Economic Geology

Vol. 95, 2000, pp. 1445–1472

Porphyry Gold Deposits of the Refugio District, Maricunga Belt, Northern Chile
JOHN L. MUNTEAN†,* AND MARCO T. EINAUDI
Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-2115

Abstract
The porphyry gold deposits of the Refugio district and similar deposits in the Maricunga belt contain the
lowest known copper to gold ratios (% Cu/ppm Au = ~0.03) of any porphyry-type deposit. The gold deposits
are associated with subvolcanic andesitic to dacitic intrusions emplaced into coeval volcanic rocks. Both the
Verde and Pancho deposits are zoned in space from a deeper zone of banded quartz veinlets associated with
chlorite-magnetite-albite and/or pyrite-albite-clay alteration to a shallow zone of pyrite-albite-clay and local
quartz-alunite ledges. Pancho contains an additional, deepest, porphyry copperlike zone, with quartz veinlets
(A-veinlets) and potassic alteration. Relative to Verde, Pancho is telescoped, with all three zones present within
a 400-m-vertical interval.
The porphyry copperlike zone at Pancho is characterized by A-veinlets and pervasive potassic alteration,
both restricted to intrusive rocks. A-veinlets range from hairline streaks of magnetite ± biotite with minor
quartz and chalcopyrite, and K feldspar alteration envelopes to sugary quartz veinlets <1 cm in width with mag-
netite and chalcopyrite and no alteration envelopes. Hypersaline liquid inclusions coexisting with vapor-rich in-
clusions indicate temperatures above 600°C and salinities as high as 84 wt percent NaCl equiv. A pressure es-
timate of 250 bars indicates a depth of 1,000 m, assuming lithostatic pressure. Potassic alteration consists of a
central zone of magnetite-K feldspar-oligoclase that changes outward to a biotite-rich zone. Total sulfide con-
tent, predominately as chalcopyrite, is generally <1 vol percent, whereas magnetite content is 2 to 5 percent.
Where A-veinlets and potassic alteration predominate, grades are typically 0.1 wt percent hypogene copper and
0.5 to 1 ppm gold.
Banded quartz veinlets are present at both Verde and Pancho, where they occur mostly above A-veinlets and
cut A-veinlets where they overlap. They are less than 2 cm in thickness and lack alteration envelopes. Dark gray
bands, whose color is due to abundant vapor-rich fluid inclusions and micrometer-sized grains of magnetite,
commonly occur as symmetric pairs near the vein walls. The bands are commonly botryoidal and are continu-
ous through quartz grains, suggesting that the quartz recrystallized from a silica gel. Rare liquid-rich fluid in-
clusions in quartz indicate temperatures ≤350°C and salinities <35 wt percent NaCl equiv. Estimated pressures
are <200 bars, suggesting depths of 190 to 1,500 m under hydrostatic pressure. Gold occurs both in the dark
bands with magnetite and outside the dark bands with pyrite, chlorite, illite, and K feldspar. Banded veinlets
occupy steeply dipping radial and shallowly dipping concentric fractures. Zones of abundant banded veinlets
without early A-veinlets generally contain 0.5 to 2 ppm gold and <0.05 wt percent hypogene copper.
Most of the differences between porphyry gold deposits at Refugio and porphyry copper deposits can be at-
tributed to shallower depths of formation—less than 1 km compared to 1.5 to 4 km that is typical for porphyry
copper deposits. Shallower depths resulted in lower sulfide concentrations, local garnet veinlets, widespread
albite-bearing alteration, and most importantly banded quartz veinlets, which are unique to porphyry gold de-
posits. Banded quartz veinlets are a direct result of episodic intrusion of magma to within 1 km of the surface
and exposure of high-temperature magmatic fluids to hydrostatic pressures. Episodic rupturing of a brittle-
ductile boundary surrounding the intrusive centers at Verde and Pancho led to flashing of magmatic fluids, loss
of sulfur to vapor, and low sulfide/gold ratios in ore.

Introduction porphyry gold deposits at Refugio in the Maricunga belt con-

OVER the past several decades, field studies of porphyry cop- tain the lowest known copper:gold ratios of any porphyry-type
per deposits (e.g., papers in Titley, 1966; Gustafson and Hunt, deposit, and previous studies have established their similari-
1975; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992) have led to summaries of ties to gold-rich porphyry copper deposits (Vila and Sillitoe,
their common features (e.g., Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Silli- 1991; Vila et al., 1991). One of the orebodies at Refugio, Pan-
toe, 1973; Titley and Beane, 1981), but surprisingly few pa- cho, does share many characteristics of porphyry copper de-
pers have focused on their differences (Kesler, 1973; posits. However, the most copper-poor gold orebody at Refu-
Gustafson, 1978; Sillitoe, 1979, 1993). The 1990s have seen gio, Verde, lacks many of the features that are commonly used
several additions of new subtypes to the class of porphyry- to classify deposits as porphyry copper deposits.
type deposits, including the porphyry gold deposits of the In this paper we describe the geology, wall-rock alteration,
Maricunga belt, Chile (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991). For this rea- vein styles, and fluid inclusions at Refugio and contrast these
son it is becoming increasingly important to identify factors features with those of porphyry copper deposits. Important
that control the variations among members of this class. The differences include paleodepths of less than a kilometer
(rather than 1.5–4 km that is typical for porphyry copper de-
† Corresponding
posits, cf. Sillitoe, 1973), spatial association of gold ore with
author: e-mail, [email protected]
*Present Address: Placer Dome Exploration Inc., 240 S. Rock Blvd., Suite chlorite-magnetite-albite alteration (rather than with potas-
117, Reno, Nevada 89502. sic), and the presence of gold within banded quartz-magnetite

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1446 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

veinlets that have not been described from porphyry copper o

deposits. These veinlets, in part recrystallized from silica gel, 69
contain a fluid inclusion assemblage, which suggests that
saline hydrothermal fluids flashed within the vapor + salt field
in the system water-NaCl at high temperatures (~600°C) and
low pressures (100–200 bars).
Geology of the Maricunga Belt
The Maricunga belt is a region of numerous gold-silver- La Coipa
copper prospects and deposits in the high Andes of northern
Chile (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Fig. 1). Zones of hydrother-
mally altered rocks give rise to strong color anomalies de-
tectable by satellite imagery and aerial photography (Fig. 2). 27 o
The color anomalies result mainly from weathering of pyritic
zones in argillized rocks. Several of the altered zones host sig-
nificant metal concentrations, including high-sulfidation ep-
ithermal gold-(silver) deposits (La Coipa, La Pepa) and por- Marte
phyry gold-(copper) deposits (Refugio, Aldebaran, Marte,
Lobo). Since 1980, an aggregate geologic resource of approx- Lobo
imately 40 Moz of gold has been defined.
The Maricunga belt occupies a north-northeast-trending La Pepa Volcan Copiapo
chain of andesitic to dacitic volcanoes that are part of a late
Oligocene to late Miocene continental margin volcanic-plu-
tonic arc. The geology of the belt (Fig. 2) has been defined by
the regional studies of Segerstrom (1968), Zentilli (1974),

Volcan Laguna
PERU
10 Refugio
0
20
50

BOLIVIA
15
0

Altiplano-Puna
Santa Cecilia
o
20

Aldebaran N
PACIFIC Volcan Jotabeche
OCEAN
Eocene-Oligocene
Porphyry Copper
Belt

o
25
Arg Chile
ina

Ext. Of Easter “Hot Line” Bajo de la Alumbrera o

28 0 30 Km
ent

(Late Miocene)
MARICUNGA
BELT
Copiapo
(Late Olig.- Quaternary alluvium and evaporites
El Indio Belt
Miocene)
Trench

(Miocene)

o
Pliocene volcanic rocks
30
Peru-Chile

INA

Late Oligocene-late Miocene volcanic rocks

E
CHIL

ENT

Jurassic-early Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic rocks

ARG

Paleozoic-Triassic basement (granitoids and volcanics)

Late Miocene-Pliocene
Porphyry Copper Belt
Santiago Alteration zone
0 km 500 km
o
35
70
o
65 o Strike-slip/normal fault Reverse fault

FIG. 1. Map showing the location of the Maricunga belt relative to other FIG. 2. Schematic geologic map of the Maricunga belt. Modified from
regional zones of important copper-gold mineralization in Chile and Ar- Davidson and Mpodozis (1991).
gentina. Also shown are the Altiplano-Puna and the extension of the Easter
hot line. The contour lines represent depths in kilometers to the Benioff
zone. Modified from Davidson and Mpodozis (1991).

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1447

Mercado (1982), Davidson and Mpodozis (1991), and In 1989 Bema Gold (Chile) Limitada, in joint venture with
Mpodozis et al. (1995). Paleozoic-Triassic basement rocks Compania Minera Refugio, outlined a large volume of oxi-
crop out in north-northeast-trending horst blocks. Four main dized gold ore underneath postore cover to the east of Verde
episodes of mostly andesitic to dacitic arc magmatism oc- (Verde East in Fig. 3). By 1991, drilling had established a
curred in the Maricunga belt from the late Oligocene to the mineable reserve at Verde of 101 Mt of 1.02 g/t gold at a cut-
early Pliocene (Kay et al., 1994; Mpodozis et al., 1995). The off of 0.5 g/t (Brown and Rayment, 1991). The average cop-
first (26–20 Ma, late Oligocene to early Miocene) and second per grade at Verde is 0.03 percent (Flores, 1993) for both ox-
(16–11 Ma, middle Miocene) episodes resulted in numerous idized and unoxidized ores. Bema also outlined a geologic
stratovolcanic complexes and dome fields along the length of resource at Pancho of 81 Mt of 0.85 g/t gold (Flores, 1993).
the belt. Igneous rocks genetically linked to gold ores in the Drill hole assays at Pancho indicate hypogene copper grades
Refugio district are part of the first episode. The third (11–7 between 0.05 and 0.2 percent. In 1993, Bema established a
Ma, late Miocene) and fourth (7–5 Ma, late Miocene to earli- 50:50 joint venture agreement with Amax Gold Inc. Mining at
est Pliocene) episodes are represented by dacitic volcanic rocks Verde commenced in late 1995 with a 30,000 t/d open-pit,
at Volcán Copiapó and Volcán Jotabeche, respectively (Fig. 2). heap-leaching operation.
The Maricunga belt lies near the northern boundary of the
modern nonvolcanic, flat-slab region of the Chilean Andes Methods Employed
(28–33° S, Fig. 1). Flattening of the subduction zone began Eight km of road cuts were mapped at the Verde and Pan-
around 20 to 17 Ma (Jordan et al., 1983; Isacks, 1988; All- cho deposits at scales of 1:1,000 or greater and surrounding
mendinger et al., 1990; Kay et al., 1991), after termination of areas were mapped at a scale of 1:10,000. Ten Verde core
the first magmatic episode and prior to initiation of the sec- holes (1,150 m) and four Pancho core holes (250 m) were
ond. The Maricunga belt lies in a transition zone where there logged. A color-coded mapping and logging scheme similar to
is a gradual decrease in the dip of the Nazca plate from 30° to that used by the Anaconda Company in the 1960s was em-
10° as lat 28° S is approached from the north (Barazangi and ployed, which includes graphical and numerical data on rock
Isacks, 1976; Bevis and Isacks, 1984). Shallowing of the sub- type, structure, vein types, relative ages of intrusions and vein
ducting slab may have been responsible for the eastward shift types, mineral associations, and approximate volume percent
in magmatic activity in the Pliocene (Walker et al., 1991; Kay of minerals and veins. Original volume percent of sulfide in
et al., 1994). weathered samples was estimated from the abundance of in-
Three main structural trends are present in the Maricunga digenous limonite and leached cavities. Sawed surfaces of
belt. First, north to northeast-trending high-angle reverse nearly 500 samples were examined by binocular microscope,
faults that bound basement rocks (Fig. 2) are probably coin- and 180 polished thin sections were studied by reflected and
cident with the onset of flattening of the subduction zone transmitted light microscope. In addition to 5,000 2-m chan-
(Davidson and Mpodozis, 1991; Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Kay et nel samples assayed by Anglo-American, 161 channel samples
al., 1994; Mpodozis et al, 1995). A second structural trend of intervals mapped during this study were assayed for gold.
consists of northwest-striking normal faults, dikes, and veins, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence, and electron micro-
suggesting southwest-northeast extension (Oviedo et al., probe analyses were used to document chemical composition
1991; Vila and Sillitoe, 1991; Vila et al., 1991; King, 1992). of rocks and minerals. Fluid inclusions from 14 doubly pol-
These structures are found in many of the late Oligocene to ished plates were described and microthermometric data
early Miocene volcanic centers (Mpodozis et al., 1995). A were collected from five samples.
third structural trend is defined by east-northeast satellite lin-
eaments interpreted by King (1992) as dextral shear zones District Geology
that mark the southern boundary of the Altiplano-Puna Porphyry gold deposits are hosted by the Refugio volcanics
plateau. The lineaments are coincident with the on-land pro- (Fig. 3) of late Oligocene to early Miocene age (22–24 Ma,
jection of the Miocene to Recent submarine volcanic chain Sillitoe et al., 1991; Mpodozis et al., 1995; Muntean, 1998).
off the Chilean coast (Bonatti et al., 1977), east-west patterns The Refugio volcanics, an informal term, are covered in the
in aeromagnetic data (King, 1992), and the boundary be- eastern portion of the district by mid-Miocene volcanic rocks
tween two basement domains, the Arequipa-Antofalla craton whose source was La Laguna stratovolcano located about 6
to the north and the Chilenia and Precordillera terranes to km to the east (McKee et al., 1994). Basement rocks of Pale-
the south (Ramos et al., 1986; Tosdal, 1996). These coinci- ozoic to early Tertiary age are exposed in the western part of
dences suggest a crustal discontinuity that may have been a the district (Fig. 3). These include Late Pennsylvanian to Tri-
primary regional control on the magmatism and metallogeny assic rhyolitic pyroclastic rocks, lifted up along a northeast-
of the Maricunga belt (cf. Sasso and Clark, 1998). trending reverse fault and forming most of the high ridge
west of Refugio. Late Jurassic to early Tertiary red beds,
Background of Exploration and Development at Refugio propylitized andesite flows, and andesitic volcaniclastic rocks
In 1984 Compania Minera Refugio registered claims at with an aggregate thickness of 1,100 m crop out in the south-
Refugio and identified three areas anomalous in gold, named western part of the district.
Verde, Pancho, and Guanaco (Brown and Rayment, 1991; Sil- The Refugio volcanics, exposed over at least 12 km2, consist
litoe, 1995; Fig. 3). Between 1985 and 1987, Minera Anglo of andesitic-dacitic flows and breccias and dacite porphyry
American, under option, defined about 9 million tons (Mt) of domes, intruded by subvolcanic quartz diorite porphyry
oxidized material with an average grade of 0.93 g/t gold at stocks and breccia pipes. The total thickness of the Refugio
Verde but decided to terminate its option (Sillitoe, 1995). volcanics is approximately 700 m in the center of the district.

