JAWAPAN

Organisasi Tisu Tumbuhan dan Tisu epidermis / Epidermal tissue

BAB
• paling luar / outermost
Pertumbuhan
1 Organisation of Plant Tissues and Growth
• vakuol besar / large vacuoles
• kutikel / cuticle
• sel pengawal / guard cells
• sel rambut akar / root hairs cells
Organisasi Tisu Tumbuhan
1.1 Organisation of Plant Tissues
Tisu Meristem dan Pertumbuhan
1.2 Meristematic Tissues and Growth
Jenis Tisu Tumbuhan dan Fungsi Utama
The Types of Plant Tissue and Their Main Functions Tisu meristem / Meristematic tissues
• bersaiz kecil / small cells
(a) Tisu meristem / Meristematic tissues
• membahagi, membeza / dividing, differentiation
(b) (i) melindungi / protect
(ii) Tisu asas / Ground tissues (a) Meristem apeks / Apical meristems
(iii) Tisu vaskular / Vascular tissues (b) Meristem lateral / Lateral meristems
(i) Meristem apeks pucuk
(a) Tisu epidermis Shoot apical meristem
Epidermal tissue

Daun Tisu vasular

Leaf Vascular tissue

Tisu asas
Ground tissue (ii) Kambium gabus
Cork cambium
Tisu epidermis
Epidermal tissue
(iii) Kambium vaskular
Batang (b) Tisu vasular Tisu kekal Vascular cambium
Tisu meristem Stem Vascular tissue Permanent
Meristematic tissue tissues Akar
rambut
Tisu asas Root hair
Ground tissue

Tisu epidermis
(iv) Meristem apeks akar
Epidermal tissue Root apical meristem
Akar Tisu vasular
Root
Vascular tissue
(c) Tisu asas
Ground tissue

Taburan Tisu di Batang Tumbuhan Herba Eudikot Zon pertumbuhan sel

Tissue Distribution in Eudicot Herbaceous Stem Zone of cell growth

Hujung pucuk
Tisu xilem / Xylem tissue Shoot tip

• salur xilem / xylem vessels (a) Zon pembahagian sel

• air, garam mineral, terlarut / water, dissolved minerals The zone of cell division
Meristem apeks pucuk
Shoot apical meristem
• dinding sel / cell walls (b) Zon pemanjangan sel
The zone of cell elongation

Tisu floem / Phloem tissue (c) Zon pembezaan sel

• sel tiub tapis / sieve tubes The zone of cell differentiation

• bahan organik / organic substances Floem

Phloem
Tisu matang
Tisu Asas / Ground Tissue Mature tissue
Xilem
• tisu parenkima, tisu kolenkima, tisu sklerenkima / parenchyma Xylem

tissue, collenchyma tissue, sclerenchyma tissue Hujung akar

The root
(a) Tisu parenkima / Parencyhma tissue Xilem
Xylem
• nipis, vakuol besar / thin, large vacuoles Tisu matang
Mature tissue Floem
• khusus / specialised Phloem
(a) Zon pembezaan sel Akar rambut
• kanji, gula / starch / sugar The zone of cell differentiation Root hair

(b) Tisu sklerenkima / Sclerencyhma tissue

• seragam, lignin / uniformly, lignin (b) Zon pemanjangan sel
The zone of cell elongation
• mati / dead
• sokongan, kekuatan / supports, strengthens (c) Zon pembahagian sel
The zone of cell division Meristem apeks akar
(c) Tisu kolenkima / collenchyma tissue Root apical meristem

• tidak seragam / unevenly Jidal akar

• tumbuhan herba / herbaceous plants Root cap

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(a) bilangan / number Perbincangan / Discussion:

• kecil / small 1. Untuk mewarnakan kromosom menjadi merah
• besar / large To stain the chromosomes red.
• Tiada / No 2. Aseto-orsein mempunyai bau seperti cuka yang kuat dan
• tumpat / Dense merengsa. Penutup foil mengurangkan pelepasan bau tersebut.
• nipis / wall Acetic orcein has a strong vinegar-like smell which can be an irritant.
mitosis / mitotic The foil reduces the escape of fumes from the tube.
(b) saiz / size Pertumbuhan Primer dan Sekunder
Dinding sel nipis / Thin cell wall Primary and Secondary Growth
Vakuol kecil / Small vacuole
Pertumbuhan primer / Primary growth
• Sel mengambil air secara osmosis.
The cells take in water by osmosis.
• panjang / length
• meristem apeks / apical meristems
• Membentuk banyak vakuol kecil dan sel memanjang.
To form many small vacuoles and the cells elongate.
• Semua / All
• Pemanjangan sel menolak meristem apeks akar ke Pertumbuhan sekunder / Secondary growth
bawah dan meristem apeks pucuk ke atas. • lilitan / girth
Elongation of the cells pushes the apical meristem in the root • meristem lateral / lateral meristems
downwards and that in the shoot upwards. Di batang / At the stem
Dinding sel tebal / Thick cell wall
Aktiviti kambium vaskular / Activity of vascular cambium
Vakuol besar / Large vacuole
• gelang kambium / cambium ring
• Penvakuolan berlaku. Vakuol kecil dalam sel bergabung • xilem sekunder; floem sekunder
untuk membentuk vakuol besar. secondary xylem, secondary phloem
Vacuolation occurs. Small vacuoles in the cells fuse to form a • empulur; epidermis / pith, epidermis
large central vacuole.
• lignin / lignin
• Mensintesis bahan organik, lebih gentian selulosa
Aktiviti kambium gabus / The activity of cork cambium
terbentuk di dinding sel, menjadikannya lebih tebal dan
• sel gabus; korteks sekunder / cork cell; secondary cortex
kuat.
Synthesis of organic matters, more cellulose fibres are made and • suberin / suberin
added to the cell walls, therefore the cell walls become thicker Di akar / At the root
and more rigid. • xilem sekunder; floem sekunder
(c) saiz; bentuk / size; shape secondary xylem; secondary phloem
khusus; fungsi / specialised; functions • kambium gabus / cork cambium
• sel gabus / cork cells
Eksperimen 1.1 • memecah; meluruh / split; shed
Pertumbuhan Primer dan Sekunder
Keputusan / Results: Primary and Secondary Growth
Keratan memanjang hujung akar / Root tip longitudinal cross section (a) atas / upwards
(b) cabang sisi / side branches
Zon pembezaan sel (c) bercabang / branches
Zone of cell differentiation
(a) Kepentingan pertumbuhan primer
The importance of primary growth
Zon pemanjangan sel ✓ fotosintesis / photosynthesis
Zone of cell elongation
✓ air / water
Zon pembahagian sel (b) Kepentingan pertumbuhan sekunder
Zone of cell division The importance of secondary growth
✓ sokongan mekanikal / mechanical support
Jidal akar ✓ pengangkutan air; bahan organik; sokongan
transport of water; organic substances; support
Root cap
✓ melindungi, kehilangan air / protects, water loss
gelang tahunan / annual growth rings
Lukisan hujung akar / Drawing of root tip • musim / season
Zon pembezaan sel • gelang cerah / brighter rings
Zone of cell differentiation • kecil, gelang gelap / small; darker ring
• gelang tahunan / annual ring
• satu tahun / one year
Zon pemanjangan sel Persamaan / Similarities
Zone of cell elongation
1. primer, sekunder / primary, secondary
2. serentak / simultaneously
Zon pembahagian sel Pertumbuhan primer / Primary growth
Zone of cell division
(a) percambahan / germination
Jidal akar (b) Semua / All
Root cap (c) hujung akar, pucuk / tips of roots, shoots
(d) pemanjangan / increase

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(e) pucuk, akar muda / shoots, roots Dimalarkan / Fixed:

(f) xilem primer, floem primer / primary xylem, primary phloem Jenis dan saiz benih jagung / The variety and size of the maize seed
Pertumbuhan sekunder / Secondary growth Graf / Graph:
(a) batang, akar / stems, roots Tinggi (cm)
(b) Eudikot berkayu, sesetengah / Woody eudicots, some Height (cm)
(c) pembahagian, sel, meristem lateral 220
cell divisions, lateral meristems
(d) lilitan / girth 180
(e) kayu, kulit kayu / wood, bark
(f) floem, xilem, sekunder / secondary phloem, xylem, cork
140
Kepentingan Tumbuhan yang Mengalami Pertumbuhan Sekunder
dari segi Ekonomi 100
The Economic Importance of Plants that Have Undergone Secondary
Growth
60
1. (a) Kayu balak untuk bangunan, jambatan, pintu, perabot -
contoh: jati.
Timber for buildings, bridges, doors, furniture – example: teak.
20
(b) Penghasilan resin dan minyak - contoh: meranti. 0 Masa (hari)
20 40 60 80 100 120 Time (days)
Production of resins and oils – example: meranti
(c) Pengeluaran kertas / Paper production Perbincangan / Discussion:
1. Lengukung sigmoid / Sigmoid curve
2. hiasan / ornamentals
2. Jisim kering / Dry mass
3. buah-buahan / fruits
keras, kuat / hard, strong

