THE BOISI CENTER PAPERS ON RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES

An Introduction to
Christian Theology
Thoughtful, constructive interreligious dialogue depends not only upon the openness of the dialogue
partners to diverse perspectives, but also upon a reliable foundation of correct information about the
various beliefs being discussed. For those who desire a basic understanding of the tenets of
Christian faith, this paper offers a brief history of Christianity and summarizes the central Christian
beliefs in God, Jesus Christ, the Trinity, the Bible and authority, sin and reconciliation, sacraments,
spiritual practices, and ethical living.

INTRODUCTION practiced in the United States; frequently, these

details may not even be familiar to American
This paper provides a primer on the basics of Christians themselves. Nevertheless, some
Christian theology as it is understood in the knowledge of these particulars is essential to ground
American context. It explains the major beliefs or an accurate understanding of
doctrines that are generally accepted by all Christians Christianity.
while also highlighting the theological diversity of
the Christian churches. In other words, although all This paper thus provides an important complement to
Christians adhere to the doctrines discussed here, the other papers in the Boisi Center series. In
various groups of Christians often interpret these particular, since religious beliefs and religious
doctrines differently. These disagreements usually practices always inform one another, reading this
have historical roots; thus, Christianity’s historical paper together with the paper on Religious Practice
development is inseparable from its doctrinal in the United States is recommended. The paper
development. For this reason, the paper gives an begins with a brief historical outline of the
overview of Christianity’s historical development beginnings and major divisions of Christianity. It
before moving into a discussion of the major then summarizes the Christian beliefs in God, Jesus
Christian beliefs. Christ, the Trinity, the Bible and authority, sin and
reconciliation, sacraments, spiritual practices, and
As would be the case with any religious tradition, the ethical living.
complexity of Christian theology and history cannot
be explained fully in a brief paper. Many nuances of
Christian theology and history tend to remain in the
background of how Christianity is perceived and
A BRIEF HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY prophecies of the Jewish Bible, the Hebrew
Scriptures (commonly known among Christians as
The history of Christianity unfolds organically the Old Testament). This is the origin of the name
through time. It is commonly understood to begin “Jesus Christ” and led to Jesus’ followers being
with Jesus, who was born two thousand years ago. called “Christians.”
However, because Jesus was Jewish, some date
Christianity’s roots much further back, to the After Jesus’ death, “Christians” became identified as
beginnings of Judaism. To illustrate the vast sweep a particular sect within Judaism. These Jews believed
of historical development, this section proceeds in that Jesus was the Messiah foretold in their Hebrew
four parts. First, it addresses the roots of Christianity Scriptures, whose coming they had long anticipated.
in the first through the third centuries C.E. However, as time went on, the majority of Jews did
(“Common Era,” dating from the time of Jesus’ not believe that Jesus was the Messiah, and their
birth); second, it describes Christianity’s differences with “Christian” Jews increased. Further,
development through the Middle Ages; third, it many non-Jewish people did come to believe in
explores the Protestant Reformations in the 1600s Jesus. In this way, “Christianity” gradually became a
and their continuing influence today; fourth, religious movement distinct from Judaism, as it is
focusing on the United States, it summarizes several practiced today.
aspects of American Protestantism.
Over several generations, Christians compiled their
The Beginnings of Christianity (1-300 C.E.) collective memories of Jesus’ teachings and sayings
in various documents. Best known among these
Christianity began as a movement within today are the four narratives of Jesus’ life, death, and
Judaism during the first century C.E. At this time, the resurrection that now appear in the Christian
Jewish rabbi now known as Jesus of Nazareth Scriptures, the “Gospels” of Matthew, Mark, Luke,
undertook a public teaching ministry in which he and John. During these early years, many letters were
preached about the imminent coming of the also circulated among
Kingdom of God. As reported in the Christian Christian communities about their belief in Jesus as
Scriptures (commonly known among Christians as the Messiah and the way Christians should live and
the New Testament), Jesus assembled a core group worship. The letters of the apostle Paul and a few
of twelve Jewish disciples, along with many other other authors were eventually included in the
followers. Together they ministered to the poor and Christian Scriptures along with the four Gospels.
outcast in present-day Israel and Palestine. Around Christians debated for centuries over which
the year 33 C.E., Jesus was arrested and executed by documents to include in their scriptures; the first
the Roman governor. However, Jesus’ followers known list of the twenty-seven documents now
claimed that he rose from the dead; they came to accepted as the Christian Scriptures did not appear
believe that he was the Son of God and that his death until the year 367 CE, and it may have taken even
and resurrection saved them from their sins. As their longer before Christians universally accepted this
conviction grew, they named Jesus the “Christ”— list.
meaning Messiah or Anointed One—according to the