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1448 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

6,955,500m N (UTM)

0m

471,500m E (UTM)
460
65
Guanaco

ult
4500

Fa
io
fug
Re
47

40 Pancho
0m
440
m
00
43

35
45 4500m
4400m
m
00

60 45
m
42

00
41

50 45 80

60 Verde Verde
80 West East
25 85
50
70 20
90 80
70
60
90 4300m
20
467,000m E (UTM)

40
00

50
m

4000m 70 4200
m
53
50 22
85

6.951,500m N (UTM) 20

N
Explanation 1000 m

Contour Interval: 100m

Quaternary Alluvium, Colluvium

Mid-Miocene Volcanic Rocks Quartz-Alunite Ledges

Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Refugio Volcanic Center

Zone of Quartz Veinlets
Intrusive Breccia

Quartz Diorite Porphyry Bedding

22
Dacite Porphyry Domes
Flow-Banding
70
Andesite Flows and Breccias
Fault - mapped, inferred, buried
Late Jurassic-Early Tertiary Volcanic
and Sedimentary Rocks
Late Pennsylvanian-Triassic Rhyolite Breccias Reverse Fault

FIG. 3. Map of the district geology at Refugio, based on the present study.

Although the rocks in the volcanic center can be readily clas- Andesite flows and breccias
sified as either porphyries or breccias based on texture, sub-
classification within these two categories (Tables 1 and 2) is Rocks shown as andesite flows and breccias in Figure 3 in-
difficult, especially in areas of hydrothermal alteration. Por- clude monolithic breccias, heterolithic breccias, and por-
phyritic lava flows, domes, and subvolcanic intrusions have phyritic flows of andesitic to dacitic composition. Monolithic
similar phenocryst assemblages of plagioclase + hornblende + breccias are interpreted as either block and ash deposits or
biotite + magnetite-ilmenite ± quartz ± augite. Therefore, autobrecciated flow margins related to the extrusion of dacite
map units are distinguished by their groundmass characteris- porphyry domes. Heterolithic breccias are more widespread
tics, outcrop appearance (Table 2), and contact relationships. than monolithic breccias and are interpreted as lahars or py-
Compositions of the least altered and least weathered igneous roclastic flow deposits. Porphyritic andesite, present as lay-
rocks are listed in Table 3. ered lava flows, occurs in a discontinuous, arcuate band along

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1449

TABLE 1. Breccias of the Refugio Volcanic Center

Type Outcrop appearance Description of fragments Matrix

Volcanic, monolithic Massive, locally layered Matrix-supported, subangular, mostly Clastic, mostly <15 µm
(block and ash deposit- lapilli sized (up to meters) lithic
autobrecciated flow margin?) fragments of dacite porphyry (50–75%);
broken phenocrysts

Volcanic, heterolithic Massive, locally layered Matrix-supported, lapilli-sized,

(lahar?-pyroclastic flow?) subangular lithic fragments of dacite Clastic, mostly <25 µm
porphyry and quartz diorite porphyry;
possible altered pumice (15–25%);
broken phenocrysts (up to 50%)

Intrusive Heterogeneous, massive, Matrix-supported, lapilli-sized, Uneven, anhedral granular or interlocking,

steep intrusive contacts with well-defined fragments of immediate mostly <100 µm; commonly
other units, irregular and wall rock and poorly defined porphyritic hydrothermally altered; altered rock
dikelike forms autoliths (5–60%); broken phenocrysts; flour(?) and/or igneous(?);
An37 to An44 resorbed quartz phenocrysts

TABLE 2. Porphyritic Rocks of the Refugio Volcanic Center

Map unit (Fig. 3) Outcrop appearance Phenocrysts1 Groundmass

Andesite flows Mostly layered lava flows Plagioclase: 35%,≤6 mm, mostly 0.5–1.5 mm; 50–55%, mostly <5 µm; dull, aphanitic,
oscillatory zoning, An41 to An64; hornblende: 9%, brownish in transparent light; anhedral
≤5 mm, mostly 0.5–2 mm; biotite: 1%, ≤2 mm; quartz and K-rich alkali feldspar,
magnetite-ilmenite: 3%, ≤1.2mm, mostly <0.25 mm; subhedral plagioclase; probably
augite: local, <2%; trace zircon, apatite devitrified

Dacite porphyry domes Flow banded or massive; Plagioclase: 40%, ≤7 mm, mostly 0.5–2 mm, oscillatory 45–50%, mostly <20 µm;
local intrusive contacts zoning, An37 to An56; hornblende: 7%, ≤8 mm, mostly cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline,
with volcanic rocks 0.5–3 mm; biotite: 2.5%, ≤6 mm, mostly 1–3 mm; locally turbid; anhedral quartz and
quartz: 2%, ≤6 mm, mostly <1 mm, commonly rounded K-rich alkali feldspar, subhedral
and resorbed; magnetite-ilmenite: 2.5%, ≤1 mm, plagioclase (An10– An45 ), chlorite
mostly <0.25 mm; augite: local, <4%, <0.5 mm;
trace zircon, apatite

Quartz diorite porphyry Massive; local flow Plagioclase: 40%, ≤8 mm, mostly 1–2 mm, oscillatory 45–50%, mostly 10–40 µm;
banding; steep intrusive zoning, An38 to An54; hornblende: 7%, ≤12 mm, microaplitic, transparent; sugary
contacts with other units mostly 1–3 mm, commonly poikilitic with plagioclase under a hand lens; anhedral quartz
and magnetite-ilmenite inclusions; biotite: 2.5%, and K-rich alkali feldspar(Or71–Or96),
≤12 mm, mostly 0.5–3 mm; quartz: 0.5%, ≤2 mm, subhedral plagioclase (An9–An54),
mostly <1 mm, commonly rounded and resorbed; chlorite
magnetite-ilmenite: 2.5%, ≤1 mm, mostly <0.25 mm;
trace zircon, apatite, sphene

1 Percentages are averages of visual estimates of volume percent in thin sections and cut slabs; grain sizes refer to long dimensions; the anorthite and

orthoclase components of feldspars are based on electron microprobe analyses that are described and listed in Muntean (1998)

the southern and western edges of the district with a true Dacite porphyry
thickness up to 350 m. The groundmass is aphanitic in hand Flow-banded dacite porphyry domes with autobrecciated
sample and is brown and cryptocrystalline under uncrossed margins crop out extensively along the southern and western
polars in thin section. The groundmass is interpreted to have edges of Verde, whereas massive dacite porphyry, which is
been originally glassy. mainly intrusive in nature, occurs at Verde and Guanaco (Fig.
The sequence of porphyritic andesite flows and breccias 3). The groundmass of the dacite porphyry is cryptocrystalline
that crop out southeast of Verde East dip fairly consistently to microcrystalline, locally turbid, and is mostly <20 µm in
20º southeast. Projection of these rocks northwestward sug- grain size.
gests the removal of at least 400 to 500 m of rock above the
Verde deposit. Westward projection of andesite breccias over- Quartz diorite porphyry
lying the east end of Pancho requires the removal of at least Gold is most closely associated in time and space with small
400 m of rock above the lower exposed parts of the Pancho stocks of quartz diorite porphyry and intrusive breccia that
deposit (Fig. 3). are distinctly aligned along a northwest trend (Fig. 3). Where

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 1450

TABLE 3. Whole-Rock Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks

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DD-1 DD-33 DD-24
Sample no. RV045 RV078 RV069 92-94m1 RV050 RR005 RG002 RP050 12-14m1 32-34m1 RR017 RR021 RV001 RV037 RP043 RV034

Field Mid- Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz

name/ Miocene diorite diorite diorite diorite diorite diorite diorite Intrusive Intrusive Dacite Dacite Dacite Dacite Andesite Andesite
map unit Volcanics porphyry porphyry porphyry porphyry porphyry porphyry porphyry breccia breccia porphyry porphyry porphyry porphyry flow flow

Oxides (wt %)
SiO2 60.2 61.1 59.9 60.9 59.2 60.3 60.3 61.8 63.9 63.0 59.3 60.3 60.1 58.6 59.4 58.5
Al2O3 17.1 16.9 17.1 16.4 17.0 16.6 16.9 17.6 14.5 15.0 16.6 16.7 16.0 16.0 17.0 17.1
CaO 5.80 5.02 5.11 3.95 5.73 4.44 4.70 2.96 1.75 5.53 5.63 5.61 3.90 4.69 4.93 5.61
MgO 1.74 1.98 1.90 1.93 2.07 2.14 2.17 1.51 2.95 1.97 2.07 2.09 2.95 2.43 2.24 2.47
Na2O 3.95 3.64 3.68 3.92 3.49 3.88 3.62 3.96 3.93 3.20 3.71 3.59 3.12 3.36 3.16 3.23
K2O 2.17 2.18 2.06 2.13 1.96 2.14 2.21 2.07 2.17 1.56 2.04 2.13 2.40 2.16 2.09 2.03
Fe2O32 4.76 4.64 5.13 5.37 5.24 5.14 4.72 4.65 5.24 4.96 5.08 4.97 4.95 5.71 5.81 6.26
MnO 0.09 0.17 0.12 0.23 0.13 0.22 0.16 0.12 0.19 0.13 0.09 0.10 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.11
TiO2 0.690 0.591 0.626 0.610 0.646 0.592 0.598 0.558 0.519 0.579 0.657 0.630 0.562 0.591 0.649 0.681

1450
P2O5 0.26 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.22 0.23 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.22
Cr2O3 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
LOI 1.65 1.50 2.40 2.40 2.25 2.45 2.45 3.00 3.00 0.95 1.80 2.05 4.10 4.40 2.50 2.45
Sum3 98.6 98.1 98.4 98.2 98.1 98.3 98.2 98.5 98.4 97.3 97.4 98.6 98.6 98.5 98.4 98.8
MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

Trace elements (ppm)

Rb 74 86 60 72 67 68 71 59 84 72 98 63 65 76 54 68
Sr 709 597 591 559 581 587 591 489 427 568 680 538 424 508 537 585
Y 17 26 17 22 23 24 23 20 21 27 39 17 17 23 24 23
Zr 162 161 149 152 156 148 161 153 123 141 161 152 139 142 138 143
Nb 10 9 8 10 11 9 10 7 6 10 13 8 8 8 9 9
Ba 717 692 634 631 672 819 706 698 518 514 694 640 721 732 746 581