Lengkung Pertumbuhan
PRAKTIS SPM 1
1.3 Growth Curves
Soalan Objektif
Tumbuhan semusim / Annual plants
satu tahun / a single year 1. B 2. D 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. B
• pokok padi; soya; dan bunga matahari Soalan Struktur
Paddy plants; soya; plants and sunflowers
Tumbuhan dwimusim / Biennial plants Bahagian A
dua tahun / two years 1. (a) • Untuk mengelakkan haiwan menggigit kulit muda yang
• karbohidrat / carbohydrates lembut dan merosakkan tisu pengangkutan.
• berbunga, membiak / flowers, reproduce To prevent animals nibbling the soft young bark and destroying
• lobak merah, bawang, kubis / carrot, onions, cabbage. the transport tissue.
Tumbuhan saka / Perennial plants • Kulit kayu yang tidak dirosakkan di sekeliling batang
bertahun-tahun / year after year tumbuhan tidak akan mati, memastikan pengangkutan
• berterusan / continues air naik ke atas batang, dan pengangkutan bahan
• pokok getah, mangga, durian / Rubber tree, mango, durian organik ke bawah ke akar.
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan semusim The bark is not destroyed all around the trunk ensured the
Growth curve of annual plants plant not die, as water can move up the trunk, and organic
substances can move down to the roots.
Peringkat A / Stage A:
berkurang, membekalkan tenaga / decreases, provide energy (b) • Lignin memberikan kekuatan tetapi adalah ringan
Lignin gives strength but is lightweight
Peringkat B / Stage B:
• bertambah / increases • Kayu boleh diperbaharui / Wood is renewable
• lebih tinggi / faster • Kurang konkrit dan keluli digunakan
Peringkat C / Stage C: Less concrete and steel are used
berkurang / decreases • Tidak mengembang dalam keadaan panas tetapi
mengering dan menjadi lebih kuat
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan dwimusim Does not expand in heat but dries out and gets stronger
Growth curve of biennial plants
• Dua / Two • Penebat haba dan bunyi yang baik
Good heat and sound insulator
Lengkung pertumbuhan tumbuhan saka / Perennial plants
• Terdapat banyak jenis kayu yang sesuai dengan tujuan
• kecil / small
yang berbeza
• pertumbuhan / growth There are many types of wood to suit different purposes
Eksperimen 1.2 • Nilai estetik / Aesthetic value
Pemboleh ubah / Variables • Menentang daya mampatan / Resists compression forces
Dimanipulasikan / Manipulated: • Tidak retak ketika dipotong atau dipaku dan mengekalkan
Bilangan hari penanaman / The numbers of day of planting kekuatannya.
Doesn’t crack when cut or nailed and keeps its strength.
Bergerak balas / Responding:
Ketinggian pokok jagung / Height of maize plant

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• Midrib / midrib
BAB
Struktur dan Fungsi Daun • urat daun / veins
2 Structure of a Leaf
Lamina / Lamina
Midrib / Midrib

Struktur Daun Urat daun / Vein

2.1 Structures of a Leaf
Batang Petil / Petiole
Stem
Struktur Luar Daun
The External Structures of a Leaf
Struktur Dalaman Lamina Daun
• fotosintesis, gas / photosynthesis, gas The Internal Structures of a Leaf Lamina
• lamina, petiol / lamina, petiole

Kutikel / Cuticle

Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis
Mesofil palisad
Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular
Palisade mesophyll
Vascular bundle
Floem / Phloem
Mesofil berspan
Spongy mesophyll Epidermis bawah
Lower epidermis
Ruangan udara
Air space Sel pengawal
Stoma / Stoma Guard cell

Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis Kutikel / Cuticle

Mesofil palisad
Palisade mesophyll Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular
Vascular bundle
Mesofil berspan Floem / Phloem
Spongy mesophyll
Ruangan udara
Epidermis bawah Air space

Lower epidermis
Sel pengawal
Guard cell

Ruangan udara
Air space

Kutikel / Cuticle
Epidermis atas
Upper epidermis

Xilem / Xylem Berkas vaskular

Mesofil berspan
Spongy mesophyll Vascular bundle
Floem / Phloem

Sel pengawal
Epidermis bawah
Guard cell
Lower epidermis

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Organ Utama Pertukaran Gas 2. • Untuk mengurangkan kehilangan air secara transpirasi
2.2 Main Organ for Gasesous Exchange To reduce water loss through transpiration
• Elakkan penyejatan berlebihan
Keperluan Pertukaran Gas dalam Tumbuhan Avoid excessive evaporation
The Necessity of Gaseous Exchange in Plants
• Memastikan fotosintesis berlaku pada kadar optimum
• oksigen; karbon dioksida / oxygen; carbon dioxide Ensure photosynthesis occur at an optimum rate
• karbon dioksida; oksigen / carbon dioxide; oxygen
Kesan Kekurangan Air dalam Tumbuhan Terhadap Pembukaan dan
• resapan / diffusion Penutupan Stoma
The Effect of Water Deficiency in Plants on Stomatal Opening and Closing
Siang / Day Malam / Night
• ditutup / closed
Fotosintesis & respirasi Respirasi
Photosynthesis & respiration Respiration • asid absisik / abscisic acid
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide • oksigen; karbon dioksida • transpirasi / transpiration
• oksigen / oxygen oxygen; carbon dioxide
• oksigen / oxygen Organ Utama Transpirasi
Mekanisme Pembukaan dan Penutupan Stoma
2.3 Main Organ for Transpiration
Mechanism of Stomatal Opening and Closing
Keperluan Transpirasi dalam Tumbuhan
• buka; tutup / open; close
The Necessity of Transpiration in Plants
• pengawal / guard
Mekanisme Pembukaan Stoma / Mechanism of Stomatal Opening • Transpirasi, penyejatan / Transpiration, evaporation
1. pam proton; Proton / proton pumps; Protons 1. penyerapan / absorption
2. kalium; vakuol / Potassium; vacuoles 2. transpirasi; air; mineral / transpiration; water; minerals
3. bahan larut; Air / solute; Water 3. fotosintesis; kesegahan / photosynthesis; turgidity
4. segah; liang; terbuka / turgid; pore; opens 4. haba; penyejukan / heat; cooling
Mekanisme Penutupan Stoma / Mechanism of Stomatal Closing
1. sukrosa; menurun; Sukrosa; kanji Faktor Persekitaran yang Mempengaruhi Kadar Transpirasi
sucrose; decline; Sucrose, starch The Environmental Factors that Affect Rate of Transpiration
2. bahan, larut, Air / solute, Water
3. kesegahan, liang tertutup / turgidity, pore closes 1. (a) cahaya / Light
(b) Suhu / Temperature
Eksperimen 2.1
(c) Udara / Air
Perbincangan / Discussion: (d) Kelembapan / humidity
1. (a) Permukaan bawah daun / Lower surface of leaf
(b) Permukaan bawah daun / Lower surface of leaf

(a) Keamatan Cahaya / Light Intensity

Pada keamatan cahaya tinggi tertentu,

Kadar transpirasi meningkat dengan kadar transpirasi menjadi malar.
peningkatan keamatan cahaya. Beyond a certain light intensity, the rate of
Rate of transpiration

The rate of transpiration increases

Kadar transpirasi

transpiration levels off.

with the increase in light intensity.

Apabila keamatan cahaya meningkat,

stoma membuka dengan lebih luas,
lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar
daripada ruangan udara. Keamatan cahaya
As light intensity increases, the stomata Light intensity
open wider, allowing more water vapour Pada keamatan cahaya rendah, kadar transpirasi adalah rendah.
in the air spaces to diffuse out. At low light intensity, the rate of transpiration is low.

(b) Suhu / Temperature

Dalam keadaan gelap, stoma tutup. Hanya sejumlah kecil wap air yang meresap keluar.
In darkness, the stomata are closed. Only a small amount of water vapour diffuses out.

