10/27/2020

THERMODYNAMICS:
“ Thermodynamics is a branch of science
that deals with energy in all its forms
and the laws governing the
Elements of Mechanical transformation of energy from one form
to another.”
Engineering The part of Thermodynamics which
applies to engineering is general l y
referred to as Engineering
Chapter 1 Thermodynamics .
HEAT POWER ENGINEERING:
Introduction Heat Power Engineering is the field of
engineering which deals with the
application of Thermodynamics laws for
energy transformation.

SI System:
These seven basic units are as follows:
The different systems of units commonly
adopted by engineers are: Sr. No. Quantity Unit Symbol
1 Mass Kilogram kg
(1) Metric System:
2 Length meter m
This system is known as Metre- 3 Time second s
Kilogram-Second system, commonly
4 Temp. Kelvin K
known as MKS system.
5 Amt. of mole mol
(2) SI System: matter
6 Luminous candela cd
This system is known as System intensity
International. 7 Electric ampere A
current

A Pure Substance is a substance which The exact or unique condition of a

retains molecular structure during the substance is called its State or
process of energy transfer. Thermodynamic State.

The variables or quantities which

A fluid which has ability to receive, store determines the state are known as
and reject energy as per the requirement Properties.
is called Working Substance. Followings are some of the examples of
The working substance may be; properties;
(1) Liquid e.g. water used in Steam Power (1) Pressure (5) Density
Plant or ammonia uses in refrigerator (2) Temperature (6) Specific Volume
(2) Gaseous e.g. air used in air compressor (3) Volume (7) Enthalpy
mixture of air and fuel for I. C. Engines. (4) Internal Energy (8) Entropy

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PROPERTIES

Volume
EXTENSIVE INTENSIVE
Volume is defined as the space which a
Mass dependent Mass
substance occupy.
properties independent
properties Volume is measured in m 3 or cm 3 or
e.g. e.g.
litre etc.
(1) Mass (1) Pressure
(2) Volume (2) Temperature 1 litre = 1000cm 3
(3) Energy
(4) Enthalpy
(3) Specific Volume = 10 -3 m3 or 0.001 m 3
(4) viscosity
etc…
etc…

(2) Density ( ρ):

Density is defined as the ratio of mass to
(4) Pressure( p):
the Volume of a fluid.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit
ρ = mass =kg area. Units of the Pressure are;
volume m 3 (1) Pascal or N/m 2 (Pa)
(3) Specific Gravity (S): (2) bar
Specific gravity is defined as the (3) Metre of water or any fluid
ratio of density of any given fluid
-1 Pascal or 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2
to the density of water
-1 Kilo–Pascal (KPa) = 10 3 Pa or 10 3 N/m 2
Density of fluid
S= Density of water
Density of water -1 Mega–Pascal (MPa) = 10 6 Pa or 10 6 N/m 2
= 1000 kg/m 3
-1 bar = 10 5 N/m 2

Absolute pressure(p ab ) is the pressure

measured from absolute zero line.
Gauge pressure(p gauge ) is the pressure Pgauge Positive
measured by any pressure measuring Atmospheric pressure
instrument.
Atmospheric or Barometric Pressure pab Pgauge Negative or Vacuum
(p atm ) is the outside pressure measured by
barometer. patm
Negative gauge pressure or pressure less than
pab
atmospheric pressure is called Vacuum.
Relationship between various pressures can
be given as: Datum Line or Absolute Zero line
pab = patm ± pgauge

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Standard Atmospheric pressure:

The pressure measured at sea level at 0 ° C A liquid having specific gravity 13.6 is used
is called standard atmospheric pressure. for measurement of pressure. The height of
liquid column is 1000mm. Calculate the
The value of standard atmospheric pressure values of gauge & absolute pressure in bars
is 1.01325 bar or 760 mm of mercury (Hg) . if local barometer reads 755mm of Hg.
Note : ρ = 13595.09 kg/m 3, g=9.80665 m/s 2 and h = 760 mm
Thus,
P=1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x 10 5 N/m 2 (1) Sp. gravity of liquid = S = 13.6
(2) Liquid column height = h = 1000mm = 1m.
Also if pressure is measured in metre or (3) Barometer reading = 755mm of Hg
mm then;
Step-1:
p=ρ*g*h ρ = Density Density of liquid
Sp. gravity =
g = Acc. due to Gravity Density of water
h = Head in m or mm Density of liquid = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m 3

Step-2: PROPERTIES:
Gauge pressure p gaug= ρgh = 13600 x 9.81 x 1
(4) Specific volume ( v):
= 133416 N/m 2
. . 1 bar = 10 5 N/m 2 It is defined as the ratio of volume to the
(. (
= 1.33416 bar mass of the substance.
Step-3: Thus,
pab = p atm + p gauge Volume m3
Specific Volume =
Std. atm. pr. is760mm of Hg= 1.01325 bar mass
kg
755x 1.01325 = 1.006583 bar .
Thus p atm=
760 . . v = 1/ ρ
.
pab = 1.006583 + 1.33416
.. Thus, specific volume is also inverse of
= 2.3407438 bar the density of a substance.

