. The entire rock cuttings are
of-mine grade and mill head grade for valuation and grade
raised to the surface by return air pressure and collected in
control. The same sampling method is followed for valu-
glass chambers in inverted sequence of depth (refer
ation of metal grade, deleterious components and moisture
Fig. 7.12 and Fig. 7.13). The samples are used in valuation
content of concentrate being shipped for the integrated or
of the intersections/deposit. RC drill samples are not the
third party smelter.
exclusive and ultimate solution of mineral deposit evalua-
tion. These samples are supported, complemented and
balanced by some amount of diamond drilling for global
7.3.14. Bulk Sampling
perspective. RC drill samples are extensively used in grade Bulk sample is composed of large volume of material (100-
control system of mine production in advance and partic- 1000 tonnes) representing all the distinctive characters of
ularly for large open pit mines. entire orebody with respect to metal grade and mineral
distribution. The samples are collected from different parts
7.3.11. Grab Sampling of the stock pile of trial pit of surface mine, trial crosscuts
of underground mine and Run of Mine (ROM) ore of
Grab sampling is done at any stage of exploration and more regular production. The best collection equipment will be
so during the mine production phases for quick approxi- shovels due to handling of large volume. The total material
mation of the grade. Hand specimen and smaller size are is mixed thoroughly to reduce the heterogeneity. The
randomly picked up from loose broken material on outcrop, sample is used for developing beneficiation flow sheet for
pits, trenches, mine workings, stope draw points, mine cars, optimum uses of reagents and maximizing the recovery
train load shipments, and all shorts of stock piles. Care efficiency.
should be taken to avoid inclusion of any foreign objects
like wood, iron pieces, nails and plastics.
7.3.15. Ocean Bed Sampling
The deep ocean floor mineral resources are comprised of
7.3.12. Muck Sampling
poly-metallic nodules, manganese crusts and active or
Muck sample is composed of few handheld spade or extinct hydrothermal sulfide vents. It covers large areas
mechanized shovels full of mineralized fragments and fines
collected from the mine face or stope draw points
(Fig. 7.29). These samples collected from actual hoisting of
mine face are useful for comparing with predicted value of
the stope or face blasts. These samples are also compared
with cuttings/sludge samples of the Jackhammer and long
hole drills. The grade may not match on day-to-day basis.
But the average over a period of week, fortnight, month,
quarter and annual can be comparable depending on the

FIGURE 7.29 Muck sampling collected from all sides using a handheld FIGURE 7.30 Car sample in underground mine by collecting handful of
spade or mechanized shovel depending on the volume of the sample. ore randomly from moving mine cars.
132 Mineral Exploration

FIGURE 7.31 Bucket-in-pipe poly-metallic nodule sample lifting

system collected from deep ocean floor (Credit: Arpita De).

between 4000 and 6000 m below the ocean’s surface. The

poly-metallic nodules contain mainly nickel, copper, cobalt
and manganese. The manganese crusts include primarily
manganese, copper, vanadium, molybdenum and platinum.
The sulfide vents contribute largely copper, zinc, lead, gold
and silver. These raw materials are found in various forms
FIGURE 7.32 Sample size reductions by small portable laboratory Jaw
on the ocean floor, usually in higher concentrations than
crusher.
land base mines.
The sample collection from prospective area of sea
bottom is conducted by progressive reduction of sample grid
through 100  100, 50  50, 25  25 and 12.5  12.5 km2.
The collection unit is designed as bucket-in-pipe nodule
lifting system (Fig. 7.31) and tested successively. The
quantity of materials collected in a trip is about 10 tonnes
which is reduced to 200-500 kg to represent a sample.

7.4. SAMPLE REDUCTION FOR

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Few grams (~5 gm) of homogeneous fines at ~100 mesh
size are required by the laboratories for chemical analysis.
Therefore, the samples collected by different methods are
reduced without sacrificing the property of the mass being
sampled. This is done by progressive grinding of fragment
size and gradual reduction of quantity at stages. The
samples can be prepared manually by mortar and pestle.
Manual processing is extremely slow and impractical to
cope up large number of project samples. Therefore, the
size is reduced successively through a course of crushing
(Jaw crusher, Fig. 7.32), grinding (Roll crusher, Fig. 7.33),
and pulverizing (disc/ball/rod pulverizer/mill, Fig. 7.34).
After each stage of crushing, grinding and pulverizing
the samples turn into relatively homogeneous. The sample
quantity is reduced after every stage by Cone and Quar-
tering as shown in Fig. 7.35 for procedural concept and
Fig. 7.36 for technical application. FIGURE 7.33 Sample grinding by laboratory scale small Roll crusher.
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 133

FIGURE 7.36 Sample quantity reductions for chromite production grade

at mine head by Cone-and-Quartering practices. The quarters II and IV
will be mixed for further reduction.