Kadar transpirasi meningkat dengan peningkatan suhu.

Rate of transpiration

The rate of transpiration increases when temperature increases.

Kadar transpirasi

• Apabila suhu meningkat, kadar penyejatan air daripada permukaan sel mesofil
meningkat.
As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation of water from the surfaces of mesophyll cells
increases.
• Lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar melalui stoma daun.
Suhu More water vapour diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata.
Temperature

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(c) Pergerakan udara / Air movement

Keadaan udara tidak bergerak, kadar Semakin tinggi kelajuan angin, semakin tinggi kadar transpirasi.
transpirasi rendah. The higher the wind speed, the higher the rate of transpiration.
In still air, the rate of transpiration decreases.

Rate of transpiration
Kadar transpirasi
Angin bertiup menyingkirkan wap air berdekatan stoma. Ini
• Wap air yang meresap keluar daripada menambahkan kecerunan kepekatan wap air di antara ruang udara
daun yang berkumpul di sekitar stoma. dan persekitaran. Kadar resapan bertambah.
The water vapour that diffuses out of the Wind carries away water vapour around the stomata, maintaining a
leaf accumulates around the stoma. concentration gradient of water vapour between the air space and the
• Mengurangkan kecerunan kepekatan surrounding air. The rate of diffusion increases.
wap air di antara ruangan udara daun
dan udara persekitaran. 0 Kelajuan angin
Reduces the concentration gradient of water Wind speed
vapour between the air spaces of the leaf
and the surrounding air.

(d) Kelembapan relatif udara / Relatif air humidity

Kelembapan relatif udara persekitaran rendah,

kadar transpirasi adalah tinggi.
A relative low humidity in the surrounding air, the rate
of transpiration increases.
Rate of transpiration Kadar transpirasi berkurang
Kadar transpirasi

Kelembapan relatif udara yang tinggi apabila kelembapan relatif udara

mengurangkan kecerunan kepekatan wap persekitaran meningkat.
The rate of transpiration decreases
air di antara ruang udara dalam daun dan when the relative humidity in the
persekitaran. Kurang wap air meresap keluar surrounding air increases.
melalui stoma.
A higher relative air humidity decreases the
concentration gradient of water vapour between the
air space and the surrounding air. Less water vapour 0 Kelembapan relatif
diffuses out through the stomata. Relative humidity

2. Potometer / potometer 2. (a) cahaya / light

Eksperimen 2.2 (b) gas / gases
(c) air / water
Perbincangan / Discussion (d) glukosa / glucose
1. kehilangan air / water loss 3. (a) palisad / Pallisade
2. jarak gelembung udara / distance travelled by the air bubbles • atas / upper
Kesimpulan / Conclusion • kloroplas / chloroplasts
• cahaya / sunlight
bertambah, berkurang / increases, decreases
(b) berspan / Spongy
• kloroplas; ruang udara / chloroplasts; air spaces
Organ Utama Fotosintesis
2.4 Main Organ for Photosynthesis • resapan / diffusion
Epidermis bawah / Lower epidermis
Keperluan Transpirasi dalam Tumbuhan
The Necessity of Photosynthesis in Plants • Mempunyai stoma. / Have stomata.
(c) Kutikel / Cuticle
1. makanan / food • berlilin / waxy
• pengeluar; makanan / producers; food • air / water
2. tenaga / energy (d) Epidermis / epidermis
• matahari / light • cahaya / light
• kimia / chemical (e) • pengangkutan / transport
• rantai makanan; haba / food chains; heat • xilem / xylem
3. • karbon dioksida; fotosintesis • floem; glukosa / phloem; glucose
carbon dioxide; photosynthesis
Stoma / Stoma
• oksigen; respirasi / water; oxygen
• pengawal / guard
Penyesuaian Struktur Dalaman Daun untuk Mengoptimumkan • karbon dioksida; air / carbon dioxide; water
Fotosintesis
The Adaptations of Internal Structure of a Leaf to Optimise Photosynthesis Struktur Kloroplas
Structures of Chloroplast
1. daun / leaves
(a) cahaya matahari / sunlight • fotosintesis / photosynthesis
(b) • sokongan / Support (a) Tilakoid / Thylakoids
(c) • Lebar; leper; permukaan / Broad; flat; surface • bermembran / membranous
• Nipis / Thin • klorofil / Chlorophyll

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(b) Stroma / Stroma 2.

• enzim; karbohidrat / enzymes; carbohydrates
Tenaga cahaya C6H12O6
(c) Granum / Granum 6 CO2 + 6 H2O Light energy + 6 O2
1. tilakoid / thylakoid Karbon dioksida + Air Glukosa + Oxygen
2. grana; luas permukaan / grana; surface area Carbon dioxide + Water Klorofil Glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
(d) dua / double
(e) dalam / inner 3. oksigen; air / oxygen; water
(f) luar / outer 4. glukosa / glucose
Kromatografi / Chromatography
Membanding dan Membezakan antara Tindak Balas Bersandarkan
• pigmen / pigments
Cahaya dengan Tindak Balas Tidak Bersandarkan Cahaya dalam
• kromatografi / chromatography Fotosintesis
Compare and Contrast Light Dependent and Light-Independent Reactions
in Photosynthesis
Karoten (oren) / Carotene (orange)
Persamaan / Similarities
Feofitin (kelabu) / Phaeophytin (grey) 1. kloroplas / chloroplast
2. fotosintesis / photosynthesis
Xantofil (kuning) Xanthophyll (yellow) Perbezaan / Differences
Tindak balas bersandarkan cahaya / Light-dependent reactions
Klorofil a (biru-hijau) Chlorophyll a (blue-green)
1. tilakoid / thylakoids
Klorofil b (kuning-hijau) Chlorophyll b (yellow-green) 3. Air; ADP / Water; ADP
4. Oksigen; ATP; hidrogen / Oxygen; ATP; hidrogen
5. fotolisis / photolysis
Titik permulaan / Loading point Tindak balas bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent reactions
1. stroma / stroma
3. Karbon dioksida; ATP; hidrogen / Carbon dioxide; ATP; hydrogen
4. Glukosa / Glucose
Tindak balas Bersandarkan Cahaya dan Tindak Balas Tidak 5. penurunan / reduction
bersandarkan Cahaya dalam Fotosintesis
Light-dependent and Light-independent Reactions in Photosynthesis Faktor-faktor Persekitaran yang Mempengaruhi Kadar Fotosintesis
Environmental Factors that Affect the Rate of Photosynthesis
1. enzim / enzyme
2. • (a) cahaya / Light
(b) Suhu / Temperature
(a) bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent
(c) karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide
(a) Keamatan cahaya / Light Intensity
cahaya; kimia / Light; chemical
Tapak tindak balas: membran tilakoid • Pada keamatan cahaya
Sites of reactions: thylakoid membranes tinggi, kadar fotosintesis
1. Cahaya; ATP / Light; ATP menjadi malar.
Rate of ptotosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis

2. fotolisis; oksigen; hidrogen / photolysis; oxygen; hydrogen At high light intensities,

3. Hidrogen; ATP / hydrogen; ATP there is no change in the
rate of photosynthesis.
4. Oksigen / oxygen
• Faktor selain keamatan
cahaya menjadi faktor
(b) Tindak bersandarkan cahaya / Light-independent penghad, contohnya
Keamatan cahaya
karbon dioksida.
Light intensity The rate is now limited by
kimia; organik / chemical; organic a factor other than light
Tapak tindak balas: stroma intensity, e.g. carbon dioxide
Sites of reactions: stroma Tanpa cahaya, fotosintesis tidak
berlaku.
1. ATP; hidrogen / ATP; hydrogen Without light there is no photosynthesis.
2. Hidrogen; karbon dioksida; organik
hydrogen; carbon dioxide; organic
3. ATP; carbon / carbon; ATP

Persamaan Kimia bagi Mewakili Proses Fotosintesis

Chemical Equation to Represent the Process of Photosynthesis

1. cahaya; klorofil; karbon dioksida; glukosa

light; chlorophyll; carbon dioxide; glucose

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(b) Suhu / Temperature

Pada suhu yang lebih tinggi daripada suhu optimum, kadar fotosintesis menurun.
At temperature higher than the optimum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis decreases.

Rate of ptotosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis
Pada suhu yang tinggi, enzim tenyahasli,
fotosintesis berhenti.
At high temperatures, enzymes are denatured,
photosynthesis stops.