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Further Development (300-1500 C.E.) fear of Roman authorities, but many converted
willingly. These conversions catapulted Christianity
Since their religious practices were distinguished forward as a leading religion of the Roman Empire,
from Judaism only gradually, Christians of the first which then encompassed most of Europe and North
and second centuries worshipped in small pockets Africa.
throughout the Middle and Near East, and their
religious practices differed from town to town. Shortly after Theodosius’ decree, Augustine became
Moreover, Christianity was often outlawed under bishop of Hippo in North Africa. An adult convert to
Roman law; many believers were persecuted and Christianity, Augustine came to be one of the most
executed for professing their faith. In the year 313 influential theologians in the history of the Christian
C.E., the Roman emperor Constantine converted to church. At this time, basic Christian beliefs were still
Christianity and legalized it, virtually ending the contested, so Augustine articulated much of his
persecutions. Noticing that Christians disagreed with theology in response to competing interpretations of
one another on many important points, such as the the faith and to non-Christian faiths of the fourth and
relationship of Jesus to God, and that these debates fifth centuries. Through these conflicts, Augustine
were causing unrest and confusion in his empire, provided significant explorations of the Trinity and
Constantine called Christian leaders (bishops) from human sinfulness, as well as the relationship between
across the empire to a council at Nicaea in 325 C.E. church and state. Augustine’s numerous writings
This first major council of the Christian churches greatly influenced Christian thought from the fifth
clarified key points of theology, including the Trinity century to the Protestant Reformation of the
and the divinity of Jesus (see discussion below). The sixteenth century and beyond.
primary written contribution of this council was the
Nicene Creed. More debates followed in the Despite his powerful influence, Augustine did not
succeeding years, and the second great council, held end the disputes within Christianity. At the church
in councils, which continued to take place every 50-100
Constantinople in 381 C.E., expanded this creed into years, questions about Jesus’ humanity and divinity
a longer statement of faith that members of many —that is, his identity as the Son of God—proved an
Christian churches still recite. (For the full text of the ongoing source of controversy. As Christians from
creed, see Appendix.) different areas of the world drew on the
philosophical traditions of their cultures to reflect
Although lively debates over key theological points upon these questions, the most marked differences
continued, Christianity underwent further unification arose between Christian leaders of the Latin West
in the fourth century under the reign of Emperor and those of the Greek East. In the year 1054 C.E.,
Theodosius and through the theology of Bishop these disagreements culminated in the “Great
Augustine of Hippo (b. 356-d. 430). Almost seventy Schism” that divided Christianity into two major
years after Constantine legalized Christianity, strands, Western and Eastern. Today, Eastern
Theodosius established the Christian faith as the Christianity includes the Orthodox churches, while
official religion of the Roman Empire. From then on, Western Christianity includes the Catholic and
Christianity spread rapidly. Some converted to Protestant churches. Because the Orthodox Church in
Christianity to advance in Roman society or out of America accounts for only about one percent of

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Christians in the United States, this primer considers The key figure of the German protest was a Christian
only Western Christianity from this point on. monk, Martin Luther (1483-1543). In 1517 Luther
wrote ninety-five theses criticizing various
Western Christianity flourished during the High corruptions in the church, most notably its practice of
Middle Ages of eleventh- to thirteenth-century selling “indulgences.” In their original form,
Europe. Christianity inspired exquisite art, music, indulgences were gifts offered to the church by
and architecture. As the first universities were repentant sinners to show their gratitude to God for
established, Christian theology became highly the forgiveness of their sins. By the early 1500s, the
systematized, most notably in the works of Thomas practice had become corrupted, and it appeared that
Aquinas (b. 1225-d. 1274). The leader of the the Christian church was selling forgiveness rather
Western Christian church, the pope, was a major than merely accepting gifts from the faithful. Luther
figure in European politics. During the fourteenth criticized this practice for de-emphasizing repentance
and fifteenth centuries, however, the papacy lost and making
some of its moral authority due to widespread Christians think they could buy God’s forgiveness.
corruption in the church, and many Christians began Instead, Luther preached that salvation is a gift from
to question the power of Rome. God that comes through faith alone upon repentance
for sin. Luther also objected to the hierarchical
The Emergence of Protestant Christianity (1500 structure of the Christian church, arguing that any
C.E.-Present) Christian could interpret the Bible and serve as a
minister as well as any other; this idea is now known
These questions eventually led to another major split as the “priesthood of all believers.” His efforts at
within the Christian church in the early sixteenth reform, however, met with resistance, and in 1522
century. What is now known as Protestant Christian authorities condemned his theological
Christianity first began to emerge in present-day claims. Luther continued his attempts at reform, and
Germany, where Christians protested (hence the his followers eventually formed a new Christian
name “Protestant”) corruption in the Christian group distinct from the original Western or
church. “Catholic” church. These Christians became known
as “Lutherans” and remained most numerous in
Germany. Today, in the United States, Lutherans are
one of the larger Protestant denominations,
numbering about five million.

Other reformations closely followed Luther’s. The

most successful included the Calvinist, English, and
radical reformations; these movements eventually
resulted in several new churches. (As a result of
these and subsequent divisions, the various Christian
churches are distinguished by differences in theology
and worship practices and are now known as
“denominations.”) The Calvinists took their name

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from the French lawyer and theologian John Calvin lifestyle, but small numbers within these
(1509-1564), who fled the Catholic city of Paris to denominations live in isolated communities,
avoid persecution for his religious ideas. He witnessing to their faith by dressing simply and
eventually settled in the thoroughly Protestant city of preserving traditional ways of living. One well-
Geneva. While several of Calvin’s ideas paralleled known example is the Amish community in
Luther’s, Calvin advocated a closer relationship Pennsylvania. In the United States today, groups who
between church and state than Luther. (For more on trace their beginnings to the Radical Reformation are
the relationship between church and state in the U.S., much smaller in comparison to other Christian
see the paper on Separation of Church and State.) denominations.
Calvin’s ideas influenced many Western Europeans,
including an English group known as the Puritans. These four groups—Lutherans, Calvinists,
The Puritans immigrated across the Atlantic in the Anglicans, and Anabaptists—represent the original
late seventeenth century; as a result, the United manifestations of Protestant Christianity as distinct
States has a strong ReformedCalvinist tradition. from Catholic Christianity. In response to the
Several present-day American Protestant groups, Protestant reformations, the Catholic church adopted
including Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and the some minor reforms and reaffirmed certain
Reformed Church in America, have Calvinist roots. teachings, most notably at the Council of Trent
(1545-1563); this response became known as the
The English Reformation began in 1529 with King “Counter-Reformation.”
Henry VIII’s decision to annul his marriage in Structurally, however, the Catholic church has
defiance of the pope’s orders. To justify his continued until the present time in much the same
annulment in religious terms, Henry established the form as it had in the Middle Ages; Roman Catholic
English or “Anglican” church, making himself the churches in the United States are part of the
titular head. This church eventually adopted a blend worldwide Roman Catholic Church.
of Catholic and Protestant ideas; the Thirty-Nine
Articles, written in the latter years of the sixteenth Protestant denominations continued to multiply in
century, summarize the principles of Anglican the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Drawing on
theology. In the United States today, the and further adapting Reformation ideas, additional
Episcopalian church has Anglican roots. groups such as Wesleyans, which includes
Methodists and some Pentecostals, Restorationists,
The Anabaptists, whose movement is called the namely the Churches of Christ and Disciples of
“Radical Reformation,” separated themselves more Christ, and Baptists organized in England and the
definitively from the Roman faith than the Lutherans United States. Baptists are now the largest Protestant
or Calvinists. Anabaptists rejected some traditional denominational group in the United States, with
worship practices that Lutherans and Calvinists about forty-seven million people claiming
continued. Most notably, Anabaptists refused to membership in American, Southern, or independent
baptize infants, instead deferring baptism until Baptist churches. (For a discussion of the status in
people were old enough to request it. In the United the United States of religions other than Christianity,
States today, Quakers and Mennonites trace their see the paper on Religious Pluralism in the United
origins to Anabaptists. Most have adopted a modern States.)