Samples were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence by XRAL Laboratories, Toronto, Canada; samples are weakly weathered and/or weakly propylitically altered; sample descriptions and locations are in
Muntean (1998)
1 Depth in meters below drill collar
2 All iron reported as Fe O
2 3
3 Low sums probably resulted from incomplete loss on ignition, especially from sulfates
 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1451

exposed, contacts of quartz diorite porphyry and intrusive has a sandy texture at the scale of a hand sample, commonly
breccia indicate that these rocks intruded massive dacite por- showing fine-scale layering that suggests fluidization (Fig.
phyry, andesite flows and breccias, and each other. Quartz 4A). Except for the broken crystals, the matrix lacks definitive
diorite porphyry occurs as subequant bodies that range in di- clastic textures or textures, suggesting precipitation of miner-
ameter from 500 m at Pancho to 100 to 200 m at Guanaco and als in open space. Where the matrix has a granular texture, it
Verde. Under a hand lens the groundmass can be seen as dis- appears to have crystallized from a melt. Where the matrix
tinctly sucrose, in contrast with the aphanitic groundmass of has an interlocking texture, it may have resulted from hy-
dacite porphyry and porphyritic andesite. In thin section, the drothermal alteration of igneous matrix. Numerous samples
groundmass is microaplitic with a 10- to 40-µm grain size. show fragments of breccia within breccia (Fig. 4B, C), indi-
cating episodic emplacement. Similar mineralogy and the
Intrusive breccia close spatial relationship between intrusive breccia and
Breccia bodies range from irregular, multiple-phase bodies quartz diorite porphyry suggest a genetic link between the
up to 800 m across to dikes centimeters to meters in width. two. The intrusive breccias may have resulted from explosive
They generally contain 5 to 60 percent lapilli-sized, matrix- volatile release and fragmentation of the parent magma of
supported fragments, including well-defined subangular frag- quartz diorite porphyry.
ments of the immediate wall rock and autoliths set in a very
fine grained matrix (Fig. 4). Autoliths have indistinct bound- Structural geology
aries, and their groundmass and phenocryst assemblages are Refugio is located on the western edge of a graben
similar to that of quartz diorite porphyry. The breccia matrix bounded by a high-angle reverse fault, referred to here as the
Refugio fault. The Refugio fault strikes N 20° to 35° E, and
places Late Pennsylvanian to Triassic rhyolite in contact with
A Mesozoic red beds and greenstones. It also juxtaposes these
basement rocks with dacite porphyry of the Refugio volcanics
(Fig. 3). Thus, final movement on the Refugio fault postdated
emplacement of the Refugio volcanics and its associated gold
deposits.
Quartz diorite porphyry stocks, intrusive breccia bodies,
zones of quartz veinlets, and gold deposits are distinctly
aligned along a N 30° to 45° W trend (Fig. 3). Further, dikes
of intrusive breccia commonly strike northwest, and some of
the quartz diorite porphyry bodies are elongated northwest-
southeast. Faults locally strike northwest, but their strike
lengths are mostly less than a few hundred meters and dis-
20 mm placement on them is less than a few meters. Quartz-alunite
ledges occupy northwest-trending faults at Pancho, suggest-
B ing these faults were active during hydrothermal activity
Verde Gold Deposit
Gold ore at Verde is associated with a zone of quartz vein-
lets trending N 80° W that is about 1,500 m long and 600 m
wide (Fig. 3). The Verde deposit is composed of two separate
coalescing annular-shaped orebodies referred to as Verde
West and Verde East. The orebodies have diameters of about
20 mm
500 m, low-grade cores with diameters of about 100 to 150 m,
and vertical extents of more than 500 m.
C
Geology of the Verde orebodies
Gold mineralization at Verde is hosted by a composite in-
Porphyry trusive center consisting of massive dacite porphyry emplaced
Dike of Breccia Autoliths before mineralization, intrusive breccia bodies emplaced dur-
Matrix Material
ing mineralization, and small stocks of quartz diorite porphyry
emplaced during the final stages of mineralization. The main
Porphyry 20 mm host rock at Verde West is a body of intrusive breccia, 800 m
in diameter, with contacts dipping within 10º of vertical (Figs.
FIG. 4. A. Core sample showing dike from Verde West consisting of fine- 3 and 5). The breccia body cuts dacite porphyry and volcani-
grained breccia matrix material. Note the fine-flow layering in dike. B, C. clastic breccias of the andesite flow and breccia unit. Quartz
Core sample of intrusive breccia from Verde West. Note the porphyry cut by veinlets hosted by intrusive breccia and dacite porphyry are
intrusive breccia matrix material at the left side of the sample and the poorly
defined autoliths in the center of the sample. The porphyry and dike were
commonly truncated at steep contacts with late quartz diorite
subsequently fragmented, incorporated into intrusive breccia, and cut by porphyry. Vein abundance in the quartz diorite porphyry at
banded quartz veinlets. Verde West decreases from 2.5 vol percent along its margins

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1452 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

A 6,953,300m N
VERDE WEST

470,400m E
75 80

ng
pi
65

ap
80
100 meters

M
of
it
70

m
N 65

Li
65
80

80
82
80
70 80
85
80 80
75
65
70 80
80 87
88
75
85 g
pin
80 80 ap
80 fM
75
85 4400m it o
Lim
75
65 75 85
80 80 75

80 75
83 80
65

75
Mid-Miocene
60
80

84 80 Post-Ore Volcanic Rocks

80 80 Late Oligocene - Early Miocene

Fault - dip
Quartz Diorite Porphyry
60 direction
and dip, 80
vertical dip
Intrusive Breccia
Lithologic Contact -
75 dip direction and dip,
vertical dip 60 Dacite Porphyry
(intrusive breccia dikes)
469,750m E

4300m
30 Bedding
40 Igneous Flow Banding Volcaniclastic Breccia

6,952,600m N

6,952,950m N
B
470,500m E

ng
pi

45
ap

00
M
of

m
it
m
Li

44 85
00 75
m
80
85
40
40 85
55 80
80
63
80

84 65
75 80 80
80
75
85

18
80 75
70 20
30

VERDE EAST 70
60 80
471,000m E

N
100 meters
6,952,600m N

FIG. 5. Geologic maps of the Verde orebodies, based on the present study. A. Verde West, not including unexposed south-
eastern portion. B. Southwestern exposed portion of Verde East.

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1453

to mostly less than 0.25 percent in its interior. Quartz diorite Most hydrothermal alteration at Verde and Pancho was
porphyry in the center of the Verde East orebody contains no pervasive and affected large volumes of rock. Alteration min-
quartz veinlets. erals rarely can be tied to individual fractures or veinlets. On
The Verde orebodies are cut by numerous faults with steep a district scale, weak propylitic alteration affected all of the
dips. The primary trend strikes N 60° to 90° E; there is a sec- Refugio volcanics and the late quartz diorite porphyry stocks
ondary trend striking N 50° to 85° W and a tertiary trend at Verde. Mafic mineral phenocrysts are partially replaced by
striking N 10° E. Faults commonly occur at contacts between chlorite and magnetite, but their cleavage outlines are re-
intrusive phases, truncate quartz veinlets, and have fragments tained. Deposit-specific alteration assemblages and veinlet
of quartz veinlets in clay-rich gouge. Faults do not abruptly types are listed in Tables 4 and 5 and discussed below.
terminate or offset ore zones or alteration patterns, suggest-
ing only small postore displacement. Chlorite-magnetite-albite alteration
Near-perfect patterns of radial quartz veinlets with high- The hydrothermal mineral assemblage chlorite-albite-mag-
angle dips and concentric quartz veinlets with low-angle in- netite (Table 4) is spatially associated with the intrusive cen-
ward dips are present at both Verde West and Verde East ters and with the zone of >0.5 ppm Au. Mafic phenocrysts are
(Fig. 6). The patterns are centered on the late stocks of quartz completely replaced by fine-grained mixtures of chlorite and
diorite porphyry in the center of the orebodies. Concentric magnetite that destroy crystal forms. Plagioclase phenocrysts
veinlets, analogous to cone sheets, are mostly found between are partially replaced by albite, and the degree of albitization
elevations of 4,325 and 4,400 m at Verde West. Mutual cross- of plagioclase increases toward the outer edges of the ore-
cutting relationships between radial and concentric veinlets bodies. Calcite is abundant along the exposed south margins
indicate they are coeval. An additional set of quartz veinlets of the Verde West and Verde East (Fig. 6). Magmatic iron-
strikes N 70° E at Verde East, parallel to a fault zone. titanium oxide minerals are oxidized to magnetite (± hematite)

TABLE 4. Types of Pervasive Hydrothermal Alteration at Refugio, Mineral Associations within Original Magmatic Mineral Sites

Alteration zone Chl-mag-alb1 Py-alb-clay Mag-ksp-olig2 Bio2

Alteration type Chloritic Intermediate argillic Potassic Potassic

Location and extent Centered on ore, Mostly peripheral to ore Centered on ore Deep, lateral to ore
100s meters district scale (3 km) 100 m 100s meters
Alteration minerals
Hornblende sites Chl-(mag) Py-rt-kaol-ill Mag-olig-qtz-bio Bio-(mag)
Chl3 Chl3
Biotite sites Chl-(mag) Py-rt-kaol-ill Mag-olig-qtz-bio Bio-(mag)
Chl3 Chl3
Plagioclase sites (Alb-cal) Alb-(qtz-ksp)4 Olig Olig-(bio-ksp)
Kaol-ill3 Ksp-qtz3
Ilmenite-magnetite grains Mag-sph, Py-rt Mag-sph, Mag-sph,
Mag-rt5 Mag-rt5 Mag-rt5
(Hm-rt)3 (Hm-rt3 (Hm-rt)3
Groundmass Qtz-alb-kaol-ill Ksp-qtz-olig
Chl3
Other minerals (Cal) (Spec)
<1% tour2
Opaque minerals 1–4% mag 0% mag 4–6% mag-cp-(hm3) 3-6% mag-cp-(hm3)
(Bn, cp, gl, mo) 0.5–1% cp, (bn6) <1% cp, (mo, sl)
cp:py = >1:1 cp:py = <1:1
<1% py3 2–4% py <1% py3 <2% py3
Veins associated with
alteration zones (1) Gar-chl-mag1 (1) A-vnlts2 (1) A-vnlts2
(in approx age (2) Banded qtz (1) Banded qtz (2) Banded qtz (2) Banded qtz
sequence, (3) Cal
see Table 5) (4) (Qtz-alun) (2) Qtz-alun

Underline = major and/or complete replacement or most characteristic vein types; italics = partial replacement; parentheses = minor and/or trace occur-
rence
1 Only at Verde
2 only at Pancho
3 relatively late
4 relatively early
5 replaces mag-sph
6 not with py

Abbreviations: alb = albite,alun = alunite, apa = apaptite, bar = barite, bio = biotite, bn = bornite, cal = calcite, cas = cassitierite, chl = chlorite, cp =
chalcopyrite, dias - diaspore, dick = dickite, ep = epidote, gar = garnet (andradite), gl = galena, gyp = gypsum, hm = hematite, ill = illite, kao = kaolinite,
ksp = K-feldspar, mag = magnetite, mo = molybdenite, olig = oligoclase, qtz = quartz, rt = rutile, ser = sericite, sl = sphalerite, spec = specular hematite,
sph = sphene, tour = tourmaline, vnlt = veinlet

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1454 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

A 6,953,300m N
VERDE WEST

470,400m E
ng
55

pi
ap
55
100 meters

M
75

of
it
m
N

Li
70

70

75
?
75

g
pin
ap
80 fM
it o
Lim

Pyrite-Albite-Clay
Alteration

Chlorite-Magnetite-Albite
Alteration

Calcite-Bearing Chlorite-
Magnetite-Albite Altn.

Quartz-Alunite Ledge -
trace of replacement
75
vein with dip direction
and dip, vertical dip

Banded Quartz Veinlets

469,750m E

Garnet-Chlorite-
Magnetite Veinlets
Outline of Quartz Diorite
Porphyry (Weak
6,952,600m N Propylitic Alteration)

B 6,952,950m N
470,500m E

ng
pi
ap
M
of
it
m
Li

Post-Ore
Volcanic
Rocks

Fault
Zone

VERDE EAST
471,000m E

N
100 meters
6,952,600m N

FIG. 6. Maps of hydrothermal alteration and vein types at the Verde orebodies, based on the present study. A. Verde West,
not including unexposed southeastern portion. B. Southwestern exposed portion of Verde East.