Suhu
Temperature

Kadar fotosintesis bertambah dengan peningkatan suhu.

The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in temperature.

(c) Kepekatan karbon dioksida / Concentration of carbon dioxide

• Peningkatan
kepekatan CO2
selanjutnya, kadar
Rate of photosynthesis

Pada permulaan, kadar

Kadar fotosintesis

fotosintesis menjadi
fotosintesis meningkat dengan malar.
peningkatan kepekatan karbon B C
As the CO2 concentration
dioksida. Di antara A dan B, further increases, there is
kepekatan CO 2 adalah faktor no change in the rate of
penghad. photosynthesis.
Initially, the rate of photosynthesis A • Faktor lain menjadi
increases with increasing carbon Kepekatan CO2 faktor penghad.
dioxide concentration. Between A and CO2 concentration The rate becomes limited
B, CO2 concentration is the limiting by other factors.
factor.

Eksperimen 2.3 2. (a) Kadar fotosintesis / The rate of photosynthesis

(b) Keamatan cahaya / Light intensity
A. Keamatan cahaya / Light Intensity
B. Suhu / Temperature
Graf / Graph:
Graf / Graph:
Purata bilangan gelembung / minit

Average number of bubbles / minute

Rate of photosynthesis
(rate of photosynthesis)
(kadar fotosintesis)

Kadar fotosintesis

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Keamatan cahaya / Light intensity Suhu / Temperature (°C)
Perbincangan / Discussion
1. Untuk membekalkan karbon dioksida yang diperlukan oleh Perbincangan / Discussion
tumbuhan untuk menjalankan fotosintesis 1. Pada suhu yang terlalu tinggi, enzim fotosintesis ternyahasli,
To supply the carbon dioxide needed by plants to carry out kadar fotosintesis menurun menjadi sifar.
photosynthesis. Too high temperature, the photosynthetic enzymes denature, the rate
of photosynthesis decreases to zero

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C. Kepekatan karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide concentration Menganalisis Keamatan Cahaya dan Pencapaian Titik Pampasan
Graf / Graph: dengan Menggunakan Graf
Analyse Light Intensity and Attainment of Compensation Point using a Graph

Keamatan cahaya semakin bertambah

25 Light intensity increases even further
Rate of photosynthesis

• fotosintesis / photosynthesis
Kadar fotosintesis

20
Keamatan cahaya bertambah / Light intensity increases further
15 • lebih tinggi / higher
• Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
10 Dalam gelap / In darkness
• fotosintesis; respirasi / photosynthesis; respiration
5 • karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide
Keamatan cahaya semakin bertambah pada waktu siang
0 As light intensity increases in the daylight
Peratus kepekatan karbon dioksida
Percentage concentration of carbon dioxide • bertambah / increases
Pada titik pampasan / At compensation point
Kesan Perubahan Keamatan Cahaya dan Warna Cahaya terhadap • sama / equal
Kadar Fotosintesis • respirasi; fotosintesis / respiration; photosynthesis
The Effects of Different Light Intensities and Colours of Light on the Rates • Tiada / no
of Photosynthesis
Kesan kadar fotosintesis dan kadar respirasi sel yang kekal pada
• pigmen; cahaya / pigments; light titik pampasan terhadap pertumbuhan dalam tumbuhan
The effect on plant growth if the rate of photosynthesis and the rate of
Spektrum serapan / Absorption spectrum
cellular respiration remain at its compensation point
biru; merah / Blue; red
1. sama / same
Spektrum tindakan / Action spectrum
2. makanan / food
biru; merah / Blue; red
3. gula berlebihan / excess sugars
4. gas oksigen / oxygen
Titik Pampasan
2.5 Compensation Point

Titik Pampasan
Compensation Point
PRAKTIS SPM 2
• keamatan cahaya / light intensity Soalan Objektif
(a) Pada keamatan cahaya rendah / At low light intensity 1. C 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. A
melebihi / exceeds 6. B 7. B 8. B 9. A 10. B
• Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
(b) Apabila keamatan cahaya meningkat Soalan Struktur
As light intensity increases
Bahagian A
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide
• karbon dioksida / carbon dioxide 1. (a) A. Epidermis atas / Upper epidermis
• titik pampasan / compensation point B. Kloroplas / chloroplast
(c) Pada keamatan cahaya tinggi / At high light intensity C. Ruang udara antara sel / intercellular air space
D. Sel pengawal / guard cell
melebihi / exceeds
E. Epidermis bawah / lower epidermis
• Pengambilan; pembebasan / uptake; release
(b) • Bentuk sel mesofil palisad adalah memanjang
Fotosintesis Respirasi sel sementara sel mesofil berspan berbentuk bulat.
Photosynthesis Cellular respiration The palisade mesophyll cells are elongated while the spongy
mesophyll cells are rounded.
Anabolisme / Anabolism Katabolisme / Catabolism
• Sel mesofil palisad mempunyai banyak kloroplas
sementara sel mesofil berspan mempunyai sedikit
Kloroplas / Chloroplast Mitokondrion / Mitochondrion
kloroplas.
The palisade mesophyll cells have many chloroplasts while
klorofil / chlorophyll metabolisme / Metabolising the spongy mesophyll cells have fewer chloroplasts.

1. Karbon dioksida 1. Glukosa (c) • Ruang udara antara sel / C membenarkan resapan
Carbon dioxide Glucose gas oksigen, karbon dioksida dan wap air ke dalam
2. Water / Air 2. Oksigen / Oxygen atau keluar daripada sel di dalam daun.
The intercellular air spaces / C permit the diffusion of oxygen,
1. Glukosa 1. Karbon dioksida carbon dioxide and water vapour to or from the cells inside
Glucose Carbon dioxide the leaf.
2. Oksigen / Oxygen 2. Air / Water (d) • Sel mesofil palisad yang memanjang membenarkan
fotosintesis Respirasi cahaya matahari menembusinya tanpa diserap oleh
photosynthesis Respiration dinding sel.
The elongated palisade mesophyll cells allow the sunlight to
penetrate without being absorbed by cell walls.

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• Kloroplas yang banyak di sel mesofil palisad menyerap Bahagian B

dan menggunakan tenaga cahaya matahari.
The abundant chloroplasts in the palisade mesophyll cells 1. (a)
absorb and use the energy from sunlight.
• Terdapat lebih banyak kloroplas di lapisan atas di mana Faktor / Factors Penerangan / Explaination
kebanyakan cahaya matahari diterima.
The chloroplasts are more abundant in the upper layers where 1. Kelembapan relatif • Kelembapan relatif udara persekitaran
most sunlight is received.
udara rendah, kadar transpirasi adalah tinggi.
• Stoma membenarkan kemasukan karbon dioksida untuk Relative air humidity A relative low humidity in the surrounding air,
fotosintesis; Ruang udara membolehkan gas mencapai the rate of transpiration increases.
sel-sel fotosintesis • Kadar transpirasi berkurang apabila
The stoma allows entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis; the kelembapan relatif udara persekitaran
air space allows the gas to reach the photosynthesising cells meningkat.
(e) • Kebanyakan daun adalah lebar dan memberi permukaan The rate of transpiration decreases when
penyerapan cahaya matahari yang besar untuk the relative humidity in the surrounding air
increases.
fotosintesis.
Most leaves are broad and offer a large absorbing surface to • Kelembapan relatif udara yang tinggi
the sunlight, which they need for photosynthesis. mengurangkan kecerunan kepekatan
• Daun adalah tipis, ciri yang mengurangkan jarak wap air di antara ruang udara dalam
peresapan karbon dioksida untuk mencapai fotosintesis daun dan persekitaran. Kurang wap air
sel-sel di daun. meresap keluar melalui stoma. Kadar
The leaves are also mostly thin, a feature which reduces the transpirasi menurun.
distance over which carbon dioxide has to diffuse in order to Higher relative air humidity decreases the
reach photosynthesising cells in the leaf. concentration gradient of water vapour
between the air space and the surrounding
2. (a) (i) X: Membran tilakoid / grana / granum air. Less water vapour diffuses out through
Thylakoid membrane / grana / granum the stomata. Transpiration rate reduces.
Y: Stroma / Stroma
(ii) • X / thylakoid / grana / granum /
X / thylakoid / grana / granum 2. Suhu • Kadar transpirasi meningkat dengan
Temperature peningkatan suhu.
(b) • Sel mesofil / sel mesofil palisad / sel pengawal / sel
The rate of transpiration increases when
mesofil berspan temperature increases.
Mesophyll cell / palisade mesophyll cell / guard cell / spongy
• Apabila suhu meningkat, tenaga kinetik
mesophyll cell
molekul wap air meningkat, kadar
(c) Tindak balas fotokimia berlaku di X
penyejatan air daripada permukaan sel
Photochemical reactions take place at X
mesofil meningkat.
1. Yang membekalkan ATP dan NADPH As temperature increases, the kinetic energy
Which supplies ATP and NADPH of water vapour molecules increases, the rate
2. Untuk pengikatan karbon di Y of evaporation of water from the surfaces of
For carbon fixation that takes place at Y mesophyll cells increases.
(d) 1. Organel itu ialah kloroplas yang mengandungi klorofil • Lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar
untuk menyerap / memerangkap tenaga cahaya melalui stoma daun.
The organelle is chloroplast which contains chlorophyll to absorb / More water vapour diffuses out of the leaf
trap / capture light energy through the stomata.
2. Ditukar ke tenaga kimia / ATP
Converted / changed it to chemical energy / ATP 3. Keamatan cahaya • Pada keamatan cahaya rendah, kadar
(e) 1. Organel adalah kloroplas / sel haiwan tidak mempunyai Light intensity transpirasi adalah rendah.
kloroplas At low light intensity, the rate of transpiration
The organelle is chloroplast / animal cells do not have chloroplast is low.
2. Tidak perlu menyerap tenaga cahaya • Dalam keadaan gelap, stoma tutup.
Does not need to absorb light energy Hanya sejumlah kecil wap air yang
3. Tidak menjalankan fotosintesis meresap keluar.
Does not carry out photosynthesis In darkness, the stomata are closed. Only a
small amount of water vapour diffuses out.
4. Haiwan adalah heterotrof / holozoik / haiwan memakan • Kadar transpirasi meningkat dengan
makanan / memperoleh nutrien dari organisma lain peningkatan keamatan cahaya.
Animals are heterotroph / holozoic / animals ingest food / obtain
The rate of transpiration increases with the
nutrients from other organisms
increase in light intensity.
• Apabila keamatan cahaya meningkat,
stoma membuka dengan lebih luas,
lebih banyak wap air meresap keluar
daripada ruangan udara.
As light intensity increases, the stomata open
wider, allowing more water vapour in the air
spaces to diffuse out.