PROPERTIES: PROPERTIES:
(4) Temperature (T): Temperature conversion:
(1) K = 0C + 273
Temperature is defined as measure of
the degree of hotness or coldness of a (2) F = 0C (9/5) + 32
body. Absolute Zero Temperature:
The temperature at which all vibratory,
Followings are the units of temperature translatory and rotational motions of
measurement; molecules of a substance is suppose to
have ceased. i.e. internal energy becomes
(1) Degree Centigrade or °C
zero.
The volume of gas will be zero (means absolute
(2) Degree Kelvin or K vacuum).
The value of absolute zero temperature is
(3) Degree Fahrenheit F –273 0 C or 0 K.

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PROPERTIES: ENERGY:
Enthalpy/Total heat/Heat content: It is defined as the capacity for doing work
Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal
energy and product of pressure & volume. ENERGY
Mathematically, Where…
U=Int. energy kJ
Enthalpy(H) = U + pV kJ STORED ENERGY ENERGY IN TRANSITION
p= pressure kN/m 2
Here, pV= Work done V= Volume m 3 Heat Energy
Mechanical
Specific Enthalpy: Internal Energy Work Energy
Specific enthalpy is defined as enthalpy per Chemical Energy Electrical Energy
unit mass. Where… Nuclear Energy etc…
u=Sp. int. energy kJ/kg etc… i.e energy transferred
Sp. Entha.= u + pv p= pressure kN/m 2 As a result of poten-
= kJ/kg v=Sp. Volume m 3/kg tial diffrences.

STORED ENERGY STORED ENERGY

(1) Potential Energy (P.E.) : (3) Internal Energy (U):
Potential energy is defined as the energy possess by a It may be defined as the algebraic sum of
body due to its position or elevation with respect to Internal Potential and Internal Kinetic
some datum. energy. . ..
Ex. Water stored at higher level in a dam.
P. E. = m x g x z Joule, Where… Particles ... A. .B. Vessel
z = Distance from datum From figure,
(2) Kinetic Energy (K.E.) : U = Algebraic sum of K.E. & P. E. of all
particles. Unit J or KJ i.e unit of work
Kinetic Energy is defined as the energy possess by
the body due to its motion. (4) Specific Internal Energy:
Ex. Jet of water coming out from nozzle
1 It is defined as internal energy per unit
K. E. = 2 m v Joules Where…
2
mass of a body.
m & v = Mass & velo. Its unit is J/kg or kJ/kg.

ENERGY IN TRANSITION ENERGY IN TRANSITION

Heat Energy can be transferred in three
The energy which is transferred to or from ways;
the body is called energy in transition. (1) By conduction
The main types are; (2) By convection
(3) By radiation
(1) Heat Energy (Q):
(2) Work Energy (W):
It is that form of energy which is When force acts upon a body causing the
transferred from one body to another due body to move then work is said to have
been done.
to temperature difference between them
Its unit is also J, kJ, kcal etc…
(I.e. From higher temp. to lower temp.)
(3) Power:
Its unit is J, kJ, kcal etc.. Rate of doing work is called power.
Thus, power = energy/time
Its units are N-m/s or J/s or W or kJ/s or kW.

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THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
A thermodynamic system is defined as a portion of
Conduction matter upon which the attention is focused during
study period OR A quantity of matter or region in
space under consideration for analysis.
.SURROUNDINGS:

Everything outside the system which

affects directly or indirectly the behavior
of the system is called its surroundings .
SYSTEM BOUNDARY:
The surface separating system from its
surroundings is called system boundary .
It may be real or imaginary. It can be
fixed or flexible.