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1455

+ rutile. Where in contact, chalcopyrite and magnetite have are mostly replaced by albite and by later clays, including
mutual boundaries and appear to have coprecipitated. Mag- kaolinite and illite. Illite, as referred to in this study, has a
netite content is generally 1 to 4 vol percent, approximately d(001) of 10 Å, and a crystal size less than about 5 µm. The
equal to its abundance in weakly propylitized rocks through- groundmass and mafic mineral phenocrysts are replaced by
out the district. Pyrite is present in minor amounts (<1 vol %) quartz, albite, illite, kaolinite, pyrite, and rutile. Calcite is lo-
near the inner edges of the annular-shaped orebodies, and its cally abundant in unweathered drill core, commonly occur-
abundance increases outward at the expense of magnetite. ring as narrow veinlets (<0.2 mm). The observed replacement
Where they are seen in contact in unweathered samples, textures suggest that pyrite-albite-clay alteration encroached
pyrite rims or fills fractures in magnetite. Based on the above inward onto the central chlorite-albite-magnetite zone.
evidence, we assign pyrite to a younger and peripheral alter-
ation event marked by pyrite-albite-clay (see below). Quartz-K feldspar-chlorite alteration of intrusive breccias
The characteristic texture of chloritized secondary biotite Alteration minerals in intrusive breccia generally are the
in potassically altered rocks of porphyry copper deposits, in same as the pervasive alteration assemblages described above,
which chlorite inherits the shreddy texture of hydrothermal and no distinctive sulfide or iron oxide assemblages are pre-
biotite in hornblende phenocryst sites (Carten, 1987; Dilles sent. However, locally, alteration led to interlocking grains of
and Einaudi, 1992), has only been detected in one core hole quartz and albite with clumps of K feldspar and chlorite, or ir-
at Verde East where chlorite is associated with K feldspar. regular patches of granular quartz. In general, hydrothermal
Our conclusion is that most of the Verde orebodies never un- K feldspar and chlorite are more abundant in intrusive brec-
derwent potassic alteration. cias than in other altered rock types at Verde.
Banded quartz veinlets
Andradite-chlorite-magnetite veinlets
Banded quartz veinlets that occupy radial and concentric
Narrow, discontinuous veinlets with variable amounts of
fractures described above are the hydrothermal feature most
garnet, chlorite, and magnetite (Table 5), originally described
closely associated with gold ore at Verde (Fig. 7, Table 5).
by Rodriguez et al. (1997), are found in minor amounts
Veinlet abundances range up to 20 vol percent and are mostly
throughout the zone of chlorite-magnetite-albite but are
between 1 to 4 percent at Verde West and 2 to 10 percent in
more common in the calcite-bearing zones along the margins
the exposed parts of Verde East. The veinlets consist of quartz
of the orebodies (Fig. 6). The veinlets do not appear to have
with a fine-grained (<0.25 mm) granular texture and local
any spatial or temporal association with gold but locally con-
elongation perpendicular to the vein walls. Quartz fills hair-
tain sulfides, including pyrite, chalcopyrite, and traces of
line to millimeter-wide fractures (up to 2 cm wide) with
galena. The garnet is reddish brown and, based on electron
slightly wavy walls that match up. Banded veinlets lack alter-
microprobe analyses (Muntean, 1998), is a low aluminum,
ation envelopes, with relict plagioclase of magmatic composi-
calcic garnet containing greater than 99 mole percent andra-
tion commonly present directly against vein walls.
dite. In most cases andradite is variably replaced by chlorite,
Many banded quartz veinlets contain dark gray bands that
magnetite, and unidentified clay, whereas magnetite is vari-
occur as symmetric pairs near the vein walls. The dark col-
ably altered to hematite. The veinlets commonly have
oration is due to a high content of vapor-rich fluid inclusions
bleached white to gray alteration envelopes in which ground-
and micrometer-sized magnetite grains (Fig. 7B). Dark bands
mass is variably replaced by quartz, mafic phenocrysts are al-
locally show botryoidal textures that are continuous through
tered to K feldspar, sphene, and albite-oligoclase, and chlorite
quartz grains, suggesting that quartz recrystallized from a sil-
is absent. The andradite veinlets cut volcaniclastic breccias
ica gel (e.g., Boydell, 1924; Ramdohr, 1980; Sander and
and dacite porphyry. They cut and locally are cut by intrusive
Black, 1988). In addition to magnetite, dark bands contain
breccias, and they are absent in the late quartz diorite por-
rare micrometer-sized chalcopyrite, bornite, and sphalerite
phyry plugs. These relationships indicate that the veinlets
encapsulated in quartz.
formed episodically during the early stages of intrusive activ-
Pyrite and minor calcite, K feldspar, sphene, magnetite,
ity and during intense chlorite-albite-magnetite alteration.
and chlorite commonly fill vuggy vein centers and constitute
less than 5 percent of the veinlet volume. These minerals also
Pyrite-albite-clay alteration fill fractures that cut the dark bands and locally extend out
The outermost zone of pervasively bleached rocks consists into wall rock. Late magnetite is coarser grained (up to 0.15
of limonite (after pyrite), albite, illite, and kaolinite, and ex- mm diam) than in the dark bands and is variably altered to
tends from Verde in a northwesterly direction over 3 km with hematite or pyrite.
a width of 2 km. It shows up as a strong color anomaly on aer- Based on crosscutting relationships, most banded quartz
ial photographs and satellite images. Much of the kaolinite in veinlets formed during emplacement of the intrusive breccias
bleached rocks is likely of supergene origin, as suggested by and prior to intrusion of the quartz diorite porphyry stocks.
the presence of kaolinite veinlets associated with exotic The matrix of intrusive breccias encloses fragments of banded
limonite that cut across all other features. The pyrite-albite- quartz veinlets and clasts of veined wall rock. However, the
clay zone (Fig. 6, Table 4) is defined by the absence of mag- vast majority of the banded quartz veinlets cut both matrix
netite and chlorite and the presence of feldspars that were and clasts, and the radial-concentric pattern of banded vein-
easily scratched and lacked cleavage. In unweathered drill lets does not appear to be disrupted by bodies of intrusive
core, the pyrite-albite-clay zone is pale greenish in color and breccia. The absence of veinlets in, and the truncation of
contains about 2 to 4 vol percent pyrite. Plagioclase phenocrysts veinlets by, quartz diorite porphyry indicates that banded

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1456 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

TABLE 5. Vein Types at Refugio (listed in order of decreasing relative age)

Vein center or vein filling

Vein type Minerals Major Minor Thickness Length Structure

Garnet1 Gangue Gar-chl Qtz, cal, alb-olig, <0.5 mm 10s cm Discontinuous, irreg walls
ep, sph, apa
Opaque Mag Py, cp, gl

A-veinlets
A-12 Gangue Bio-qtz <0.2 mm cms Discontinuous, irreg walls
Opaque Mag-cp Py, sl
A-22 Gangue Qtz Chl, apa <0.2 mm cms Discontinuous, irreg walls
Opaque Mag-cp
A-32 Gangue Qtz Chl, bio, bar <1–2 mm 10s cm Continuous straight walls
Opaque Mag-cp Bn, spec
A-42 Gangue Qtz <1–2 mm 10s cm Continuous straight walls
Opaque Cp Py

Banded qtz Outside dark bands:

Gangue Qtz-ksp-cal-chl Ill, ep, gar, gyp mms– 10s cm Continuous, wavy walls
Opaque Py, Mag Cp, sl, gl, mo, cas 2 cm to m’s
In dark bands:
Gangue Qtz 0.001– 10s cm Symmetric pairs
Opaque Mag Cp, bn, sl 0.1 mm to m’s

D veins2
Gangue Qtz <1 mm– 1-10 m Continuous
Opaque Py Cp, mo 3 cm

Qtz-alunite
Gangue Qtz-alun Rut, dick, dia, bar 0.5– 10s– Continuous, replacement, bx common
Opaque Py 40 m 150 m

Wall-rock alteration halo Age relative to other veins Age relative to intrusions

Vein type Minerals Major Minor Thickness Postdate Predate Postdate Predate

Garnet1 Gangue Qtz Ksp-sph-alb 0.5–5 mm Banded vnlts Dacite por

intrus bx Intrus bx
Opaque Mag, py qtz-dior por1

A-veinlets
A-12 Gangue Bio, or <0.1 mm A-3 A-2, 3, 4, banded Intrus bx (Intrus bx)
Opaque Ksp-olig vnlts, D vns qtz-dior por
A-22 Gangue Ksp-Qtz <0.1 mm A-2, 3 A-3, 4, banded Intrus bx (Intrus bx)
Opaque vnlts, D vns qtz-dior por
A-32 Gangue None None A-4, (A-1, 2) A-4, banded Intrus bx (Intrus bx)
Opaque vnlts, D vns qtz-dior por
A-42 Gangue None None Banded vnlts, Intrus bx (Intrus bx)
Opaque D vns qtz-dior por

Banded qtz Outside dark bands

Gangue None None Garnet vnlts Dacite por
Opaque A-vnlts intrus bx (Intrus bx)
In dark bands: qtz-dior por qtz-dior por1
Gangue None None D vns
Opaque Qtz-alunite1

D veins2
Gangue Qtz-ser 1–5 cm A-vnlts, Qtz-alunite ? Dacite por
Opaque Py banded vnlts intrus bx
qtz-dior por

Qtz-alunite
Gangue Qtz-kao Ser m Banded vnlts1 Dacite por
Opaque Py intrus bx

1 Relationship seen at Verde only

2 Relationship seen at Pancho only
Abbreviations as in Table 4; additional abbreviations: bx = breccia, dior = diorite, dk = dark, intrus = intrusive, irreg = irregular, porph = porphyry; rela-
tive age of qtz-alunite veins and quartz diorite porphyry is uncertain; relative age of D veins and qtz-alunite veins is uncertain

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1457

A B

Gyp

Qtz

25 mm
100 um

C D
Banded Veinlet

A-Veinlet

Wall Rock 0.5 mm 0.5 mm

FIG. 7. Banded quartz veinlets. A. Subparallel banded quartz veinlets hosted by intrusive breccia from Verde West. B.
Photomicrograph of banded veinlet from Verde West showing botryoidal banding, uncrossed polars. Dark bands contain
abundant micron-sized magnetite and vapor-rich fluid inclusions. The mineral with the cleavages in the vuggy vein center is
gypsum with pyrite inclusions. C. Quartz-magnetite-chalcopyrite A-veinlet from Pancho cut by banded quartz veinlet, un-
crossed polars. Note botryoidal nature of the bands. D. Same as C, crossed polars. Note how banded vein material occurs as
overgrowths on the earlier granular quartz of the A-veinlet, the continuity of bands through quartz crystals, and how the fine-
grained quartz of the interior of the banded veinlet contrasts with the coarser granular quartz of the A-veinlet.

quartz veinlets had essentially ceased to form by the time the a zone of quartz-kaolinite-sericite alteration forms an outer
stocks were emplaced at their present structural level. halo in which original rock textures are mostly preserved.
Banded quartz veinlets cut and offset garnet-chlorite-mag- Within the central quartz-alunite zone, alunite occurs as ag-
netite veinlets; the reverse crosscutting relationship has not gregates of fine-grained (10–50 µm) crystals and as blades as
been observed in spite of the fact that both vein types appear long as 200 µm in length. X-ray diffraction patterns indicate a
to have formed through most of the intrusive activity prior to significant natroalunite component. Original pyrite content,
emplacement of quartz diorite porphyry. based on an estimation of leached cavities and rare unoxi-
dized zones, was approximately 5 vol percent. In unoxidized
Quartz-alunite ledges zones pyrite is intergrown with alunite with smooth grain
Replacement veins of quartz-alunite alteration are most boundaries. Late fractures are filled with alunite + pyrite, di-
abundant between the Pancho and Verde orebodies where aspore + pyrite, or barite.
they are up to 150 m long and 40 m wide. The vast majority Where quartz-alunite ledges intersect zones of banded
of the quartz-alunite ledges in the district are present above quartz veinlets, diaspore and alunite veinlets cut banded
the 4,300-m elevation. Quartz-alunite ledges commonly are quartz veinlets (Fig. 9C, D). In addition, gangue minerals be-
anomalous in gold, but gold grades greater than 1 ppm have sides quartz and pyrite in banded quartz veinlets are absent,
not been reported. the boundaries of quartz veinlets are less distinct, and dark
At Verde, quartz-alunite ledges are mostly found on the pe- bands are subdued. These observations indicate that the
riphery and outer edges of the Verde West orebody (Figs. 6 quartz-alunite ledges postdate the banded quartz veinlets.
and 8, Table 5), where they have widths of less than a meter, The relative age of quartz-alunite ledges and the late quartz
lengths of tens of meters, and dips greater than 55º. Host diorite porphyry stocks at Verde remains undocumented be-
rocks are completely altered to quartz + alunite + pyrite + ru- cause of the lack of critical exposures at the time of this study.
tile ± dickite ± diaspore, original rock textures are mostly de- Textural evidence for equilibrium between pyrite and alu-
stroyed, but vuggy residual quartz is rare. The amount of nite, the coarse, bladed nature of the alunite, and the associ-
quartz decreases outward from the center of the ledges, and ation of alunite with dickite and diaspore are consistent with