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• Tindak balas gelap memerlukan tenaga dari ATP dan

4. Pergerakan udara • Keadaan udara tidak bergerak, kadar dimangkinkan oleh enzim
Air movement transpirasi rendah. The dark reaction need energy from ATP and catalyse by enzyme
In still air, the rate of transpiration decreases.
• Monomer glukosa mengalami kondensasi untuk
• Wap air yang meresap keluar
membentuk kanji
daripada daun yang berkumpul The glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form
di sekitar stoma. Mengurangkan starch
kecerunan kepekatan wap air di
antara ruangan udara daun dan udara
BAB
persekitaran. Nutrisi dalam Tumbuhan
3
The water vapour that diffuses out of the Nutrition in Plants
leaf accumulates around the stoma.Reduces
the concentration gradient of water vapour
between the air spaces of the leaf and the
surrounding air. Nutrien Tak Organik Utama
• Semakin tinggi kelajuan angin, semakin
3.1 Main Inorganic Nutrients
tinggi kadar transpirasi. 1. mineral; ion / minerals; ions
The higher the wind speed, the higher the
rate of transpiration. 2. makronutrien; mikronutrien / macronutrients; micronutrients
• Angin bertiup menyingkirkan Sembilan Maknutrien / Nine macronutrients
wap air berdekatan stomata. Ini 1. Karbon / Carbon
menambahkan kecerunan kepekatan 2. Oksigen / Oxygen
wap air di antara ruang udara 3. Hidrogen / Hydrogen
dan persekitaran. Kadar resapan 4. Nitrogen / Nitrogen
bertambah. 5. Sulfur / Sulphur
Wind carries away water vapour around the 6. Fosforus / Phosphorus
stomata, maintaining a concentration gradient 7. Kalium / Potassium
of water vapour between the air space and 8. Kalsium / Calcium
the surrounding air. The rate of diffusion 9. Magnesium / Magnesium
increases.
Lapan Miknutrien / Eight micronutrients
(b) Tindak balas cahaya (M) / Light reaction (M) 1. Klorin / Chlorine
2. Besi / Iron
• Berlaku dalam granum / Take place in grana
3. Mangan / Managanese
• Klorofil memerangkap tenaga cahaya yang mengujakan 4. Boron / Boron
elektron pada molekul klorofil ke tahap yang lebih tinggi 5. Zink / Zinc
Chlorophyll captures light energy which excites the electrons of
chlorophyll molecules to higher energy levels
6. Kuprum / Copper
7. Nikel / Nickel
• Dalam peringkat itu, elektron meninggalkan molekul
8. Molybdenum / Molybdenum
klorofil-Tenaga cahaya digunakan untuk memecahkan
molekul air kepada ion hidrogen (H+) dan ion hidroksil Kepentingan Makronutrien dan Mikronutrien dalam Tumbuhan
(OHˉ) (fotolisis air) The Necessity of Macronutrients and Micronutrients in Plants
In the excited state, the electrons leave the chlorophyll
molecules–Light energy is used to split water molecules into 1. karbon; oksigen; hidrogen; nitrogen; fosforus; sulphur
hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OHˉ) (photolysis of water) Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur
• Ion hidrogen kemudian bergabung dengan elektron 2. nitrogen / nitrogen
yang dibebaskan oleh klorofil untuk membentuk atom 3. protein; klorofil / proteins; chlorophyll
hidrogen. 4. kofaktor / cofactors
The hydrogen ions then combine with the electrons released by
Makronutrien Fungsi utama
chlorophyll to form hydrogen atoms.
Macronutrients Main functions
• Tenaga dari elektron yang teruja digunakan untuk
• air; kesegahan / water; turgidity
membentuk molekul tinggi tenaga, adenosina trifosfat Kalium / Potassium (K)
• stoma / stomata
(ATP).
The energy from the excited electrons is used to form energy-rich Kalsium / Calcium (Ca) dinding sel / cell walls
molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Magnesium / Magnesium (Mg) klorofil / chlorophyll
• Ion hidoksil menyingkirkan satu elektron untuk
membentuk kumpulan hidroksil yang kemudiannya 5. (a) Boron / Boron
bergabung membentuk air dan gas oksigen (b) Sulfur / Sulfur
Hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form a hydroxyl group which (c) Mangan / Manganese
then combine to form water and oxygen gas (d) Zink / Zinc
Tindak balas gelap (N) / Dark reaction (N) (e) Magnesium / Magnesium
• Berlaku dalam stroma / Takes place in stroma (f) Fosforus / Phosphorus
• Tidak memerlukan cahaya / Does not require light (g) Kalsium / Calcium
• Atom hidrogen digunakan untuk menurunkan karbon (h) Besi / Iron
dioksida kepada glukosa (i) Kuprum / Copper
The hydrogen atoms are used to reduce carbon dioxide into (j) Molibdenum / Molybdenum
glucose (k) Kalium / Potassium
(l) Nitrogen / Nitrogen

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Organ Pengambilan Air dan Garam Mineral Keratan Rentas Akar Monokotiledon dan Akar Eudikot
3.2 Organ for Water and Mineral Salts Uptake Cross Sections of Monocotyledon and Eudicotyledon Roots

Struktur Akar dalam Pengambilan Air dan Garam Mineral Akar monokotiledon / Monocotyledon root
The Root Structure for Water and Mineral Salts Uptake

• akar / roots Akar rambut

Root hair
• tarikan transpirasi / transpiration pull
Akar rambut
Root hair Epidermis
Epidermis Epidermis
Epidermis Korteks
Cortex
Korteks
Cortex Endodermis
Endordermis
Endodermis Floem / Phloem
Endordermis Xilem / Xylem
Floem
Phloem
Akar eudikot / Eudicotyledon root
Xilem
Xylem
Akar rambut
Root hair
Jidal akar
Root cap Epidermis
Epidermis
Epidermis / Epidermis Korteks
• kutikel / cuticle Cortex
• nipis / thin
• akar rambut / root hairs Endodermis
Korteks / Cortex Endordermis
• parenkima / parenchyma Floem / Phloem
• kanji / starch
Xilem / Xylem
Endodermis / Endodermis
• Casparian / Casparian
Jidal akar / Root cap
• Melindungi / Protects

Penyesuaian akar untuk pengambilan air dan garam mineral / Root adaptations for water and mineral salts uptake
air; mineral / water; minerals

Akar bercabang dan mempunyai banyak

Epidermis terdiri daripada satu lapisan sel berdinding nipis rambut akar.
dan tidak diselaputi oleh kutikel. Highly branching of roots, and numerous root hairs.
Epidermis consists of one layer of thin - walled cells and not covered
by cuticle.