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Contemporary Protestant Christianity in the United evangelical denominations tend to
States emphasize formal doctrine as similar in
importance to the three core beliefs, while the more
In the contemporary United States, Christians and evangelical denominations do not.
their beliefs are often described as “evangelical,”
“fundamentalist,” “liberal,” or “conservative,” or Fundamentalist Christianity
some combination of these terms. Each term is
controversial and freighted with subtext. This section Another term sometimes used to describe certain
begins to unpack these descriptions. Christians—and people of other faiths, including
Muslims—is fundamentalist. This term refers to
Evangelical Christianity people who maintain a literalist interpretation of
their religious faith. Within American Christianity,
American Protestantism is often associated with a fundamentalist Protestants share the evangelical
movement known as evangelicalism. The meaning of emphasis on Jesus Christ but shun participation in
the term “evangelical” is commonly used to describe American politics and culture. Also, they often
Protestant churches that stress insist upon a literal interpretation of the Bible,
evangelization, or converting non-Christians to faith whereas other Christians understand some parts of
in Jesus. As a general rule, evangelicals stress three the Bible to be symbolic or metaphorical. Not all
core beliefs: Christianity requires conversion or Christian evangelicals are fundamentalists, but all
“rebirth” through a personal spiritual encounter with Christian fundamentalists are evangelicals insofar
Jesus Christ; Christians must witness their faith to or as they embrace the three foundational beliefs
“evangelize” Christians and non-Christians alike; the
described above. In the United States today,
Bible is directly inspired by God. Many other
Christian fundamentalists constitute a small but
Christians, such as Lutherans, Presbyterians, and
vocal minority of the Christian population. Liberal
Catholics, also share these three beliefs; thus,
and Conservative Christianity
evangelicals can be members of almost any
denomination. However, some denominations, such
Various Christian denominations are also sometimes
as Baptists and Wesleyans, are more evangelical than
characterized as liberal or conservative. Some
others, such as Catholics and Lutherans. One major
cultural attitudes about social problems and hold conservative tendencies. Clearly, the distinctions a more
positive view of human nature. go far beyond the simple division between
Catholic and Protestant. Nevertheless, basic
American Christianity contains many similarities in theology and practice remain; the
denominations that can be grouped according to next section explains these. evangelical, fundamentalist,
liberal, and

BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

distinction is that the less denominations even contain both liberal and
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conservative groups. Generally speaking, liberal This is evident particularly through their
Christians accept historical and scientific understanding of the sacraments, as will be explained
information that calls into question the literal truth of in a later section.
some biblical stories, while conservatives are
typically less convinced that such knowledge is What does it mean to understand God as both in and
relevant to faith. For example, liberals typically beyond the world? On the one hand, God is beyond
acknowledge the theory of evolution as a credible direct human experience and comprehension.
explanation of life’s origins, while conservatives Christians, not unlike Muslims, stand in awe of the
adhere to a literal interpretation of the biblical majesty and dominion of God over the earth.
account of creation. In contrast to conservatives, Christians proclaim that just as the human eye cannot
liberals also tend to display more openness toward look directly into the sun, so human beings cannot
Given this brief history of Christianity, one can comprehend the full magnificence of God. On the
imagine the difficulty of summarizing the basics of other hand, the Bible is filled with earthly analogies
Christian theology. Yet Catholics and Protestants are for God, such as a parent, a shepherd, a woman
all Christians, and they do share some basic and vital searching for a lost coin, a king, and even a mother
similarities in their religious beliefs and practices. hen. So Christians also believe God loves humanity
They worship a monotheistic God, manifested in like a shepherd tending a flock or a parent caring for
Trinitarian form; they believe that all humans are children. The challenge for Christians is to maintain
sinners, saved from their sin by the grace of God a balanced view of God as both in and outside of the
through Jesus; they profess that the Bible is God’s world—to remember that although they believe God
word; they regard worship and prayer as important; cares for them tenderly as a mother, God also
they share sacramental practices; and they attempt to remains a mystery beyond their comprehension.
lead ethical lives. The following summaries of each Thus, Christians commonly feel reverence, love, and
of these points offer an introductory but by no means trust towards God: they recognize God’s wondrous
exhaustive description of these core beliefs. majesty, yet they are also grateful for God’s merciful
and intimate concern for them and the entire world.
God
Christian perceptions of God come primarily from
Christians believe in a God who is omnipresent. This the scriptures. The Hebrew Scriptures represent God
God is understood as both immanent, or present as Lord of all, the one true deity of the cosmos. The
within the world, and transcendent, having an Christian Scriptures continue to emphasize the
existence far beyond the world and beyond human monotheism of the Hebrew Scriptures, describing
imagination and experience. Christians believe that God as underived and unsurpassable. In the Gospels,
individual persons and groups can enjoy a personal for example, Jesus teaches only according to God’s
relationship with God, but that God always remains a authority. Christians emphasize God’s reign over all
mystery beyond human understanding. Catholics and that is. In doing so, they believe they are faithful to
Protestants share this view of God, although the scriptures (both Hebrew and Christian) and to
Catholics often stress God’s immanence more than Jesus’ teachings. Indeed, according to Christian
Protestants. tradition, sin is defined as turning away from God.