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1458 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

A B

Qtz Qtz Qtz Qtz Qtz

+ + + + +
Ser Alu (Alu) Alu Ser

0.25 mm

C D

Banded Banded
Qtz Qtz
Vnlt Vnlt
Alun Alun
Vnlt Vnlt

0.25 mm 0.25 mm

FIG. 8. A. Exposure of quartz-alunite ledge in road cut from Verde West. The ledge zones outward from a central,
25-cm-thick quartz-rich zone to quartz + alunite to quartz + sericite alteration. B. Photomicrograph of quartz-alunite ledge
from Pancho, showing coarse, bladed alunite intergrown with quartz. C, D. Alunite veinlet in ledge cutting banded quartz
veinlet.

a hypogene origin for the alunite (cf. Hemley et al., 1969). Verde West orebody, overlapping considerably with ore zones
Stable isotope studies of similar alunite occurrences else- along the northeastern and eastern margins. Zones with >0.05
where have shown that such alunite forms from magmatic ppm gold extend about 100 m beyond the outer limits of
vapor condensed into meteoric water at temperatures typi- banded veinlets at both Verde West and Verde East.
cally greater than 200°C; such alunite is termed magmatic- Eleven observations of gold in four samples support the
hydrothermal alunite (Rye et al., 1992; Arribas, 1995). The correlation between gold grades and banded quartz veinlets
presence of dickite, rather than pyrophyllite, suggests tem- (Fig. 10). Gold occurs within veinlets or in wall rock along the
peratures less than 260°C (Hemley et al., 1980). margins of veinlets. A few grains of gold were found with
magnetite in the dark bands, where gold and magnetite occur
Gold occurrence as free, distinctly round, <10-µm grains encapsulated in
Gold grades of surface samples correlate closely with the quartz (Fig. 10A, B). Most of the gold grains observed in the
mapped abundance of banded quartz veinlets (Figs. 6 and 8). banded quartz veinlets are closely associated with pyrite that
Gold grades at Verde West form a structurally controlled, fills fractures that postdate the dark bands. In these occur-
starburstlike pattern that reflects the radial and concentric rences, gold occurs mostly as free grains along quartz grain
distribution patterns of veinlets. A similar pattern is present boundaries and in contact with pyrite and chlorite (Fig. 10C,
in the exposed part of Verde East, although zones containing D). Three gold grains were found in illite, chlorite, and K
>1 ppm gold at Verde East are larger and more continuous feldspar in wall rock within micrometers of the margins of
because of the higher abundance of banded veinlets. Gold is banded veinlets (Fig. 10E, F). Gold found with the pyrite or
centered in the late stocks of quartz diorite porphyry, which gangue minerals in the veinlets or along the margins of the
sharply truncate ore zones (>0.5 ppm gold) at Verde East and veinlets is interpreted to have formed after the dark bands
Verde West. At Verde West ore zones locally extend into and during the late stages of filling in of banded quartz vein-
quartz diorite porphyry along fault zones or in sheeted sets of lets. Based on electron microprobe analyses, the average
banded quartz veinlets along the margins of the stock. Pyrite- gold/silver ratio of gold associated with the magnetite in the
albite-clay alteration forms a narrow (10–50 m) halo to the dark bands is 99:1 (by wt, 2 analyses), whereas the average
Verde East orebody, whereas it forms an incomplete, broader gold/silver ratio of gold associated with pyrite or gangue min-
halo on the western, northern, and eastern margins of the erals is 91:9 (4 analyses; Muntean, 1998).

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1459

A 6,953,300m N
VERDE WEST

470,400m E
ng
pi
ap
100 meters

M
of
it
m
N

Li g
pin
ap
fM
it o
Lim

Surface
Gold Grades
>1ppm

0.5-1ppm

0.05-0.5ppm

<0.05ppm
469,750m E

Sampled Roadcut
6,952,600m N

B 6,952,950m N
470,500m E

Limit of
Assay Data

Post-Ore
Volcanic
Rocks

Limit of
Assay Data

VERDE EAST
471,000m E

N
100 meters
Limit of
Assay Data 6,952,600m N

FIG. 9. Maps showing distribution of surface gold grades at the Verde orebodies, based on 2-m channel samples of the
drill roads. A. Verde West, not including unexposed southeastern portion. B. Southwestern exposed portion of Verde East.

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1460 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

A B C
Qtz
Qtz Py
Qtz
Mgt
Mgt
Au
Au
Mgt

Mgt Chl Au

10 um 10 um 25 um

D E F
Mgt Qtz
Qtz Vnlt

Py Au
Qtz Ksp
Vnlt Au
Au Illite
Ksp

Na-Rich Plag
10 um 10 um 10 um

FIG. 10. Back-scattered electron images of gold occurrences in banded quartz veinlets at Verde. Abbreviations: Au = na-
tive gold, Chl = chlorite, Ksp = K feldspar, Mgt = magnetite, Na-Rich Plag = Na-rich plagioclase, Py = pyrite, Qtz = quartz.
A, B. Gold with magnetite from dark band in banded quartz veinlet. Note round morphology of the grains. C. Gold grain in
patch of chlorite outside dark bands in banded quartz veinlet. D. Relatively coarse gold attached to pyrite outside dark bands
in banded quartz veinlet. E. Gold with K feldspar along margin of a banded quartz veinlet. F. Gold in patch of illite inside
outer margin of quartz veinlet.

Pancho Gold Deposit steeply dipping, northwest-trending sheeted sets that are par-
In addition to containing hydrothermal features similar to allel to dikes and faults, and, unlike Verde, the veinlets do not
those at Verde, Pancho also contains alteration and veinlet exhibit a radial and concentric pattern.
styles that are similar to those observed in porphyry copper
deposits. Thus, Pancho may serve as a link between porphyry Magnetite-K feldspar-oligoclase zone
copper and porphyry gold deposits. Geologic mapping of ex- The potassic alteration assemblage of magnetite-K feldspar-
posures along a 30º to 40º slope over a vertical interval of oligoclase forms a zone about 200 m in diameter in the cen-
about 400 m yields a plan map that can also be viewed as a ter of the deposit (Fig. 12, Table 4). Here, only minor relics
distorted cross section with up to the east (Figs. 11 and 12). of primary magmatic minerals survived the alteration process.
Plagioclase phenocrysts are mostly altered to oligoclase.
Intrusions and structure Mafic mineral phenocrysts are completely altered to mag-
The highest gold grades at Pancho are centered on a quartz netite, oligoclase, quartz, and minor shreddy biotite that in
diorite porphyry stock with a diameter of at least 900 m (Figs. some samples is partly replaced by chlorite. K feldspar,
3 and 11) and an east-trending zone of abundant quartz vein- quartz, oligoclase, and minor chlorite, the latter possibly an
lets 1.1 km long and 0.7 km wide (Figs. 3 and 12). The quartz overprint on secondary biotite, replace primary groundmass.
diorite porphyry stock is cut by steeply dipping dikes of in- Local patches of K feldspar and quartz replace both ground-
trusive breccia that strike N 50º to 70º W. Most faults at Pan- mass oligoclase and the rims of oligoclase-altered phe-
cho are parallel to the dikes and are interpreted to have small, nocrysts, resulting in partial destruction of primary rock
normal displacements. A secondary set of N 70º to 80º E- texture. Opaque minerals include 3 to 5 vol percent dissemi-
striking faults appears to be associated with larger east- nated magnetite that is partly oxidized to hematite and <1 vol
northeast-trending faults that bound the northeastern and percent chalcopyrite. Specular hematite is locally present,
southern sides of Pancho (Fig. 3). The two fault sets appear and magmatic ilmenite is replaced by magnetite, sphene
to crosscut each other. Banded quartz veinlets locally form and/or rutile.

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1461

70
PANCHO

Lim
80
80

it
100 meters

of M
85
75 80

app
ing
65
75 N
65
80
70 80
85

80
85 75 80 75

65
70

Geology 85
70
4400m

?
80
65
65
Late Oligocene - Early Miocene

Lim
70

it o
Intrusive Breccia

fM
85

app
80
Quartz Diorite Porphyry

ing
65 80 60
70
82
80
Volcaniclastic Breccia
82
65
80 75 80
82 75 80
80
60 80
Fault - dip direction and dip, 62
85 4300m
vertical dip 65
65
65 35
75 Lithologic Contact -
dip direction and dip, 75 75
vertical dip
85 80
30 Bedding 65
85
50

6,953,700m N
Limit 4200
of M m
appin
g

469,000m E

FIG. 11. Geologic map of the Pancho orebody, based on the present study. Given the steep topography, the map is
arranged so that north is to the left allowing the map to be viewed as a distorted cross section.

Biotite zone A-veinlets

The magnetite-K feldspar-oligoclase zone changes gradu- Sets of early quartz-magnetite-sulfide veinlets, here termed
ally laterally and downward to a zone of abundant brown sec- A-veinlets (cf. Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), are associated spa-
ondary biotite with only traces of secondary K feldspar (Fig. tially with potassically altered rocks and are restricted to in-
12, Table 4). In deep exposures, the biotite zone grades later- trusive rocks (Figs. 12 and 13, Table 5). A-veinlets, mostly
ally to district-scale weak propylitic assemblages. Shreddy ag- constituting less than 2 vol percent of the rock, range in char-
gregates of biotite completely replace magmatic hornblende acter from generally older, discontinuous, and irregular hair-
and partially replace magmatic biotite. Based on electron mi- line streaks with variable amounts of magnetite, biotite,
croprobe analyses, the Fe/(Fe + Mg) mole ratio of secondary quartz, and minor chalcopyrite, to generally younger, more
biotite and relict magmatic biotite ranges from 0.17 to 0.26 continuous, wider veinlets with magnetite and/or chalcopy-
(Muntean, 1998). Plagioclase phenocrysts are variably altered rite. The younger, more continuous veinlets contain more
to oligoclase and locally minor biotite and K feldspar. Two to quartz and chalcopyrite than older, discontinuous veinlets.
5 vol percent magnetite and <2 vol percent chalcopyrite The older, discontinuous A-veinlets commonly have alter-
occur with secondary biotite as disseminations and in altered ation envelopes of K feldspar or biotite, whereas younger A-
mafic mineral sites; pyrite occurs in late fractures. There is an veinlets lack megascopic alteration halos. Quartz is pale gray
inverse relationship between the pyrite and magnetite + chal- and has a distinct sugary texture in hand sample. Pyrite occurs
copyrite contents. in some A-veinlets on the outer margins of the deposit.
In areas that underwent potassic alteration, secondary bi- Where pyrite and magnetite are present together, textures in-
otite and relict biotite phenocrysts are variably altered to dicate replacement of magnetite by pyrite. The progression
chlorite. Locally, this late chloritic alteration, consisting of from discontinuous hairline streaks to more continuous,
chlorite-albite (oligoclase)-quartz-leucoxene, was intense and wider veinlets suggests more sustained brittle behavior with
destroyed rock textures. time. However, discontinuous varieties locally crosscut the

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1462 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

70
70
90 90
PANCHO

Lim
100 meters

it
of M
85
82

app
N

ing
70

70
80

75
65

85

70

Alteration / Vein Types 55

80
70

Pyrite-Albite-Clay Alteration

Lim
75

it o
Tourmaline-Bearing Pyrite-

fM
Albite-Clay Alteration

app
75
Potassic Alteration

ing
(Magnetite-Kspar-Oligoclase)
Potassic Alteration
(Secondary Biotite)
Propylitic Alteration

Quartz-Alunite Ledge - trace 65

of replacement vein
75 with dip direction and dip, Volcanic R
vertical dip ocks
60 Intrusive R
ocks
Pyrite-Quartz Vein - dip and 50
65 dip direction of vein
Banded Quartz Veinlets