Memambah luas permukaan untuk

penyerapan air dan mineral.
Membolehkan resapan air dan mineral ke Increase the surface area or the absorption of
dalam akar dengan lebih cekap. water and minerals.
Allows water and minerals to diffuse into the root
more easily.

Sistem akar tunjang

Taproot systems

Sistem akar berserabut

• Rambut akar yang panjang dan halus. Fibrous root systems
Long and fine root hairs.
• Dapat menembusi ruangan antara butiran tanah dengan mudah
untuk menyerap air dan mineral.
Can easily penetrate the spaces between soil particles to absorb water and
minerals.

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Kepelbagaian dalam Nutrisi Tumbuhan 4. Struktur akar yang panjang dan halus
3.3 Diversity in Plant Nutrition membolehkan rambut akar tumbuh di antara
zarah-zarah tanah.
Penyesuaian Nutrisi dalam Tumbuhan  he long and fine structures also help the root hairs to
T
The Nutritional Adaptations of Plants grow between the soil particles.
5. Sel rambut akar mempunyai banyak mitokondria
• (a) karnivor / Carnivorous
yang menjana ATP untuk pengangkutan aktif.
(b) parasit / Parasitic Root hair cells have many mitochondria to provide ATP
(c) Epifit / Epiphytes for active transport.
(a) Tumbuhan karnivor / Carnivorous plants (ii) • Akar dan batang mengalami tekanan yang berbeza.
fotosintesis; serangga; mineral / photosynthesis; insects; minerals Root and stem experience to different stresses.
(b) Tumbuhan parasit / Parasitic plants • Pergelangan berkas vaskular di tepi batang dapat
air; perumah / water; hosts menahan lenturan akibat angina.
(c) Tumbuhan epifit / Epiphytic plants Vascular bundles around edges of stem make it resistant to
pokok / plant bending in wind.
• nutrien / nutrients • Berkas vaskular di tengah akar dapat menahan daya
• hujan / rain mampatan.
Vascular bundles in the centre of the root makes it resistant to
PRAKTIS SPM 3 compression.
(b) (i)
Soalan Objektif Sebatian organik Fungsi
1. B 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. D Organic compound Function

Soalan Struktur 1. Asid amino Penghasilan protein untuk pertumbuhan

Amino acids sel / membekalkan tenaga / untuk respirasi
Bahagian A Production of proteins for cell growth / provide
energy / for respiration
1. (a) 1. Mineral diperlukan untuk membina molekul utama
seperti klorofil, asid amino, kalsium pektat dan ATP 2. Protein Pembahagian sel / mitosis / pertambahan
Minerals are needed to make critical molecules such as Proteins bilangan sel / pertambahan biomas atau
chlorophyll, amino acids, calcium pectate and ATP hasil tanaman / membran sel
2. Tanpa mineral tumbuhan tidak dapat tumbuh atau Cell division / mitosis / increase in cell number /
berfungsi dengan baik. increase in biomass or yield / cell membranes.
The plant cannot grow or function well without minerals
(b) Magnesium - Sebahagian molekul klorofil 3. Enzim Sintesis makromolekul / karbohidrat / asid
Magnesium - Part of chlorophyll molecule Enzymes amino / protein / lipid / asid nukleik / tindak
Kalsium - Digunakan untuk membina lamela tengah balas anabolisme / untuk fotosintesis /
dinding sel tumbuhan untuk respirasi
Calcium - Used to build the middle lamella of plant cell walls Synthesis of macromolecules / carbohydrates /
amino acids / proteins / lipids / nucleic acids /
Nitrat - Untuk membina asid amino / protein untuk anabolic reactions / for photosynthesis / for
membran sel, organel, enzim, pembawa elektron dalam respiration.
sel baharu
Nitrates - To make amino acids/ proteins for cell membranes, 4. Bes bernitrogen /
organelles, enzymes, electron carriers in the new cells Komponen asid nukleik / sintesis DNA / RNA
nukleotida Component of nucleic acids / synthesis of DNA /
(c) ion fosfat / phosphate ions Nitrogenous bases /
RNA
(d) (i) Tumbuhan memerlukan bekalan nitrat (untuk nitrogen) nucleotide
dan sulfat (untuk sulfur). (ii) Autotrof / Autotroph
A plant needs a supply of nitrate (for nitrogen) and sulphate 1. B
 ertindak sebagai pengeluar yang menjalankan
(for sulphur).
fotosintesis
(ii) Dari tanah / From the soil Acts as a producer which carries out photosynthesis
(c) Diangkut bersama air melalui salur xilem. 2. Mensintesis sebatian organik kompleks daripada
Transported in water up the xylem vessels
sebatian bukan organik
Synthesises complex organic compounds from inorganic
Bahagian B
compounds
1. (a) (i) 1. Akar menyerap air dan ion mineral dari tanah. 3. Menggunakan tenaga cahaya / Uses light energy
Roots absorbed water and mineral ions from the soil. Heterotrof / Heterotroph
2. Akar tidak dilitupi oleh kutikel, ini memolehkan 1. Memperoleh tenaga daripada sebatian organik
air meresap masuk ke dalam sel dengan mudah. kompleks / serangga / haiwan
The root is not covered by cuticle; hence water can Obtains energy from complex organic compounds /
diffuse into the cells easily. insects / animals
3. Banyak sel rambut akar berkembang dari 2. Pencernaan / penyerapan hasil terlarut
epidermis, ini meningkatkan luas permukaan digestion / absorption soluble products
untuk pengambilan air dan mineral. Bertindak sebagai pengguna / memakan organisma
Many epidermal cells develop root hairs which increase lain / Acts as a consumer / feeds on other organisms.
the surface area for water and minerals uptake.

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Salur xilem / Xylem vessels

BAB
Pengangkutan dalam Tumbuhan • pendek / shorter

4 Transportation in Plants •
•
besar / wider
kurang hujung tirus / Less tapered ends
• berliang / perforation
Tisu Vaskular
4.1 Vascular Tissues
Trakeid / Tracheids
• panjang / longer
Keperluan Pengangkutan dalam Tumbuhan
The Necessity of Transport in Plants
• kecil / smaller
• hujung tirus tertutup / with tapered ends
Tumbuhan memerlukan sistem pengangkutan • pit / pits
Plants need a transport system
Pandangan sisi / Side view
1. Pit / Pit
• Untuk mengangkut air dan ion mineral daripada akar melalui
xilem ke bahagian lain tumbuhan. Keratan rentas / Cross section
To transport water and minerals ions from the roots via xylem to other
parts of the plant.
Trakeid
– Untuk fotosintesis dan pertumbuhan Tracheids
For photosynthesis and growth

• Untuk mengangkut gula yang dihasilkan di daun melalui

floem Salur xilem
To transport sugars produced in leaves via phloem Xylem vessel
– Ke semua bahagian tumbuhan untuk respirasi dan
pertumbuhan
To all parts of the plant for respiration and growth
– Bahagian tumbuhan yang berbeza untuk simpanan dalam
bentuk kanji.
To a different part of the plant for storage in the form of starch.