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Alluding to Jesus, however, raises questions about other historical documents that describe the
the Christian claim to monotheism. Christians are worship practices of early Christian communities.
distinguished from other monotheists by their belief As noted, the earliest Christians were Jews who
in Jesus as the divine son of God. NonChristians continued to believe in their monotheistic God.
correctly ask: if Christians believe that Jesus is the These Christians remembered and struggled to
son of God and worship him as God, how can they understand Jesus’ promise, recorded in the
claim to be monotheists? The answer, for Christians, Gospels, that he would continue to be with them
is found in the doctrine of the Trinity. To understand even when they could no longer see him, and that
the Trinity, it is best first to consider the Christian he would send his spirit to them as well. Gradually,
belief in Jesus as human and divine, because the through much prayer, worship, and discussion,
earliest Christians’ understanding of Jesus was what Christians came to believe that God was now with
prompted the development of the doctrine of the them in three distinct ways: the “Father” or God
Trinity. of the Hebrew Scriptures, Jesus the Son, and the
Spirit.
Jesus Christ
Centuries passed before Christians officially
Christians’ beliefs about Jesus are based in scripture decided that they could believe that Jesus was
and other historical artifacts and documents. Since divine without sacrificing their belief in one God.
few of these other documents contain information How could this be? At the great councils of
about Jesus, most knowledge comes from the Nicaea, Chalcedon, and beyond, Christians
Christian Scriptures. As noted, the four Gospels tell determined that Jesus was both fully human and
the story of Jesus’ life and ministry, while the rest of fully divine. They argued that only God could save
the Christian Scriptures includes letters written by humans, but only a human should pay the debt
the apostle Paul and others from the first generations owed to God for sin. Thus, they came to believe
of Christianity. These documents describe the early that Jesus experienced the fullness of human
communities’ faith in the message of Jesus’ ministry existence— including birth, life, and death—yet
and how they spread this message. was also divine. Christians respect Jesus’ mother
Mary as the “Mother of God” because she gave
The Christian Scriptures report that there was no birth to God’s own son. Christians believe that
consensus about who Jesus was during his human God became human in Jesus to provide access to
lifetime, even among those who knew him. God’s grace, and Christians view Jesus as the ideal
Although, even during his ministry, his disciples human being, the full revelation of God’s plan for
are sometimes portrayed as believing he was the humanity. Because of their faith in Jesus,
Messiah and the son of God, other people thought Christians believe that God is with them, loves
he was a prophet or simply a great teacher. In a them and saves them from sin and death, and will
gradual process that began during Jesus’ ministry raise them to eternal life. In the end, Jesus’
and continued for many years after his death and simultaneous divinity and humanity is a mystery
resurrection, his followers came to believe that he that Christians confess in faith, although they
was the son of God. The gradual development of cannot fully explain it.
this belief is evident in the Christian Scriptures and

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Christians also believe that Jesus brings God’s monotheistic roots—came to believe that the
forgiveness of sin to humanity. Christians call this trinitarian nature of God was compatible with
“salvation” or “atonement.” “Salvation” means that monotheism. They remembered, as recorded in the
sin is taken away and people are reconciled with Christian Scriptures, that Jesus had a unique
God. While all Christians believe that Jesus relationship with God, whom he called his father;
accomplished this, no consensus has been reached that Jesus had promised to be with them even after he
among Christians about how exactly he did so, as the was no longer visible to them; and that Jesus had said
scriptures describe it in various ways. For example, he would also send his Spirit to them. Christians
the word “atonement” usually refers specifically to believed the Spirit did come to them at Pentecost, an
the belief that it was Jesus’ death on the cross that event chronicled in the Christian Scriptures. As time
accomplished the taking away of sins; the cross thus went on, Christians also began to notice that several
symbolizes both human guilt and God’s mercy. passages in their scriptures could be interpreted as
However, some Christians object to “atonement describing distinctions within God. For example, the
theology” on the grounds that it portrays God as a Gospels instruct Christians to be baptized “in the
cruel and irresponsible parent, condemning a child to name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
a horrible death. These Christians prefer to Spirit.” In this way, over several centuries, the
emphasize Jesus’ teaching and healing ministry as doctrine of the Trinity slowly took shape. As noted
reconciling people with God and consider Jesus’ above, it was first officially formulated in the creed
death a tragedy perpetrated by sinful people, not of the Council of Nicaea in 325 and developed
intended by God. Despite these differences, all further at Constantinople in 381.
Christians believe that through Jesus, God saves
them from sin and promises them eternal life. Of course, the councils did not end debate over the
Trinity. Given that the idea is difficult to
The Trinity comprehend, Christians have explained it with
varying degrees of success. At times it has
While the above subsection explains how the early degenerated into a belief in God as three distinct
Christians’ experience and memories of Jesus led divine beings or as one God revealed in different
them to believe that God was present with them in ways at different times. Such conceptions of the
three ways, the doctrine of the Trinity remains one of Trinity have given rise to charges of polytheism. In
the most difficult points of Christian theology to general, Christian theologians have succeeded better
explain. Again, according to this doctrine, God is one at saying what the Trinity is not than at explaining
being who is revealed to human beings in three what it is. Briefly, however, the three persons can be
ways: Father, Son (Jesus), and Spirit. In light of this described as follows: God the “Father” is the creator
assertion, Christian monotheism is easily challenged. of all that is; God the “Son” is Jesus, who became
If the God of the Hebrew Scriptures is God, and human and came to earth; God the “Spirit” is the
Jesus is God, and the Spirit is God, how can wisdom of God whom Jesus sent to be with humans
Christians claim to believe in one God and not three? after he left the earth. Theologians and mystics have
understood these three persons of the Trinity to have
In light of their encounters with Jesus, the early various names. The most commonly used are Father,
Christians—who maintained their Jewish