6,953,700m N
A-Veinlets Limit
of M
appin
g

469,000m E

FIG. 12. Map of hydrothermal alteration and vein types at Pancho, based on the present study.

more continuous, wider veinlets, suggesting A-veinlets Pyrite-albite-clay alteration

could have formed in a cyclical fashion as noted at El Sal- Potassic alteration is increasingly overprinted at high eleva-
vador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). tions by pervasive pyrite-albite-clay alteration, similar to that
seen at Verde. The upper limit of the potassic alteration zones
shown in Figure 12, within 100 m of the overlying volcanic
Banded quartz veinlets rocks, was defined indirectly by the presence of shreddy tex-
Banded quartz veinlets (Fig. 12, Table 5) that are similar to tures in mafic phenocryst sites and/or the presence of A-vein-
those at Verde are more abundant than A-veinlets at Pancho. lets. The intensity of pyrite-albite-clay alteration increases
Banded veinlets constitute around 2 to 5 vol percent of the with elevation and distance from the quartz diorite intrusion.
rock, culminate at 10 vol percent in the upper levels of the Plagioclase phenocrysts, mostly replaced by albite, were sub-
quartz diorite porphyry stock, and are widespread in the over- sequently replaced by kaolinite and local minor quartz and il-
lying volcanic rocks where A-veinlets are absent. Banded lite. The groundmass and mafic mineral phenocrysts are com-
veinlets cut and offset A-veinlets (Fig. 13B). Although the re- pletely replaced by variable amounts of kaolinite, pyrite,
verse relationship has not been found, the distinction be- rutile, illite, albite, and quartz. Pyrite abundance, based on
tween banded veinlets and the wider, more continuous, unoxidized samples and leached cavities, is mostly 2 to 4 vol
quartz-rich A-veinlets is locally difficult to make. Episodic percent. Locally, specular hematite is present instead of
perturbations may have occurred during the formation of A- pyrite. Up to about 1 vol percent dark green tourmaline is
veinlets that resulted in abrupt transitions to conditions con- present as disseminated rosettes in the lower parts of the
ducive for the formation of the dark bands. As at Verde, for- pyrite-albite-clay zone near its contact with potassic alter-
mation of banded quartz veinlets overlapped in time with ation. Where there are banded quartz veinlets, kaolinite with
emplacement of intrusive breccia dikes. local pyrite fills fractures that cut across the veins, suggesting

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1463

A pyrite-quartz-sericite veins truncated at intrusive contacts

and, therefore, conclude that these veins formed after all in-
trusions had been emplaced.
Quartz-alunite ledges
Quartz-alunite ledges, consisting of mixtures of quartz, alu-
nite, and minor rutile (Table 4), are restricted to zones of per-
vasive pyrite-albite-clay alteration in the volcanic rocks at
high elevations (Figs. 9 and 12, Table 5). Leached cavities in-
dicate an original pyrite content of about 4 to 7 vol percent,
and relict pyrite occurs locally as inclusions in quartz and alu-
nite. As at Verde, the ledges contain anomalous gold grades
20 mm but do not constitute ore. The ledges at Pancho are brec-
ciated locally, containing matrix-supported, subangular rock
B fragments in a locally vuggy rock-flour matrix.
Gold occurrence
Gold was not directly observed at Pancho. However, its par-
agenesis can be deduced from the pattern of surface gold
grades (Fig. 14). A fairly continuous zone of gold grades be-
tween 0.5 and 1 ppm coincides closely with pervasive potas-
sic alteration and A-veinlets in the intrusive rocks. Gold grades
of >1 ppm occur where there are sets of sheeted banded
quartz veinlets. The highest grades in the intrusive rocks also
coincide with pervasive magnetite-K feldspar-oligoclase alter-
ation. Zones with gold contents greater than 0.5 ppm in the
10 mm
overlying volcanic rocks are mostly less than 10 m wide and
are associated directly with sets of sheeted, banded quartz
FIG. 13. Core samples showing A-veinlets from Pancho orebody. A. Mag- veinlets that decrease in abundance with increasing distance
netite-quartz-chalcopyrite veinlet with diffuse K feldspar-quartz alteration from the intrusion. Zones of >0.05 ppm gold extend to about
envelope within pervasive magnetite-K feldpsar-oligoclase alteration zone in 150 m beyond the outer limits of banded quartz veinlets.
quartz diorite porphyry. B. Greater than one generation of banded quartz
veinlets cutting and offsetting A-veinlets within pervasive magnetite-K Fluid Inclusions in Banded Quartz and A-veinlets
feldspar-oligoclase alteration zone in quartz diorite porphyry. Apparent alter-
ation envelopes are the result of supergene alteration. A reconnaissance fluid inclusion study was undertaken to
compare the petrographic characteristics, origin, and general
range of homogenization temperature and salinity of fluid in-
that the pyrite-albite-clay alteration is younger. Nevertheless, clusions in banded quartz veinlets and A-veinlets. An additional
broadly contemporaneous but spatially separate formation of objective was to estimate the depths of formation of Verde
banded quartz veinlets and pervasive pyrite-albite-clay alter- and Pancho. Fluid inclusion types recognized, following the
ation cannot be ruled out. classification scheme of Nash (1976), are type I (liquid-
dominant inclusions without halite daughters), II (vapor-
Pyrite-quartz-sericite veins dominant inclusions without halite daughters), and IIIa
Pyrite-quartz veinlets with quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration (liquid-dominant inclusions with halite daughters that ho-
envelopes (pyrite-quartz-sericite veins), similar to the D veins mogenize by bubble disappearance). Type II inclusions were
described by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) at El Salvador, are abundant in all samples of banded quartz veinlets and A-
present locally in the potassic zones and in the lower parts of veinlets; we interpret their abundance and ubiquity as evi-
the pyrite-albite-clay zone (Fig. 12, Table 5). Vein fillings dence for widespread, continuous boiling at both deposits.
range up to several centimeters in width but commonly form Data were collected from fluid inclusion assemblages (cf.
anastomosing networks of narrow, vuggy veinlets with slightly Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994) that contained liquid- (types I
wavy walls. They contain between 10 and 60 vol percent or IIIa ) and vapor-dominant inclusions (type II). Fluid inclu-
pyrite with local (<1 vol %) chalcopyrite and/or molybdenite. sion assemblages are groups of cogenetic fluid inclusions that
Quartz has a granular texture and commonly is elongated per- were trapped in a growth zone in quartz (primary fluid inclu-
pendicular to the vein walls. Comb-textured quartz is locally sions) or along a healed fracture (secondary fluid inclusions).
present. Alteration envelopes are up to several centimeters Microthermometric data were collected only from types I and
wide and the intensity of alteration decreases gradually away IIIa inclusions, using a U.S. Geological Survey gas-flow
from the vein. Where crosscutting relationships were ob- heating/freezing stage adapted by Fluid Inc. Explanation of
served, pyrite-quartz-sericite veins cut and offset A-veinlets methodology, sample descriptions and locations, and individ-
and banded quartz veinlets. Pyrite-quartz-sericite veins clearly ual fluid inclusion measurements, including interpretation of
postdate potassic alteration, but their temporal relationship to groups of measurements in terms of fluid inclusion assem-
pyrite-albite-clay alteration is unclear. We have not seen blages, are found in Muntean (1998).

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1464 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

PANCHO

Lim
100 meters

it o
fM
app
N

ing

Surface Gold Grades

>1ppm

Lim
it o
0.5-1ppm

fM
app
ing
0.05-0.5ppm

<0.05ppm

Sampled Roadcut

Volcanic R
ocks
Intrusive R
ocks

6,953,700m N
Limit
of M
appin
g

469,000m E

FIG. 14. Map showing distribution of surface gold grades at Pancho, based on 2-m channel samples of the drill roads.

Fluid inclusions in banded quartz veinlets II inclusions in three samples from Verde are 220º to 350ºC
Over 99 percent of the fluid inclusions in banded veinlets and salinities are 3.4 to 34 wt percent NaCl equiv (Fig. 16).
from Verde and Pancho are type II inclusions with no recog- Homogenization temperatures represent actual trapping
nizable liquid (Fig. 15). Less than 1 percent of the fluid in- temperatures because these inclusions were trapped with
clusions are liquid rich, either type IIIa or, less commonly, type II inclusions along the liquid + vapor curve. No system-
type I inclusions with small (10–25 vol %) vapor bubbles. The atic difference was observed between the homogenization
proportion of vapor- to liquid-rich inclusions is the same in- temperatures and salinities from growth zones represented
side and outside the dark bands, but the dark bands have by the dark bands and growth zones on either side of the dark
more abundant inclusions and many are submicron in size. bands. Fluid inclusions with salinities less than 17.5 wt per-
Both liquid- and vapor-rich fluid inclusions have mostly cent NaCl equiv occur in secondary planes but yield the high-
rounded negative crystal shapes. Vapor-rich inclusions range est homogenization temperatures. In a few fluid inclusion as-
up to a 50-µm diam, whereas liquid-rich inclusions range up semblages, type I inclusions could not be frozen, suggesting
to a 25-µm diam. In addition to ubiquitous halite, a few type that the inclusion fluids may be near halite saturation and un-
IIIa inclusions contain sylvite(?), insoluble opaque crystals, able to nucleate ice because of kinetic effects (T.J. Reynolds,
and insoluble, hexagonal to prismatic crystals that are pale pers. commun., 1997). First melting of ice was recognized as
green, birefringent, and high relief (possibly an iron chloride low as –56ºC, indicating the presence of divalent ions such as
mineral; cf. Cox, 1985). Coexisting vapor- and liquid-rich in- Ca2+, Mg2+, and/or Fe2+ (Goldstein and Reynolds, 1994). Type
clusions occur in growth zones represented by the dark bands II inclusions do not contain any recognizable liquid CO2. No
(Fig. 15A, B) and on either side of the dark bands (Fig. 15C), evidence for CO2 was found during cooling to –125°C and
where they are interpreted as primary with respect to crystal- subsequent heating to –56.6°C (the melting point of liquid
lization of gel to quartz. Coexisting vapor- and liquid-rich in- CO2).
clusions also occur in secondary planes that cut growth zones
(Fig. 15D). Fluid inclusions in A-veinlets
Homogenization temperatures from eight fluid inclusion Type IIIa inclusions with ubiquitous multiple daughter
assemblages of types I or IIIa inclusions coexisting with type minerals are limited to A-veinlets at Pancho and coexist with

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1465

A B

Type I

Type II

Type IIIa

Halite

100 um 50 um

C D

Secondary
Plane

50 um 25 um

FIG. 15. Photomicrographs of fluid inclusions in banded quartz veinlets. A. Quartz crystal (c-axis is at a high angle to the
field of view) from Verde West within a dark band cored by primary type II vapor-rich inclusions. B. Dark band showing
abundant large dark type II vapor-rich inclusions and minor type I and IIIa liquid-rich inclusions. The dark areas are prob-
ably due to submicron-sized fluid inclusions. Sample is from Verde West (RV027). C. Growth zone between vein wall (just
below the field of view) and dark band (dark areas near top of view), showing dark, vapor-rich type II inclusions coexisting
with minor type IIIa liquid-rich inclusions. The vapor-rich inclusions were trapped along the crystallographic planes of the
quartz. Sample is from Verde West (RV027). D. Plane of secondary fluid inclusions in an unbanded center of banded vein-
let from Verde East (RV041), showing coexisting type II vapor-rich and type I liquid-rich inclusions.