FIGURE 7.34 Sample size reductions by laboratory scale disc, ball or

rod pulverizer.

FIGURE 7.35 Sample quantity reductions by Cone-and-Quartering FIGURE 7.37 Sample quantity reductions by Jones refill splitter.
principles after every stage of crushing, grinding and pulverizing.

The reduction can be done by automatic Jones refill reduce to about 5 gm for analysis and preserve the
splitter (Fig. 7.37). The crusher-grinder-pulverizers are remaining for references.
small in size and of low cost. The units can easily be moved
to other exploration camp and installed. The units are 7.5. ACCURACY AND DUE DILIGENCE
suitable for processing samples in laboratory.
IN SAMPLING
Generally two samples of 50 gm each are prepared. One
part is sent to laboratory and the duplicate is preserved at Sampling due diligence, that makes an authentic geological
the exploration department for future references. The resource assessment, needs validation of six principal
laboratory technicians further grind the material, mix and components.
134 Mineral Exploration

(1) Sample representation, integrity and security, (Refer Chapter 9, Section 15.9). Some of the control
(2) accuracy of laboratory assays, measures are:
(3) insertion of blank and standard at industry-accepted
(a) During exploration of a deposit some of the sampling
interval in the sample string within mineralization,
methods in combination, such as the drill core,
(4) adequacy of samples,
channel and chip, may be conducted. Therefore,
(5) quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC)
before the resource estimation a sampling campaign
protocols,
should be conducted by creating drill, face, muck,
(6) mineral resource continuity.
grab channel and chip samples over the same location
The sampling errors generally occur due to the following and length of mineralization. The results can be
reasons: compared and statistically tested before accepting the
best suitable sampling technique for the evaluation of
(a) If the sample area is represented by rich stringers and
the deposit.
veins, the unconscious natural tendency of the super-
(b) In case of drill core sampling normally one half of the
vising staff is to collect more samples from the richer
core is processed for analysis without confirming the
part to represent it as an attractive property. This will
equal representation of the other half in the system.
unduly increase the metal content of the sample. One
The second half of core should be processed, analyzed
has to maintain religiously uniform depth and width
for a certain length of intersection, statistically verified
throughout each length of sample.
and accepted (Refer Table 15.7 and Fig. 15.17).
(b) If the orebody consists of a mix of hard and soft mate-
(c) There can be an inherent human and process error in
rial, there will be a tendency of the sampler to chisel
a laboratory while analyzing a sample. Duplicate
disproportionate amount of soft rock mass to ease the
samples of known value are inserted at industry-
work. He is tempted to complete more numbers of
accepted intervals of 10th or 20th position in the
samples in a shift and thus eligible for incentive bonus.
sample run and analyzed throughout the exploration
Same caution as at (a) is to be observed.
phase at the same laboratory without disclosing the
(c) In case of a drill core sample there will be a tendency to
identity of the sample (Refer Table 15.7).
split the core along the foliation and bedding plane for
(d) The standard (certified reference material of known
easy cut without considering the distribution of
value) and blank (certified reference material of zero
mineralization. The geologist must make color line
value) samples are dispatched to the laboratory
pencil mark on the core surface (Fig. 10.2) for equal
together with the routine samples for quality control
representation of two identical halves (Fig. 7.10).
purposes. These samples are inserted at the start, end
(d) In a mineral exploration camp, analytical laboratory,
and every 10th or 20th position in the sample string. It
date recording in register and data entry in computer,
is desirable to change the sequence of insertion of
the possibility of interchange of sample numbers is
blank and standard from time to time for quality
very likely incidence. This cannot be ruled out in the
assurance. In case of major differences the samples are
event of handling 100s of samples in a day from large
sent for repeat reanalysis. The QA/QC can be repeated
exploration camp, mine production unit and benefici-
in batches.
ation plant. Check and recheck at every stage have to
(e) If the samples from the same deposit are analyzed at
be cautiously introduced into the system.
different laboratories there is likely to be some bias due
to different laboratory personnel (analysts) and
7.6. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND analytical procedures (AAS, Volumetric, XRD etc.).
A set of same sample should be analyzed at all the
QUALITY CONTROL concerned laboratories as well as in a Referee Lab of
It is necessary to test the bias likely to be associated during international repute (Refer Table 15.7).
the sample preparation and analysis. The QA/QC measures (f) The “data error” between paired set can be tested by
are mandatory in modern exploration program for creating various statistical tests as discussed in Chapter 9. The
a reliable database which is free of any prejudice. The QA/ simplest one will be scatter plot of paired data (Refer
QC pass database assures a trustworthy quantity (tonnes) Fig. 15.17). The scatter diagram will easily identify the
and quality (percent grade) within acceptable confidence of presence of extreme erratic high or low sample values
reserve and resource base of the deposit under feasibility with respect to each other. The erratic sample pair must
study and mining investment. This is more relevant to be sorted, identified, isolated and their authenticities
upload the investigation data and reports in standard stock investigated along with probable source of errors. The
exchange for commercial trading in a competitive manner samples can be verified and rejected if it do not satisfy
Chapter | 7 Sampling Methods 135