(a) Xilem / Xylem

(b) Floem / Phloem
2. lignin; air / lignin; water
Kedua-dua xilem dan floem mengandungi lebih daripada satu • kekuatan / strength
jenis sel dan bersama-sama membentuk tisu vaskular.
3. Lumen / lumen
Both xylem and phloem contain more than one type of cell and together
they make the vascular tissue. • melekat / adhere
Keratan membujur / Longitudinal section
Penyesuaian Struktur Salur Xilem dan Trakeid dengan
Pengangkutan Air dan Garam Mineral
Structural Adaptations of Xylem Vessels and Tracheids to Transport
Water and Mineral Salts

Salur xilem Trakeid

Xylem vessel Tracheid Dinding sel tebal berlignin
Thick lignified cell wall

Liang
Pores
Pit Pit / Pit
Pits
Salur
xilem
Vessel
element

Tracheid
Tracheid 4. mati; sitoplasma / Dead; cytoplasm
• berterusan / continuous
5. hujung / end
• berongga / hollow

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Penyesuaian Struktur Tiub Tapis dan Sel Rakan dengan Pengangkutan Bahan Organik
Structural Adaptations of Sieve Tubes and Companion Cells to The Transportation of Organic Substances

Tisu floem / Phloem tissue

Tiub tapis / Sieve tubes Sel rakan / Companion cells

Tiub tapis
Sieve tube

Plat tapis
Sieve plate

Nukleus / Nucleus
Liang / Pore

Sel rakan
Companion cell

Keratan rentas / Cross section

Tiub tapis
Sieve tube
Sel rakan
Sel rakan mempunyai / Companion cell has:
Companion cell
• Sitoplasma yang mengandungi nukleus, banyak mitokondria,
Jasad Golgi dan jalinan endoplasma.
Cytoplasm contains a nucleus, many mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Bersebelahan tiub tapis, membekalkan ATP dan nutrien.
Accompany sieve tubes, provide ATP and nutrients.
Plat tapis
Sieve plate

Nukleus
Nucleus

Keratan membujur / Longitudinal section

Tiub tapis / Sieve tube member:

• Tiub silinder yang panjang dan sempit dari hujung ke hujung.
Cylindrical column of long, narrow cells arranged end to end.
• Sel hidup / Living cells
• Apabila matang, tiada nukleus dan sitoplasma ditolak ke tepi sel.
When mature, it has no nucleus and its cytoplasm is pushed to the side of the cell.
Sel rakan
Companion cell

Plat tapis / Sieve plate:

• Dinding hujung sel berliang
A perforated end wall
• Membenarkan aliran sap floem melalui liang tapis.
Allowing mass flow of phloem sap through the sieve pores.

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Pengangkutan Air dan Garam Mineral Gutasi dalam Tumbuhan

4.2 Transport of Water and Mineral Salts Gutation in Plants

1. air; bukaan / water; openings

2. malam; tertutup; osmosis / night; closed; osmosis
3. transpirasi; kelembapan / transpiration; moisture
4. tekanan akar / root pressure
Perbandingan antara Gutasi dengan Transpirasi dalam Tumbuhan
Comparison between Guttation and Transpiration in Plants
H 2O Persamaan / Similarities
• air berlebihan / excess water
H 2O
Perbezaan / Differences
Gutasi / Guttation Transpirasi / Transpiration
1. titisan; hidatod 1. wap; stoma
H 2O H2O droplets; hydathodes vapour; stomata
2. malam; rendah / night; low 2. siang; tinggi / day; high
C. Tarikan transpirasi / Transpirational pull
1. tersejat / evaporates 3. mineral / minerals 3. tulen / pure
2. tepu / saturated 4. meningkatkan / enhances 4. mengurangkan / reduces
3. meresap; stoma; mengurangkan / diffuses; stomata; reduces
4. osmosis / osmosis 5. tidak / cannot 5. dapat / can
5. xilem / xylem 6. kelayuan / wilting 6. kelayuan / wilting
6. Tarikan transpirasi / Transpiration pull
Keadaan Tumbuhan yang Tidak Menjalankan Transpirasi dan Gutasi
Matahari The Condition of Plants that Do Not Undergo Transpiration and Guttation
Sunlight C
C • penyesuaian / modifications

Tindakan kapilari
Capillary action

B Duri daun disesuaikan untuk menghalang

B herbivor.
Spines are leaves adapted to deter herbivores.

A Bebawang mempunyai daun

disesuaikan untuk menyimpan air dan
makanan.
B. Tindakan kapilari / Capillary action
Bulb with fleshy leaves adapted for storage of
1. lekitan; lekatan / cohesive; adhesive water and food.
2. xilem; berterusan / xylem; continuous
A. Tekanan akar / Root pressure

3 2 1
Translokasi
4.3 Translocation

Translokasi / Translocation
• organik; disimpan / organic; stored
• floem / phloem
1. sukrosa; aktif / sucrose; actively
2. meresap; osmosis / diffuse; osmosis
3&4. tekanan hidrostatik / hydrostatic pressure
1. tinggi; osmosis / higher; osmosis 5. pengangkutan aktif / active transport
2. bersebelahan / adjacent 6. tinggi; osmosis / high; osmosis
3. korteks; tekanan akar / cortex; root pressure

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Peranan Tisu Floem dalam Pengangkutan Bahan Organik Keperluan Translokasi dalam Tumbuhan
The Role of Phloem Tissue in the Transport of Organic Substances The Necessity of Translocation in Plants
• organik; daun / organic; leaves
Keputusan / Results Penerangan / Explaination • diguna; disimpan / used; stored
• simpanan; buah; akar / storage; fruits; roots
• simpanan; kudup; bunga / storage; buds; flowers
• bertambah; berkurang • Floem / phloem
increases; decreases • Bengkak / swelling Fitoremediasi
4.4 Phytoremediation
• bengkak; layu • Layu; xilem; air / wilt; xylem; water
swells; wither • Mati; nutrien / die; nutrients Fitoremediasi / Phytoremediation
• tanah; perairan; air / soils; waters; groundwater

Logam sebagai bahan cemar dan

tidak penting untuk tumbuhan
Metals as contaminants and are non-
essential for plants: Bahan cemar meruap dan bebas ke atmosfera.
• Arsenik / Arsenic (As) Contaminants are volatilised and released into the
atmosphere.
• Kadmium / Cadmium (Cd)
Fitovolatilisasi
• Kromium / Chromium (Cr)
Phytovolatilisation
• Merkuri / Mercury (Hg)
• Nikel / Nickel (Ni)
• Plumbum / Lead (Pb)
• Selenium / Selenium (Se)
• Uranium / Uranium (U)
• Vanadium / Vanadium (V)
• Wolfram / Wolfram (W)

Bahan cemar terkumpul dan

dibuang.
Contaminants are accumulated Bahan cemar terurai oleh
and removed. enzim tertentu.
Fitodegradasi Contaminants are degraded by
Fitoekstrakan Phytodegradation specific enzymes.
Phytoextraction

Fitostimulasi
Phytostimulation
Fitoekstrakan
Phytoextraction

Bahan cemar terkumpul dan

dibuang.
Contaminants are accumulated and
removed.
Bahan cemar terurai oleh enzim
tertentu.
Fitodegradasi Contaminants are degraded by specific
Fitostabilasasi Phytodegradation enzymes.
Phytostabilisation

Bahan cemar termendak dan

disekatgerak.
Contaminants are precipitated and
immobilise.

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Penggunaan Fitoremediasi dalam Kehidupan (c) 1. U

 ntuk menghasilkan kesan penyejukan kepada
The Uses of Phytoremediation in Life
tumbuhan / mengekalkan suhu tumbuhan
1. hijau / green To produces a cooling effect on plants / maintains plants
temperature
• menyingkir / remove
• air menyerap haba daripada tumbuhan
2. bersihkan / purify water absorb heat from the plants
• menyerap / absorb • untuk menyejat / menjadi wap air
3. bersihkan / purify to evaporate / become water vapour
• menyingkir / remove 2. Mewujudkan tarikan transpirasi yang membantu
Eksperimen 4.1 penyerapan air dan mineral
Creates transpirational pull which aids in the absorption of
A. Pencemaran air / Water pollution water and minerals
Perbincangan / Discussion • m
 embolehkan aliran air berterusan dari tanah ke
1. • Paku pakis air / water ferns (Salvinia minima) akar dan seterusnya ke daun
• Lemna / duckweeds (Lemna minor)  llows continuous flow of water from the soil into the
a
roots and to the leaves
• Kiambang / water lettuce (Pistia stratoites)
2. Punca / Cause 3. Untuk kesegahan tumbuhan / mengekalkan tekanan
Air sisa tanpa rawatan daripada domestik, perindustrian, osmosis tumbuhan
For turgidity of the plant / maintain osmotic pressure of the
pertanian dan penternakan plant
Untreated wastewater from domestic, industrial, agricultural and farming
• menyokong tumbuhan / sokongan mekanikal
Bahan pencemar / Pollutants support the plant / mechanical support
Racun perosak, minyak, pewarna, organik toksik, fosforus,
4.  enghasilkan pengangkutan air dan mineral di
M
pepejal terampai, dan logam berat
Pesticides, oils, dyes, toxic organics, phosphorous, suspended solids,
sepanjang salur xilem
Results in the transport of water and minerals along the
and heavy metals
xylem vessels
B. Pencemaran tanih / Soil pollution • untuk fotosintesis / pertumbuhan tanaman
Perbincangan / Discussion photosynthesis for the growth of the plant
1. membuang segala kehidupan dalam tanah
get rid of all the living thing in the soil. Bahagian B
2. logam berat; merkuri / heavy metals; mercury 2. (a) (i) X: Floem / Phloem
Kesimpulan / Conclusion Y: Xilem / Xylem
tanah / soil (ii) 1. Mempunyai dinding sel berlignin
It has lignified wall