9
Son, and Spirit; others include Creator, Redeemer, Christian churches. (For a description of the varieties
and Sanctifier, and Mother, Daughter, and Wisdom. of religious worship and expression among
Christians, see the paper on Religious
In sum, the Christian view of the Trinity is that the Practice.)
one eternal God is manifest in three ways. Christians
believe that God has one nature, and that nature is to Generally speaking, Protestants view church as a
be relational; thus, the three divine “persons” are group of Christian believers who come together to
believed not only to exist in Christians’ experiences worship God and support each other in their efforts
of God but also to correspond to real distinctions to live a Christian life. Scripture serves as the final
within God. How exactly this works remains a spiritual authority of the church; it is interpreted
mystery. A common way to understand the Trinity is individually by each member as well as collectively
by analogy. For example, consider the several roles a by the group. According to Luther’s principle of the
single woman may occupy. She may be a daughter, a priesthood of all believers, any individual may be
wife, and a mother. In each of these roles, she called forth by the community to serve as its spiritual
functions differently in relationship to the people leader or pastor. The pastor is not assumed to have a
around her. She remains one woman, yet at the same special understanding of the Bible compared to the
time, real differences in her own personhood other church members. Since they understand church
correspond to her various roles. Similarly, for as a particular community of believers, Protestants—
Christians, the one eternal God is three persons especially evangelical Protestants—tend to read and
sharing one divine nature. interpret the Bible as relevant to their current
situation with less attention to how it has been
The Bible and Church Authority interpreted in the past.

Catholics and Protestants alike view the Bible as the Some Protestant churches, such as Lutherans,
revealed word of God and the primary authority for Methodists, and especially Episcopalians, proceed
Christian life and worship. All Christians respect the formally in training and assigning their leaders. In
ability of individual persons to read and interpret the the Episcopalian church, which as noted is
Bible for themselves, but they do so in various ways. theologically a blend of Catholic and Protestant
On the one hand, Protestant churches tend to follow a principles, leaders succeed one another in a formal
central principle of the sixteenth-century fashion similar to that of the Catholic church. This
Reformations in assigning absolute authority to “apostolic succession” is connected theologically
individual Christians to interpret the Bible for back to Peter, one of Jesus’ closest followers who is
themselves. On the other hand, the Catholic church now considered the first bishop of Rome (i.e., the
emphasizes that individual Christians who are pope). In these Protestant churches, as in the more
reading the Bible should also consider the long evangelical churches, the emphasis in scriptural
tradition of church interpretation of scripture. When interpretation is usually on its present meaning, not
considering Catholic and Protestant interpretation of on a tradition of past interpretation. However, they
the Bible, further exploration of each one’s notion of do have a long history of scholarly biblical
church is needed. This section gives a general interpretation. A difference is that when major
account of the theology behind the different disagreements over scriptural interpretation arise,

10
these denominations will call general meetings to wisdom of the church. Because official church
discuss them, whereas less highly organized leaders and those trained in church history and
evangelical churches are more likely simply to split theology have a broad knowledge of this historical
and form new churches along these lines. tradition of scriptural interpretation, their opinions
also carry weight with individual Catholics as they
In contrast to most Protestants, Catholics define read the scriptures. Thus, the Catholic church has a
church as a much larger community. For Catholics, long tradition of scriptural interpretation.
church includes not only the believers in a particular
faith community, but also all Catholics around the In the end, however, the Catholic church emphasizes
world and even all believers who have died and the final authority of the individual conscience. It
whose souls are believed to be with God. The teaches that individual Catholics who sincerely pray
Catholic church has a very formal training or and study the scriptures should follow their
“ordination” process for its leaders; its leadership consciences regarding spiritual matters, even if they
consists of a hierarchical structure of priests, who disagree with church leaders and even if—as
lead individual parishes, and bishops, who lead all sometimes happens in extreme circumstances—this
the parishes in a given region (for example, all the leads to their excommunication from the church.
Catholic parishes in eastern Massachusetts are This option of legitimate disagreement with church
headed by one bishop). Bishops, not the members of leaders is called “dissent.” Depending on the issue
the individual parishes, decide who will serve as and on who is dissenting, church leaders treat dissent
priest for each parish. The bishop of Rome is known as more or less of a problem. For example, many
as the pope, and he serves as the symbolic head of Catholics disagree with the church’s official position
the worldwide Catholic church. As the “first among on the issue of birth control, and this has not been
equals,” the pope is considered to be the successor of considered serious enough to merit punishment.
Peter. Catholics do not worship the pope—only God However, a few American bishops have attempted to
is worshiped—but they do hold the office of the discipline prominent Catholic politicians who deviate
papacy in very high esteem because it symbolizes the from the church’s strict anti-abortion stance. The
unity of the worldwide Catholic church. tradition of dissent shows that although Catholics
place more weight than Protestants on church
As noted, like Protestants, Catholics believe that any tradition as an important part of scriptural
Christian can read and interpret the Bible. However, interpretation, all Christians ultimately rely on the
in accordance with the Catholic understanding of the Bible and their consciences as the final spiritual
church as a community that includes all believers, authority in living the Christian life.
even those who have died, contemporary
interpretations of scripture take into account past Traditional Catholic teachings derive from and are
interpretations. The Catholic tradition of successive interdependent with scripture. Catholics regard the
church leadership dates back to before most people sacred writings of the Bible as the inspired word of
were literate, when only priests and bishops could God, written by humans who were guided by the
actually read and had to interpret the Bible for the Holy Spirit. For Catholics, the Bible is not free from
people. Often these interpretations were written human error, yet it nevertheless constitutes the record
down and have been preserved as the collective of God’s revelation and design for the world.