and fit into the geological condition. The filtered data geophysical and geochemical anomalies indicating
set will be suitable for QA/QC analysis. subsurface continuity of mineralization during Recon-
(g) QA/QC program is comprised of the assay data per- naissance. The interpretative skill and experience of the
taining to various sampling methods, duplicate, stan- geologists act as the prime factor at this juncture. Once
dard, blank, both half-core and interlaboratory analysis the evidences potentially indicate an existence of
from activities (a) to (f ) above. The data sets are mineralization, then decision for drilling is taken. Main
statistically compared and tested for mean, variance, purpose of drilling is to delineate the deposit and to
scatter plot, correlation coefficient, “f ” and “t” tests establish the continuity in strike and depth for purpose of
(refer Chapter 9 on Statistical and Geo-statistical resource estimation. The success story may begin with
Application in Geology). The original versus respec- a bit of luck.
tive new assay values received from the laboratory are The drilling program continues in sequential manner to
plotted on a graph (scatter plot, refer Fig. 15.17). The achieve the defined objectives. The drilling interval and
plot must show a remarkable degree of correlation at associated quantity will depend on the complexity and
high confidence (r2) level. If the check assay results are value of the commodity. The drilling quantity should be
lying in the acceptable range of the standard deviation adequate to establish 60% of the total reserve as demon-
or within less than 5% variation from the mean value at strated (proved þ probable) category for feasibility study
95% level of significance, then the assay results are and investment decision. The drilling can be stopped for
captured in the main assay database. The file turns into the time being at that stage until additional reserve is
“Stable Database”. It is a continuous process with required.
incoming addition assay input till the exploration ends. The precision of width (tonnage) and grade (percent
In the process some of the results are unacceptable and metal) with increasing number of boreholes in an
the rejected values are not included in the database. ongoing base metal exploration project is discussed in
Once technically convinced by QA/QC protocols the detail and determined by applying statistical tools
total sample database can only be used for estimation (Chapter 15, Section 15.9.15, Table 15.12 and
of reserve and grade parameters. Fig. 15.23). The curves become steady after drilling at
(h) The confirmation of correlation between two comple- 100  50 m spaced grid interval. This provides adequate
mentary assay data strings can be performed by (refer confidence for definitive feasibility report preparation.
Chapter 9): The information is adequate and suggests for an invest-
(1) a percentile-percentile (PP) plot, ment decision for mine development. Further drilling
(2) a quartile-quartile (QQ) plot and improves the confidence marginally.
(3) a cumulative frequency (CF) plot. Therefore, the drill sampling is optimized and explo-
ration stops at that point. The mine development initiates
and regular production continues. The exploration drilling
7.7. OPTIMIZATION OF SAMPLES will renew again in future for enhancement of ore reserves
along dip and strike. The cycle of exploration repeats and
Most of the sampling methods are necessary and is
finally stops when the deposit is fully exhausted in all
a continuous process during mine planning, production
respect.
scheduling and grade control in a working mine. The
drilling and particularly the diamond drilling is the most
authentic and most costly sampling tool. So the hardest
question is often raised in exploration program as: “when to FURTHER READING
start drilling?” and even harder is “when to stop?” Bremner et al. (1996) [6] highlighted Trends in Deep Drilling. Sampling
The first step is governed by the evidences identified methods have elaborately been discussed by Banerjee (1997) [2] and
from surface signature, supported by airborne and ground Evans (1999) [24].