SYSTEM

Heat & Work Open Closed Isolated

(may enter or System System System
leave) Neither mass
Both mass & -Only energy
SYSTEM Energy crosses T r a n s f e r nor energy
System takes crosses system
Boundary place boundary

BOUNDRY SURROUNDINGS
(real or imaginary)
(rigid or flexible) Both Energy Neither Energy
Only Energy
& mass nor mass

Open System Examples:

(1) Air Compressor (2) Boiler etc.. STEAM OUT ( mass leaving)
Heat out

Low pr. High pr. FIXED BOUNDARY

Air/gas air/gas
in out

Work in WATER IN
( mass
Boundary entering )
HEAT ENERGY

AIR/GAS COMPRESSOR BOILER(OPEN SYSTEM)

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Closed System Examples: Closed System Examples:

(1) Piston – Cylinder assembly
Work output (2) Refrigeration Unit:

Weight Condenser
Compressor Heat rejection
Flexible Piston (Work In)
Cylinder Expansion
Boundary
Valve
Mass

Evaporator
Heat supply
(Heat Input)

PATH FUNCTIONS & POINT FUNCTIONS PATH FUNCTIONS & POINT FUNCTIONS
Path function: Path function:
The quantities which are dependent on the Nature of curve is different for different
path followed by the substance while processes & hence area under the curve is
changing its states are known as path also different.
functions. Thus, quantities like work, heat are
V=C
dependent on the path followed by the
1
process and hence called Path functions .
P=C 1 pV = C Their change can not be taken as the
1 2 difference between their end states.
P

2 Exact differential of path function is not

2 possible.
Here, V Operator δ is used to denote inexact
area under the curve represents work done. differential.

PATH FUNCTIONS & POINT FUNCTIONS PATH FUNCTIONS & POINT FUNCTIONS
Point function: Point function:
The quantities which are independent of Thus, quantities like pressure, volume
the path followed by the substance while etc.. are independent of the path followed
changing its states are known as point
functions. by the process.
P1 Process A These quantities are dependent only upon
At state – 1 1
the end states or end conditions and
Pr.= p 1 & Vol.= V 1
P P2 Process B hence are called point or state functions .
At state – 2 2 These quantities can be represented on
Pr.= p 2 & Vol.=V 2 thermodynamic planes by points.
Exact differential of point function is
Here, V1 V V2 possible.
Value of pressure & temp. are independent of Thus, properties are point functions.
the path followed.

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Mechanical Equilibrium:
Q.1 Which of the following statement(s) is/are false? A system is said to be in Mechanical
(a) Work is a point function Equilibrium if there are no net forces
(b) Temperature is a point function acting between system & surroundings as
(c) Heat is a path function well as within the system.
(d) When force acts upon a body causing the body to
Thermal Equilibrium:
move then work is said to have been done.
A system is said to be in Thermal
Equilibrium if temperature of the system
is uniform throughout the system &
equal to surrounding temperature.
Chemical Equilibrium:
A system is said to be in Chemical
Equilibrium if there are no chemical
reactions occur inside the system.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium: SIGN CONVENSION FOR HEAT & WORK

A system which is in Mechanical, BOUNDRY
For Heat Energy
Thermal & Chemical equilibrium is said Heat supplied(+Ve)
to be in Thermodynamic Equilibrium . SYSTEM
Law of Conservation of Energy: Heat rejected( -Ve)
This law states that “ Energy can neither SURROUNDINGS
be created nor destroyed, however it can
be converted from one form into another BOUNDRY
form”. For Work Energy
The sum of energies in the universe
remains constant. SYSTEM Work done by system(+Ve)
e.g. In a steam power plant;
Work done on system(-Ve)
Chem. Heat Work
Fuel Boiler Turbine
Energy Energy Energy SURROUNDINGS

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS: THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE:

A Thermodynamic process is said to have If number of processes occur in sequence
occur when the system undergone a inside a system in such a way that the
change in state. system reaches its initial state ( i.e.
Thus, a process is the path joining initial and final states are
succession of states passed through by a identical ) then, the system is said to
system. At State – 1, execute a cycle. Here,
Pr.=p 1 & Vol. V 1 At State – 1,
At State – 2, 1 Pro.1 2
1 Pr.= p 1 & Vol.= V 1
Prop.2(p bar)

Prop.2(p bar)

1 Pr.=p 2 & Vol. V 2

At State – 3, Pro.2 1 At State – 2,
2 2 Pr.=p 3 & Vol. V 3 Pr.= p 2 & Vol.= V 2
3 If system comes back
3 Thus,
2 to state 1 then,
1 3 is process OR
Property 1(V m 3) 3 1 is also process Property 1(V m ) Cycle = 1 – 2 – 1
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SPECIFIC HEATS OF A GAS

Definition:
Specific heat is defined as the amount of h e a t
exchange across system boundary to raise or lower
the temp. of unit mass of substance through unit
degree.
The loss or gain of heat energy can be given by the
formula;
Q = mass x sp. heat x temp. change
OR

Q = m x c x ΔT kJ
C = Sp. Heat in kJ/kg K, m= mass of
substance in Kg, ΔT = Temp. Difference in K
Product of mass & Sp. Heat called the Heat Capacity.
It’s a function of Temp, so it is not constant but varies
with the temp.