11
Catholic tradition helps distinguish the divine conservative, and liberal Protestants fall between
elements from the human elements in the Bible. For these two extremes. Evangelical and conservative
instance, Catholics (and most Protestants) now Protestants typically understand the Bible as inspired
interpret the biblical justification of slavery as a by God, with any apparent errors representing
function of a past historical era, and they are certain mysteries that humans must struggle to understand;
that slavery is contrary to God’s will. In this way, liberal Protestants tend to see inconsistencies as due
tradition provides guidance for Catholics. to human error and cultural change.

In sum, both Protestants and Catholics believe that Sin and Reconciliation
the church is composed of humans gathered together
to confess their faith in Jesus and worship God. All In accordance with their reading of the Bible,
Christians agree that the Bible is the primary Christians believe that human beings were originally
authority for Christian life. Most Protestants profess created in the image of God, meaning that they were
“the priesthood of all believers” and stress completely good. However, people used their free
contemporary interpretation of the Bible, while will to turn away from God, following their own
Catholics and some Protestants also respect the long desires rather than God’s will. This gave rise to a
tradition of scriptural interpretation, including the universal human tendency toward evil that Christians
teaching ability of church leaders and theologians. call “original sin”; individual sinful acts are believed
The authority and legitimacy of a Protestant church to be rooted in this condition. Despite their
or leader often correlates only to adherence to the sinfulness, Christians believe humans are still the
Bible, while for Catholics, tradition is an important image of God; Catholics hold a more optimistic view
part of both biblical interpretation and the appointing than Protestants about the extent to which the image
of church leaders. remains present. Although humans retain a
tremendous capacity for good, the tendency towards
While all Christians understand the Bible as the sin often outweighs the impulse towards good. This
authority for Christian life, they differ over the leads to a universal human need for salvation from
question of the Bible’s “inerrancy.” Representing the sin and reconciliation with God.
far ends of the spectrum are Catholics and
fundamentalist Protestants. Catholics believe the Christians understand reconciliation with God as
Bible was inspired by God but composed by various something accomplished by Jesus and accepted by
people over many centuries, so they view the Christian in faith. As noted in the section on
inconsistencies and contradictions as a result of Jesus, his life, death, and resurrection reveal God’s
human fallibility or cultural change. For Catholics, love and mercy. And as the Reformations stressed,
the challenge is to determine which passages are forgiveness of sins (also called justification) also
directly relevant and which must be reinterpreted. comes from God as a gift; it has nothing to do with
Fundamentalist Protestants believe that God’s human achievements. Catholics and Protestants share
inspiration of the scriptures means that everything this view of justification as a free gift offered
recorded in them is literally true and free from error, through Jesus and accepted in faith. While all
or “inerrant”; they consider the Bible to be directly Christians also agree that faith should lead to living a
applicable to contemporary life. Evangelical, Christian life, or performing “good works,” they

12
sometimes disagree about the relationship of faith or, if an infant, the person’s parents—affirms his or
and works. In particular, Catholics and evangelical her belief in the Trinitarian God. Water is then
Protestants have emphasized the need to grow in sprinkled on the person’s head, or the person may be
faith by doing good works, while other Christians fully immersed in water, to symbolize the washing
such as Lutherans have stressed the distinction away of sin. The baptized person enters the Christian
between faith and works. However, recent life as a new creature, freed from original sin. This
documents such as the “Joint Declaration on the freedom is not experienced fully in earthly life;
Doctrine of Justification,” which was published by Christians do not claim that they no longer sin after
the Lutheran and Catholic churches, show that this baptism. Rather, they are confident that God forgives
particular difference is being resolved. their sins, and with faith in their reconciliation with
God through Jesus, they try to perform only good
Sacraments works. When they fail, they remember God’s
forgiveness as symbolized at their baptism and try to
In Christian worship, sacraments are ritual practices do better.
that are believed to bring people into tangible union
with God. Sacraments are understood as visible signs The Eucharist, usually known among Protestants as
of God’s grace. When a sacrament is performed, the Lord’s Supper or communion, is the second
prayers are said and elements such as water, wine, sacrament Christians celebrate regularly. In Catholic
bread, and oil may be used. Protestants usually churches the Eucharist is celebrated daily, while
celebrate two sacraments, while Catholics, in Protestant churches may only celebrate it every week
accordance with their greater emphasis on God’s or once a month. The Eucharist is usually celebrated
immanence, celebrate seven. Almost all Christians within the context of a worship service; it reenacts
observe the sacraments of baptism and Eucharist. For the final meal Jesus ate with his followers before his
Catholics, the other five are confession, death. The Christian Scriptures report that at this
confirmation, matrimony, holy orders, and anointing meal, which was a Jewish Passover feast, Jesus broke
of the sick. Thus, sacraments often mark important bread and raised a cup of wine. He declared that the
epochs in a Christian’s life. This section describes bread and wine were his body and blood, given to his
the sacraments of baptism and Eucharist. followers for the forgiveness of sin, and he instructed
the disciples to eat and drink in this manner in
Baptism celebrates a person’s entrance into the memory of him. Accordingly, in
Christian family. In some denominations, such as Christian worship, the minister (pastor or priest)
Catholicism and Lutheranism, people are baptized as takes bread and wine, repeats the words Jesus spoke,
infants; in others, baptism is performed when the and invites all believers to consume the bread and
person requests it. According to the Christian wine in remembrance of Jesus.
Scriptures, the tradition of baptism began with Jesus,
who, following a Jewish custom, was baptized with Christians have long debated about whether the
water at the start of his ministry. Since then, Eucharistic bread and wine only symbolize Jesus’
Christians have been baptized to symbolize their new body and blood or actually become Jesus’ body and
identity as God’s children as they commence lives as blood. In particular, the sixteenth-century Reformers
Christians. At a baptism, the person being baptized— had diverse understandings of the Eucharist. Luther