type II inclusions that have no recognizable liquid. Type IIIa bodies of intrusive breccia. The intrusive rocks were em-
inclusions have negative crystal shapes, 15 to 30 vol percent placed into coeval volcanics, possibly along fault intersections.
vapor, and daughter minerals including halite, hematite, and The general aspects of a composite volcanic complex can be
at least two additional unidentified minerals. Measurements inferred from the abrupt lateral and vertical facies changes,
of two type IIIa inclusions from an A-veinlet containing mag- presence of pumice-poor heterolithic breccias, lack of large-
netite, quartz, and trace chalcopyrite gave halite dissolution scale ignimbrites, and the presence of composite domes and
temperatures of 625° and 675°C, and salinity estimates of 78 intrusive breccias (Fig. 3). Based on an arcuate pattern of lava
and 84 wt percent NaCl equiv, respectively. The vapor bub- flows along the western and southern edges of the volcanic
bles were still present at 700°C, the upper limit of the heat- center, a major vent area, possibly a stratocone, is inferred
ing/freezing stage. The two inclusions are from a single quartz about a kilometer east of Pancho. Mineralized intrusive cen-
crystal and are not of obvious primary or secondary origin. If ters formed on the flanks of a composite stratovolcano.
these two inclusions formed at the same time, the data sug- Gold mineralization is genetically related to a specific type
gest that fluids as hot as 675°C circulated through the A-vein- of quartz veinlet, consisting of banded quartz-magnetite. Be-
lets at Pancho—325ºC higher than the highest temperatures cause other types of quartz veins are present at Refugio,
measured from banded quartz veinlets. recognition of veinlet types is crucial in determining the loca-
tion of highest gold and copper grades. The deepest zone, as
Discussion exemplified by Pancho, is similar to gold-rich porphyry cop-
per deposits. It is characterized by sugary, irregular quartz
Occurrence model for the gold deposits at Refugio veinlets (A-veinlets) in pervasive potassic alteration. The mag-
The gold deposits at Refugio are hosted by andesitic to netite content approaches 5 vol percent and the total sulfide
dacitic subvolcanic intrusive centers. There is a close spatial content is less than 2 vol percent with chalcopyrite as the
and temporal association between gold and stocks of quartz main sulfide mineral. Zones of A-veinlets without banded
diorite porphyry with microaplitic groundmass and irregular quartz veinlets contain the highest hypogene copper grades at

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1466 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

Verde Banded Quartz Veinlets The porphyry copperlike environment at Pancho is overlain
and locally superimposed by an intermediate zone of banded
7
quartz veinlets that appear to be unique to porphyry gold de-
6
A posits. At Verde, the zone of banded quartz veinlets consti-
2 tutes the ore zone and is associated spatially with albitic al-
5 teration of plagioclase. The banded veinlets, which lack
# of inclusions

4
4 7 alteration halos, locally occur in sheeted sets with distinct
2 structural orientations, as seen in the radial-concentric pat-
3 3 terns at Verde. Gold occurs paragenetically early in dark
1 bands with micron-sized magnetite and rare copper-iron sul-
2 8
1 2 4 6 fides and paragenetically late with pyrite and gangue miner-
1 5 7 als in vuggy vein centers, in fractures that cut the dark bands,
1 2 5 3 3 7 and along the vein margins. In zones of abundant banded
0
veinlets without early A-veinlets, gold grades are commonly 1
200 250 300 350 400
ppm and copper grades are <0.05 wt percent. Ratios of cop-
Temperature (oC)
per to gold achieve their lowest values (% Cu/ppm Au =
35 1 ~0.03) in these zones.
Salinity (wt% NaCl equivalent)

190m 5
4 370m
30 290m B Pyritic clay-rich alteration, also containing albite, is periph-
7 810m eral to, overlying, and partially overlapping, the deep and in-
3 440m
25 termediate zones. The pyrite content is only 2 to 4 vol per-
cent, significantly less than in pyritic halos in many porphyry
20
2 370m
copper deposits. These zones commonly contain quartz-alu-
15 nite ledges with subeconomic gold grades that locally post-
date banded quartz veinlets. Pyritic clay-rich alteration con-
10 8 1500m
tains ore only where it overprints earlier banded quartz
5
veinlets.
6 900m
0 Depths of formation
200 250 300 350 400 The depths of formation of the main ore zones in porphyry
Temperature (oC) copper deposits commonly range from 1.5 to 4 km (cf. Silli-
toe, 1973; compilation by Muntean, 1998). Based on their ge-
FIA #1 RV027, Verde West, Type IIIa, Primary ologic setting and fluid inclusion characteristics we estimate
that the porphyry gold deposits at Refugio formed at signifi-
FIA #2 RV027, Verde West, Type IIIa, Primary (dark band) cantly shallower depths.
Using temperatures, salinities, and vapor-saturated condi-
FIA #3 RV027, Verde West, Type IIIa, Primary
tions described above for fluids forming banded veinlets, we
FIA #4 RV027, Verde West, Type IIIa, Primary (dark band)
can estimate pressure directly. The steam tables of Haas
(1976) for the system NaCl-H2O, projected from 325º to
FIA #5 RV027, Verde West, Type IIIa, Uncertain 350ºC, combined with data from eight fluid inclusion assem-
blages in banded veinlets at Verde, yield pressures in the
FIA #6 RV041, Verde East, Type I, Secondary range from 19 to 150 bars. The local vuggy vein centers and
brittle nature of the fractures hosting the banded veinlets sug-
FIA #7 RV041, Verde East, Types I and IIIa, Secondary gest that these veinlets formed under hydrostatic pressure.
Assuming a density of 1 gm/cm3 for the overlying column of
FIA #8 DD25 84-86m, Verde West, Type I, Secondary
water, depths below the water table range from 190 to 1,500
FIG. 16. A. Histogram of liquid-vapor homogenization temperatures of m. Depth estimates from pressures for five fluid inclusion as-
fluid inclusions in banded quartz veinlets from Verde. Numbers refer to fluid semblages in one sample from Verde West (RV027) are
inclusion assemblages explained in text. B. Graph of salinity vs. temperature
for eight fluid inclusion assemblages, showing hydrostatic depth estimates tightly clustered between 190 and 440 m (Fig. 16).
(see text). NaCl equiv salinities were estimated in type IIIa inclusions by A-veinlets at Pancho yield a minimum temperature of
measuring the dissolution temperature of halite and using the equation of 625ºC and a salinity of 80 wt percent NaCl equiv at vapor-sat-
Bodnar and Vityk (1994). NaCl equiv salinities of type I inclusions were esti- urated conditions. With these data, we calculate a minimum
mated by measuring the melting temperature of ice and using the equation
of Bodnar (1993).
pressure of 250 bars by projecting the results of Bodnar et al.
(1985) to the gas plus solid-salt phase boundary where Na and
K ratios in liquid are fixed by exchange between albite and K
feldspar (Fournier, 1987). Under hydrostatic loads, unlikely
0.1 wt percent and gold grades range from 0.5 to 1 ppm. given the vein textures, a pressure of 250 bars is equivalent to
Thus, ratios of copper to gold (% Cu/ppm Au = ~0.1) in zones a depth of 2.5 km, much deeper than that estimated for the
of highest copper grade are lower than those in gold-rich por- banded veinlets. By contrast, under lithostatic pressure, con-
phyry copper deposits (% Cu/ppm Au = 0.39–1.5; Gilmour, sistent with the textures of A-veinlets, calculated depths are
1982; Long, 1995; Sillitoe, 1995; Kirkham and Sinclair, 1996). about 1 km, close to estimates for the banded veinlets.

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1467

The range in estimated depths based on fluid inclusions origin of banded veinlets need to account not only for the un-
could result from fluctuations in the position of the water usual fluid inclusion assemblage, apparently reflecting a rela-
table and the density of the fluid columns, variations in the tively rare hydrothermal environment (Figs. 17 and 18), but
amount of volcanic cover due to rapid erosion, and differ- also the unusual features of texture and mineralogy. Here we
ences between hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures discuss our conclusion that banded quartz veinlets resulted
(Hedenquist and Henley, 1985). Independent depth esti- from an abrupt transition from lithostatic to hydrostatic pres-
mates, based on stratigraphic reconstructions, suggest that at sures at high temperatures. The process shares some aspects
least 400 to 500 m of rock was removed by erosion above of the model first proposed by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) to
Verde East, and at least 400 m was eroded above the A-vein- account for the change in the structure of veins in the El Sal-
lets at Pancho (Fig. 3). Regardless of the value chosen, the vador porphyry copper deposit as this deposit passed through
probable depth range of 0.5 to 1.5 km is significantly shal- a ductile to brittle transition with time. However, in the por-
lower than the depths estimated for most porphyry copper phyry gold deposits at Refugio the fluid evolution and the re-
deposits. sulting vein textures and mineralogy were very different be-
cause of the contrast in P-T trajectory (Fig. 18).
Origin of garnet veinlets A-veinlets at Pancho formed from a fluid that was in the
Previous reports of garnet-bearing veinlets in porphyry- three-phase field consisting of a large volume of low-salinity
type deposits that lack carbonate host rocks are limited to al- vapor (0.02 wt % NaCl equiv) and much smaller volumes of
kalic porphyry copper deposits (Lang et al., 1995) and high- brine (80 wt % NaCl equiv) and solid salt at 600º to 700ºC and
silica rhyolite porphyry molybdenum deposits (Seedorff, 250 bars lithostatic pressure at a 1-km depth (Fig. 18). At
1988), where the garnet is thought to have formed during these temperatures, the rock would have been ductile, and
cooling of hydrothermal fluids. In contrast, skarn assemblages fractures could have been open for only short periods of time
with andraditic garnets in ejected blocks of hydrothermally al- during periods of high strain rate (Fournier, 1999), consistent
tered rock at White Island, New Zealand, have been attrib- with the sugary, granular texture of quartz, the irregular vein
uted to heating of a preexisting anhydrite + cristobalite + walls, and the discontinuous nature of many of the A-veinlets
halite + magnetite assemblage (Wood, 1994). The garnet- (cf. Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). Direct evidence for a brittle
bearing veinlets at Verde may have formed in a similar fash- to ductile transition at about 400ºC has been found in active
ion. Fluids at relatively low temperatures in equilibrium with geothermal systems (Fournier, 1991) and is predicted from
quartz + magnetite + calcite (part of the chlorite-albite-mag-
netite alteration assemblage) could have been heated by in-
trusions, leading to the reaction A Vapor-charged silica gel with
~100 microns

magnetite, gold, and halite(?) particles

4Fe3O4 + 18SiO2 + 18CaCO3 + 2H2O =
magnetite + quartz + calcite + water = Pressure Drop and
Flashing Event
6Ca2Fe2Si3O12 + 18CO2 + 2H2 . (1) Substrate
andradite + carbon dioxide + hydrogen
Vein Growth
Reaction (1) indicates that andradite is favored by loss of CO2 Boiling and Quartz
and H2, consistent with boiling at shallow depths. At oxidation Deposition, Trapping
of Type II Vapor-rich
states near the magnetite-hematite buffer, the reaction pro- and Type I and IIIa
duces andradite at temperatures above 400° and 350°C at Liquid-rich inclusions
Wall rock
XCO2 = 0.1 and 0.05, respectively (Einaudi, 1982; Bowman,
1998). The absence of garnet-bearing veinlets in porphyry
copper deposits could be due to the lack of abundant calcite B Magnetite Pyrite

and iron oxide in the prograding, high-temperature centers of

these systems where successive porphyry intrusions are fo- Continued Boiling and
cused. Further, relative to porphyry gold deposits at Refugio, Quartz Deposition

most porphyry copper deposits formed at greater depths. At

any given temperature, higher pressure shifts the equilibrium Cooling, Condensation
of Vapor to Liquid and
constant for reaction (1) in favor of magnetite-quartz-calcite. Recrystallization to Quartz;
Trapping of Type II Vapor-
Also, decarbonation reactions are likely to be inhibited by the rich and Type I and IIIa
lower permeability of ductile environments at greater depths, Liquid-rich inclusions

which could lead to build-up of carbon dioxide generated by

initiation of reaction (1).

Transition from A-veinlets to banded quartz veinlets

The abundance of type II vapor-rich inclusions, the pres-
ence of type IIIa inclusions that homogenize by vapor bubble FIG. 17. Schematic diagrams illustrating the formation of banded quartz
veinlets. A. Flashing and deposition of vapor-charged silica gel on substrate
disappearance below 350ºC, and the paucity of type I inclu- of earlier quartz. B. Condensation of vapor upon cooling, recrystallization of
sions have only been reported in a few porphyry copper de- silica gel to quartz, optically continuous with earlier quartz crystals. Trapping
posits (i.e., Park Premier; John, 1989). Hypotheses for the of fluid inclusions. Continued deposition of quartz from boiling fluids.