13
taught the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist denominations. Communal worship may occur
but declined to speculate about exactly what this throughout the week, but Catholics and Protestants
meant. Anglicans held that Christ was present in the usually attend services on Sunday mornings. The
bread and wine “in a heavenly sense,” while Calvin style of these services differs greatly among the
maintained that the sacrament served simply to denominations.
remind believers of Jesus’ death. Meanwhile,
Catholics retained the medieval doctrine of The Catholic Mass is a liturgical celebration that
transubstantiation, the idea that the bread and wine includes songs of praise, formal prayers, readings
are transformed into Jesus’ body and blood. Today, from the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures, a talk by
while both Protestants and Catholics observe the the priest interpreting the scriptures called the
Eucharist, most Protestant churches teach that the “sermon” or “homily,” the recitation of the Nicene-
bread and wine somehow symbolize Jesus’ presence; Constantinopolitan Creed, and the sacrament of
the Catholic church, here interpreting the Bible more Eucharist. The Mass is often described as “high
literally, still teaches that the bread and wine church” because of the strict organization of the
mysteriously become the body and blood of Christ. liturgy, the formal prayers, and the ceremonial robes
worn by the priest.
In addition to baptism and Eucharist, the other five
sacraments celebrated in the Catholic church are Protestant worship ranges from “high church” to
reconciliation (confession and forgiveness of sins), “low church” forms. Lutheran and Episcopal services
confirmation (the adult decision to remain part of the are quite similar to the Catholic Mass, while
church), marriage, holy orders or “ordination,” and evangelical worship often consists more simply of
anointing of the sick. These sacraments mark major singing, a scripture reading, and a sermon. Christian
milestones in the life of faith. Many Protestants also worship services usually last between sixty and
mark these milestones and even use similar terms to ninety minutes but may be longer or shorter. (For
describe them, but they do not consider these events more on Christian worship practices, see the paper
to be “sacraments.” This practice dates back to on Religious Practice in the United States.)
Luther, who emphasized the individual’s direct
relationship with God over the role of church leaders. Because Christians believe in a personal God who
listens to individuals, and because Jesus instructs his

CHRISTIAN SPIRITUAL PRACTICES: WORSHIP AND PRAYER

Communal worship—informal or formal services followers to pray in the Christian Scriptures,

during which Christians gather to offer praise and Christians pray to sustain their relationship with

thanksgiving to God—is central to all Christian God. Prayer takes many forms, including the

ETHICAL CHRISTIAN LIVING

Jesus teaches in the Gospels that Christians are to

How do these fundamentals of Christian theology
love God and to love their neighbors as themselves,
transfer into action in the lives of Christians? The 14
answer is complex, for the multiple expressions of whether the neighbor be friend or enemy.
Christian faith give rise to various understandings of Christians do not always succeed in following this
the ethical Christian life. In general, however, command; however, it is manifested in the
ritualized prayers of worship services, personal Vocation
prayer, group prayer, and even Bible study. Prayers
may be silent or spoken aloud; contemplative, Like everyone else, Christians must work to earn a
nonverbal forms of prayer are also practiced. living, and most do not have jobs in churches. Yet
Intercessory prayer, asking others to pray on one’s vocation refers to the idea that people serve God
behalf, is also common. For Catholics, as noted, the through their everyday work. How does the ordinary
church includes all believers, even those who have labor of Christians relate to their spiritual lives? Put
died; therefore, Catholics sometimes ask saints, simply, Christians believe that any work that serves
including Mary, the mother of God, to “intercede” the neighbor and the community—the “common
with God on their behalf. Among all Christians, the good”—also serves God. Virtually any labor can
Lord’s Prayer or “Our Father,” which Jesus teaches become an extension of Christian faith. The work of
his disciples to pray in the Gospels, is the most- doctors, lawyers, and politicians has no greater
recited prayer. (For the text of the Lord’s Prayer, see spiritual value than that of carpenters, trash
the Appendix.) collectors, and cab drivers; what matters is their
faithful exercise for the benefit of others. This idea
Christian ideals of vocation, justice, and missionary extends to Christians’ personal lives as well;
activity. Christians have an obligation to serve relatives and
friends charitably and responsibly. Of course,
Christians do not always remember to conceive of
their work in this fashion and sometimes adopt the
idea that certain kinds of work are inherently more
valuable. But the Christian idea of vocation is that
any good work, done well, serves God.

Christians also use the word “vocation” to refer to

the work for which a person seems particularly well
suited, due to their abilities. Vocations are not always
easily determined nor are they always easy. Many
people spend much of their lives trying to identify
their talents and how best to use them. Moreover,
like anyone else, Christians do not always enjoy their
work; sometimes, for reasons beyond their
immediate control—lack of education, skill level, or
physical ailments—they are engaged in unsatisfying
jobs. The Christian understanding of vocation does
not excuse insufficient income or satisfaction; when
injustice prevents a person from undertaking her or
his proper vocation, that injustice should be resisted.
Again, however, from the Christian perspective, the
complexities and burdens of work notwithstanding,

15
any work that serves the neighbor and the common up to this “love principle” and they are not always
good can also serve God. just in their actions and attitudes. Nevertheless,
they are obligated to try.
Justice
Missionary Activity
The command to love one’s neighbor also captures
the primary ethical position of Christians. As noted, The Christian life is also distinguished by missionary
this ideal, which Christians strive for but often fail activity, also known as evangelism. In the Gospels,
to reach, comes from a scriptural command of Jesus commands his followers to spread the good
Jesus. The Gospels record Jesus’ own love for his news about God to the whole world. Christians
neighbors and his concern for justice: Jesus cares believe this task is ongoing. The task of spreading
for the poor, the sick, and the outcasts of society, the Gospel intertwines with the Christian
and he speaks out against the political, social, and understanding of vocation and justice. Exercising
economic circumstances that worsen their plight. one’s vocation and working toward justice model the
Christians today are called to imitate Jesus, Christian faith for nonChristians, and as such they
working to transform the world through love and constitute a form of indirect evangelism. However,
advocacy for justice, as they themselves have been “evangelism” is usually associated with direct efforts
transformed by the love and forgiveness of God. to tell nonChristians about Jesus in the hope of
converting them to the Christian faith. Because
Christians recognize that their efforts to emulate Christians believe that Jesus is the way to
Jesus will always fall short, but this does not reconciliation with God and eternal life, they are
excuse them from striving to obey this ethical eager to share their faith with everyone. At its best,
imperative as well as they can in the circumstances Christian evangelism is an act of love—the ultimate
in which they find themselves. For example, obedience to the command to love one’s neighbor.
Christians should respect the dignity of every
human being by trying never to exploit persons, Christian evangelism often causes controversy. Non-
groups, or nations as means to an end. And when believers and adherents of other faiths—and even
conflict arises—whether it is an argument between some Christians themselves—tend to perceive
two people or the possibility of international war— evangelism as self-righteous and arrogant, often with
Christians should always exhaust all nonviolent good reason. Christian missionary activity has even
options of reconciliation. Because Christians, like become associated with Western imperialism, also
all people, are not perfect, they do not always live with good reason. As a result, there is no consensus

CONCLUSION

The goal of this paper has been to familiarize the

reader with the historical development of important challenge for all people of faith is to learn
Christianity and the basic theological tenets of this about religions different from their own. Meeting
religion. Further exploration of these concepts is that challenge may be the surest path to peaceful
encouraged. In today’s world, an coexistence among people of different faiths.

16
about the most appropriate and respectful way to
introduce nonChristians to Christianity. Yet the
Christian desire to spread the faith is not unique.
Most of the major religious traditions of the world
have attempted to increase their ranks through
various forms of missionary activity.

17
APPENDIX Pilate;

The Lord’s Prayer (“Our Father”): Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our

debts as we forgive our debtors. Lead us not into

Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy
temptation, but deliver us from evil. Amen. he
name.
Thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth as it is suffered death and was buried. On the third day he
in heaven. rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he

ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381 C.E.): of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge

the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have
We believe in one God, the
no end.
Father, the Almighty, maker of
heaven and earth, of all that is,
seen and unseen. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver
of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the
We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son], who with the Father and the Son is
Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, worshiped and glorified, who has spoken through
God from God, light from light, true God from the prophets. We believe in one holy, catholic, and
true God, begotten, not made, of one Being with apostolic church.
the Father; through him all things were made. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of
For us and for our salvation he came down from sins.
heaven, was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the We look for the resurrection of the dead, and
Virgin Mary and became truly human. For our the life of the world to come. Amen.
sake he was crucified under Pontius

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

In order to provide an accessible introduction to religion in the United States, this paper has been produced
without footnotes and with few direct quotations from secondary literature. It nevertheless reflects the
influence of a wide range of scholarly arguments. This annotated bibliography presents a complete list of the
texts to which this paper refers, as well as a number of other resources with further information about the topics
discussed. Comments following each citation indicate the nature of the text and, where applicable, the extent of
the paper’s reliance upon it.

Books and Articles

Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica, 5 volumes. Christian Classics, 1981.

Augustine. Confessions. Henry Chadwick, trans. Oxford University Press, 1998.

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Augustine. The City of God. Modern Library, 1994.
The Bible. Recommended translations are the New American Bible, New American Standard Bible, or New
Revised Standard Version. Some versions offer helpful material in addition to the text; for example, the
Catholic Study Bible (Oxford, 2006) contains extensive reading guides that give background and context
for each book.
Calvin, John. Institutes of Christian Religion. John T. McNeill, ed.; Ford Lewis Battles, trans. Westminster
John Knox, 1960.
Detailed overview of Christianity from its origins to the present.
Chadwick, Henry. The Early Church. Penguin, 1993.
Gonzalez, Justo. The Story of Christianity. Prince Press, 1999; originally published in two volumes by
HarperSanFrancisco, 1984/85.
Overview of the first five centuries of Christian history.
Lynch, Joseph. The Medieval Church: A Brief History. Longman, 1995.
Overview of Christianity during the medieval period.
Corrigan, John, and Winthrop Hudson. Religion in America. Prentice Hall, 2003.
Overview of Christianity in the United States from 1607 to the late twentieth century.
Flannery, Austin, ed. Vatican Council II: Constitutions, Decrees, Declarations. Costello, 1996. [Vatican II
documents also online at http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/index.htm]
Gonzalez, Justo, and Zaida Maldonado Perez. An Introduction to Christian Theology. Abingdon, 2002.
Introduces theology topically (by major doctrines) from a Protestant perspective.
Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity. HarperSanFrancisco, 2001.
A classic presentation of the “essentials” of Christian faith for non-Christians. Classified as “apologetics,”
meaning that it argues for the reasonableness of Christianity.
Luther, Martin. Martin Luther: Selections from His Writings. John Dillenberger, ed. Anchor, 1958.
McGrath, Alister. Christian Theology: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2001.
Introduces theology topically (by major doctrines) from a Protestant perspective.
Noll, Mark. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Baker Academic, 2000.
Brief overview of Christianity from its origins to the present.
Placher, William. A History of Christian Theology: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox, 1983.
Introduces the development of Christian theology chronologically (as it developed through history) from a
Protestant perspective.
Placher, William, ed. Readings in Christian Theology, Vol. I: From Its Beginnings to the Eve of the
Reformation and Vol. 2: From the Reformation to the Present. Westminster John Knox, 1988.
Rausch, Thomas. The College Student’s Introduction to Theology. Michael Glazier, 1993.
Introduces theology topically (by major doctrines) from a Roman Catholic perspective.
Simons, Menno. Complete Writings. Herald Press, 1956.

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This project was made possible by a grant from Carnegie Corporation of
New York. The statements made and views expressed are solely the
responsibility of the author.