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1468 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

Temperature (oC)
0 200 400 600 800

G+S Flashing

100 1 B %
A wt
01
0.
Banded Quartz Veinlets

Depth (km, hydrostatic)

200 2 G+L

Depth (km, lithostatic)

Pressure (bars)

CP
A-Veinlets 1
L
300 3 G+L+S wt%

Crit
0.1

ical
Cur

40 w
ve
400 4

80
t%

60

wt
w

%
A-Veinlets

t%
(Typical Porphyry
500 5 Cu-Au Deposit) 2

Magma 0.5 wt%

+ Vapor
+ Brine

FIG. 18. Phase relationships in the NaCl-H2O system. Based on the data of Bodnar et al. (1985) and Pitzer and Pa-
balan(1986; after Fournier, 1987, 1999). CP = critical point for pure H2O, G = gas, L = liquid, and S = solid salt. Depths as-
suming a 1 g/cm3 hydrostatic load and a 2.5 g/cm3 lithostatic load are also shown. Isopleths of NaCl in liquid and in gas in
the two-phase gas + liquid field are shown by the dashed double-dotted lines and short, lightweight dashed lines, respec-
tively. Dashed curve A shows the three-phase boundary, G + L + S, for the system NaCl-H2O; dashed curve B shows the
three-phase boundary, G + L + S for the system NaCl-KCl-H2O when Na/K ratios are fixed by equilibration with albite and
K feldspar at the indicated temperatures. Uncertainties, probably on the order of 100 to 200 bars, are associated with the
projections of the isopleths of NaCl in liquid into the three-phase field, G + L + S. The diagram illustrates the flashing of
fluids forming A-veinlets during transition from lithostatic to hydrostatic loads and the resulting formation of banded quartz
veinlets. Shown for comparison are conditions for formation of A-veinlets in the Far Southeast deposit in the Philippines
(Hedenquist et al., 1998) considered to be representative of typical gold-rich porphyry copper deposits.

rock mechanics for wet quartz diorite at about 400ºC and a magnetite. During flashing the liquid-vapor mixture expanded
strain rate of 10–14/sec (Pfiffner and Ramsey, 1982; Fournier, into zones of lower pressure (cf. Henley and McNabb, 1978).
1999). At Pancho, banded quartz veinlets occur at least 125 m above
In banded quartz veinlets, the continuity of dark bands the top of A-veinlets. At Verde, banded quartz veinlets with-
across parts of individual quartz crystals and the botryoidal out A-veinlets occur over a vertical interval of at least 500 m.
texture of the bands are both strong evidence that some of the As the flashing abated, silica colloids coagulated along the
quartz had a silica gel precursor. According to Weres et al. fracture walls forming a gel with botryoidal morphology
(1982), if the degree of supersaturation with respect to amor- charged with vapor bubbles and micron-sized magnetite,
phous silica reaches a factor of about 2.5, homogeneous nu- gold, and halite. The continuity of the dark bands at Verde
cleation is most likely to occur throughout a solution. In this suggests relatively quiescent conditions during formation of
situation, silica polymers grow past critical nucleus size, and the gel. As the gel cooled at constant pressure in the vapor +
colloidal particles become sites for additional silica deposi- salt field, it would have intersected the liquid saturation curve
tion. The colloidal particles finally coagulate or flocculate, in the system H2O-NaCl at about 300ºC at 100 bars (Fig. 18).
producing gelatinous material. A high degree of supersatura- At this point droplets and films of water would have con-
tion with respect to amorphous silica can occur as a result of densed from the vapor bubbles. External meteoric water, if
hydrothermal fluid decompression from temperatures above present, may have begun to infiltrate the fractures. Given our
350ºC (Fournier, 1985). interpreted pressure-temperature trajectory, halite was pre-
We propose that dark bands resulted from flashing, due to sent and its subsequent dissolution would have contributed to
adiabatic decompression to hydrostatic pressures (cf. King, the wide range of salinities (17–34 wt % NaCl equiv) seen at
1992), of the liquid-vapor mixture that was forming A-veinlets Verde. Upon cooling the silica gel recrystallized to quartz and
at depth. If the load abruptly changed from lithostatic to hy- trapped any remaining vapor as type II inclusions and any liq-
drostatic at a 1-km depth, the pressure would have dropped uid as type I or type IIIa inclusions (Fig. 17B). The fluid in-
from 250 to 100 bars. A fluid at 600º to 700ºC and 100 bars clusions are of primary origin with respect to the quartz but
would flash to vapor + salt with very little cooling (Fig. 18), not with respect to silica gel (cf. Sander and Black, 1988) and,
leading to supersaturation with respect to amorphous silica, therefore, do not record the conditions during flashing and
iron minerals, gold, and halite (Fig. 17A). If sulfur was lost gold-magnetite precipitation.
to the vapor phase, precipitation of iron and iron-copper sul- Although the unbanded parts of the banded veinlets con-
fides would have been inhibited, resulting in deposition of tain the same high ratio of vapor- to liquid-rich inclusions as

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 PORPHYRY Au DEPOSITS, REFUGIO DISTRICT, MARICUNGA BELT, N. CHILE 1469

the dark bands, they contain less magnetite, fewer vapor-rich Conclusions
inclusions, and no textural evidence of a silica gel precursor.
Precipitation within the banded veinlets of the late assem- Both Verde and Pancho are zoned in space from a deeper
blage of calcite, chlorite, K feldspar, pyrite, with additional zone of banded quartz veinlets associated with chlorite-mag-
gold, suggests the presence of near-neutral pH fluids that may netite-albite and/or pyrite-albite-clay alteration to a shallow
have originated from the loss of acid volatiles, such as HCl, zone of pyrite-albite-clay and local quartz-alunite ledges. At
CO2, and H2S, during boiling. Condensation of H2S may have Verde, the zone of banded quartz veinlets and part of the
been important in mobilization and redeposition of gold from clay-rich zone are present within the 500 m of vertical expo-
gold bisulfide complexes in these later stages (cf. Gammons sure available for study. Pancho contains an additional, deep-
and Willians-Jones, 1997), as possibly indicated by the pres- est zone, with A-veinlets and potassic alteration. Relative to
ence of gold with pyrite in late fractures. Verde, Pancho is telescoped, with all three zones present
within a 400-m vertical interval. We have no information on
Other deposits with banded quartz veinlets the presence or absence of the zone of A-veinlets at Verde; if
Banded quartz veinlets are common in the porphyry gold A-veinlets are not present at depth below the Verde deposit,
deposits of the Maricunga belt. Based on descriptions in Vila then Verde and Pancho evolved differently.
et al. (1991) and King (1992), banded veinlets are the domi- The typical Refugio hydrothermal system (Fig. 19) was ini-
nant vein type at the Marte deposit (Fig. 2), a deposit with tiated with intrusion of quartz diorite porphyry to pale-
copper:gold ratios similar to those at Verde (Vila et al., 1991). odepths of 1 to 2 km, as seen at Pancho and inferred to be
King (1992) suggested that the banded veinlets at Marte present below Verde. Magmatic-aqueous fluid, both hyper-
formed from a silica gel that resulted from silica supersatura- saline liquid and low-salinity vapor, accompanied emplace-
tion generated by abrupt pressure decreases, an interpreta- ment of quartz diorite magma and intrusive breccias, pre-
tion supported by the present study. Vila et al. (1991) and sumably from an upper crustal magma chamber. A
King (1992) reported fluid inclusion data from banded vein- ductile-brittle boundary at 400ºC was established around the
lets similar to those reported here for Verde, with trapping central intrusions. Pressures above the boundary were near
temperatures below 400ºC (mostly around 250ºC) and salini- hydrostatic, while pressures below the boundary approached
ties up to 40 wt percent NaCl equiv. High-temperature, hy- lithostatic. Hypersaline liquid, because of its high density, re-
persaline fluid inclusions like those seen in the A-veinlets at mained in the intrusions below the brittle-ductile boundary at
Pancho have not been reported from Marte. On the basis of Pancho and led to potassic alteration and copper-gold miner-
fluid inclusion data and volcanic reconstructions, Vila et al. alization (cf. Rye, 1993). As the intrusions cooled at Pancho,
(1991) estimated that Marte formed at depths of about 500 to fractures remained open for longer periods of time, and A-
700 m. Outside the Maricunga belt, banded quartz veinlets veinlets became thicker and more continuous. Periodically,
are reported from El Hueso, Potrerillios district, Chile upward surges of magma at both deposits breached the duc-
(Marsh, 1997), Paradise Peak, Nevada (Sillitoe and Lorson, tile-brittle boundary, resulting in explosive pressure release
1994), Zule, California (Canby, 1992), and Palmetto, Nevada and emplacement of intrusive breccias. At Pancho, these
(Canby, 1992). marked the termination of A-veinlet development and the ini-
tiation of banded quartz veinlets. At Verde, a reservoir of flu-
Significance of albite-illite association ids may not have formed due to the small size of the stocks
Albite with chlorite or illite is the most widespread and and the brine flashed without first forming A-veinlets.
characteristic alteration mineral association in the gold de- Formation of banded quartz veinlets, by flashing of hyper-
posits at Refugio. Albite-illite alteration appears to be late and saline liquid, resulted in copper-poor gold mineralization. Ra-
occurs at higher structural levels relative to potassic alteration dial and concentric fractures at Verde formed during em-
at Pancho and albite-chlorite-magnetite alteration at Verde placement of late, shallow, weakly mineralized quartz diorite
and may be transitional in time to sericitic alteration. Albite- porphyry stocks. Flashed hypersaline liquid traveled upward
illite assemblages, with or without calcite, are present in some along the margins of the stocks and into the overlying radial
porphyry copper deposits associated with low potassium gra- and concentric fractures where it formed banded quartz vein-
nodiorite or tonalitic stocks (e.g., Kabang Kiri, Indonesia: lets. As the stocks continued upward, earlier formed banded
Lowder and Dow, 1978; Park Premier, Utah: John, 1989), as quartz veinlets in the host rocks were truncated by the stocks.
well as at shallow depths in some active geothermal systems Rising magmatic vapors enriched in acid volatiles cooled and
hosted by basalt (e.g., Steamboat Springs, Nevada: Sigvaldson condensed in near-surface ground water and could have
and White, 1962; Schoen and White, 1965). At Park Premier, formed the pervasive, shallow pyrite-albite-clay alteration.
near-surface albitic alteration, accompanied by sericite and/or Where the magmatic vapors were focused along structures,
illite, is interpreted by John (1989) to have resulted from they may have interacted with ground water to form quartz-
cooling of vapors generated by high-temperature, low-pres- alunite ledges with slightly anomalous metal values, with a
sure boiling of hypersaline liquids, a model that is supported portion of the vapors likely discharging to the surface as fu-
by experimental studies in the Na-Ca feldspar system (Hem- maroles (e.g., Hedenquist, 1995).
ley et al., 1971). This is the model we prefer for albitization at Understanding the causes for variations in the geologic at-
Refugio, in contrast to the heating model in the K-Na tributes of porphyry-type deposits will continue to improve as
feldspar system that causes albitization in the relatively K en- research focuses on the differences between deposits. John
riched granodiorites of continental porphyry Cu deposits (1989) proposed that the Park Premier porphyry copper-gold
(e.g., Dilles and Einaudi, 1992). deposit in Utah, a deposit with many similarities to Pancho, is

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1470 MUNTEAN AND EINAUDI

Quartz-Alunite Ledges
Late Stock
Paleosurface
Intrusive Breccia

Pancho (Telescoped)
Altn
lay

Verde
-C
Al bite
ite-
Pyr
Calcite
Banded Ruptures and
Quartz Flashing of Brine
Veinlets

Calcite

1 km
Magmatic Brine + Vapor

Potassic Altn
+ A Veinlets

Brittle +
Meteoric Water

Hydrostatic
Ductile +
Lithostatic
Magmatic Vapor 1 km
Magmatic Brine

FIG. 19. Schematic cross section showing reconstruction of a typical Refugio hydrothermal system. The figure is time-
slice at the peak of intrusive and hydrothermal activity. The quartz diorite stock (labeled “Late Stock” in figure), however, is
shown at its final inferred position where it probably reached after the peak of intrusive and hydrothermal activity.

a variation on the theme of porphyry copper deposits brought Flores. We thank Kinross Gold Corporation for allowing this
about by shallow emplacement depths and small sizes of in- research to be published. A large portion of this research was
trusions. A similar argument, taking into account the effect of funded by a National Science Foundation grant EAR9418301
pressure on the composition of the exsolved magmatic aque- awarded to MTE. We thank Jim Reynolds of Fluid Inc. for
ous phase at shallow emplacement depths, was used by Silli- numerous discussions on fluid inclusions. Formal reviews by
toe (1992) to explain the low copper to gold ratios at Marte. Jeffrey Hedenquist and Werner Halter were very helpful. Ad-
Here, we have stressed another variable that controls the final ditional critical reviews by Richard Sillitoe, David John, John
metal ratios in a porphyry-type deposit: the evolutionary his- Dilles, and Jim Reynolds are greatly appreciated. Comments
tory of the magmatic aqueous phase during its ascent from a by Robert Fournier on hydrothermal phenomena and phase
source region at unknown depth to the near-surface environ- changes related to pressure loss were of great value.
ment. The key characteristics of porphyry gold deposits,
banded quartz veinlets, are the direct result of episodic intru- November 8, 1999; May 31, 2000
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