PRAKTIS SPM 4 • T
 eguh dan kuat untuk mengelakkan Y daripada
runtuh
Tough and strong to prevent Y from collapsing
Soalan Objektif • Untuk menahan tekanan air
To withstand water pressure
1. A 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. D 6. C
7. B 8. C 9. B 10. B 11. C 2. Mempunyai tiub berongga yang panjang dan
sempit
Soalan Struktur It has long and narrow hollow continuous tube
• Terbuka di kedua-dua hujung / Open at both ends
Bahagian A
• Memastikan aliran air secara berterusan
1. (a) Ensure continuous flow of water
• D
 engan menghasilkan tindakan kapilari melalui
Keratan rentas kawasan X Keratan rentas kawasan Y daya lekatan dan lekitan
Transverse section of region X Transverse section of region Y By creates capillary action through adhesion and
cohesion forces.
3. Mempunyai pit di dinding sel / Has Pit in cell wall
• Membenarkan air bergerak keluar dari salur xilem
ke salur xilem yang lain atau ke tisu bersebelahan.
Allows movement of water out of the vessel element to
other vessel elements or to neighbouring tissues.
(b) Persamaan / Similarities
1. Keduanya adalah tisu pengangkutan di tumbuhan
Both are transport tissues in plant
2.  Kedua-duanya terdiri daripada sel yang bergabung
dari hujung ke hujung membentuk tiub berongga yang
panjang
Both made up of cells joined end to end forming
long, hollow tube
3.  Kedua-duanya mengangkut bahan di tumbuhan
(b) (i) Tarikan transpirasi / Transpirational pull Both transport materials around plant

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Perbezaan / Differences
BAB
Xilem / Xylem Floem / Phloem
Gerak Balas dalam Tumbuhan
Terdiri daripada sel-sel Terdiri daripada sel 5 Response in Plants

berkayu / berlignin yang hidup / tidak berlignin

bukan sel hidup (mati) bergabung bersama
Jenis Gerak Balas
yang bergabung bersama untuk membentuk 5.1 Types of Responses
untuk membentuk tiub tiub dengan plat tapis
berterusan berliang Jenis Gerak Balas Tumbuhan
Struktur Consists of non-living (dead) Consists of living cells / Types of Plant Responses
Structure woody / lignified cells joined not lignified joined together
together to form continuous to form tubes with perforated 1. rangsangan; cahaya / stimuli; light
tubes sieve plates between them Gerak balas tropisme / Tropism Responses
Xilem mempunyai Sel floem matang tidak (a) berarah; tidak berbalik; hormon
lumen besar / berongga mempunyai nukleus directional; irreversible; hormonal
Xylem have wide lumen / Mature phloem cells have
hollow tubes no nucleus
(i) Fototropisme; cahaya / Phototropism; light
(ii) graviti / gravity
Mengangkut air dan ion Mengangkut zat terlarut
Bahan yang mineral dan menyokong organik dari daun ke (iii) sentuhan / touch
diangkut tumbuhan seluruh tumbuhan (iv) Kemotropisme; garam mineral
Substances Transports water and Transports organic solutes Chemotropism; mineral salts
transported mineral ions and supports around plant from leaves (v) Hidrotropisme; air / Hydrotropism; water
plant
Gerak balas nasti / Nastic Responses
Sehala - Mengangkut air Dua hala : mengangkut
Arah ke atas melalui batang bahan ke atas dan ke (b) tidak / Non-directional
pengangkutan dari akar ke daun bawah batang (i) Seismonasti; kejutan; sentuhan; tiupan angin; titisan hujan
Direction of Unidirectional – transports Bidirectional: Transport Seismonasty; shock; touch; wind; raindrops
transport: water up the stem from material up and down the (ii) cahaya / light
roots to leaves stem
(iii) Termonasti; suhu / Thermonasty; temperatures
Pengangkutan
Pengangkutan (iv) sirkadian / circadian
bergantung kepada
Mekanisme (v) Thigmonasty; getaran / Tigmonasti; vibration
bergantung kepada pengangkutan aktif
pengangkutan
Mechanism of
tarikan transpirasi. sukrosa di daun.
Transport depends on Transport depends on Perbandingan antara Gerak Balas Tropisme dan Gerak Balas Nasti
transport dalam Tumbuhan
transpirational pull. active loading of sucrose at
sources. Comparison between Tropism and Nastic Responses in Plants

Pergerakan akibat
rangsangan luar Gerak balas
Gerak balas berarah Movement induced by tidak berarah
Directional response external stimuli Non-directional
response

Pergerakan adalah
Pergerakan tidak berbalik
The movements
berbalik
The movements are
are irreversible
reversible

Gerak balas
Gerak balas nasti
tropisme Nastic response
Tropism response
Pergerakan perlahan Pergerakan pantas
Slow movements Quick movements

Berlaku di batang
Pergerakan penting untuk Berlaku di daun
atau akar Occurs at leaves
Occurs at stem or roots kemandirian tumbuhan
Vital movements for the survival
of a plant

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Fitohormon Akar / Roots

5.2 Phytohormone • Auksin / Auxin
• Auksin / Auxin
1. Fitohormon; gerak balas; perkembangan • Etilena / Ethylene
Phytohormone; response; development
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin
2. kesan / effects
Kesan Auksin Terhadap Gerak Balas Pertumbuhan
Fungsi Fitohormon The Effects of Auxins on Growth Response
The Functions of Phytohormones
1. (a) merangsang / promote
1. (a) Auksin / Auxin (b) merangsang; merencat / promote; inhibit
(b) Giberelin / Gibberellin (c) merencat / inhibit
(c) Sitokinin / Cytokinin (d) akar; pucuk / root; shoot
(d) Asid absisik / Abscisic acid (e) akar; pucuk / root; shoot
(e) Etilena / Ethylene
2. Fungsi fitohormon / The functions of phytohormones Peranan Auksin dalam Gerak Balas Tumbuhan
The Roles of Auxin in Plant Responses
Batang / Stem
• Auksin; giberelin / Auxin; gibberellins Peranan auksin dalam gerak balas fototropisme
Daun / Leaf The role of auxin in phototropism:
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid 1. hujung; bawah; tegak / tip; down; straight
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin 2. sehala; teduh / one direction; shaded
• Etilena / Ethylene 3. teduh / shaded
• Auksin / Auxin 4. memanjang / elongate
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid 5. fototropisme / phototropism
Tunas lateral / Lateral bud Peranan auksin dalam gerak balas geotropisme
• Auksin / Auxin The role of auxin in geotropism
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin 1. pucuk; akar / shoot; root
Meristem apeks pucuk / Shoot apical meristem 2. graviti; bawah / gravity; lower
• Auksin / Auxin 3. merangsang / promotes
• Sitokinin / Cytokinin 4. merencat / inhibits
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid 5. membengkok; Geotropisme / bends; geotropism
• Etilena / Ethylene 6. membengkok; Geotropisme / bends; geotropism
Bunga / Flower
Aplikasi Fitohormon dalam Pertanian
• Auksin / Auxin 5.3 Application of Phytohormones in Agriculture
• Etilena / Ethylene
Aplikasi Fitohormon dalam Pertanian
Buah / Fruit Application of Phytohormones in Agriculture
• Auksin; giberelin / Auxin; gibberellins
• Etilena / Ethylene (a) Auksin / auxins
Biji benih / Seed (b) Auksin; partenokarpi / auxins; parthenocarpy
• Sitokinin; giberelin / Cytokinin; gibberellins (c) Auksin; racun / auxins; killer
• Asid absisik / Abscisic acid (d) Etilena / ethylene
(e) Auksin; akar / auxins; root
Eksperimen 5.1
Pemerhatian / Observation

Awal eksperimen
Selepas hari ke-1 Selepas hari ke-2
At the beginning of
After day 1 After day 2
Beg plastik the experiment Pemasakan
Plastic beg Ripening
Keadaan buah pir Keadaan buah pir Ujian kanji Keadaan buah pir Ujian kanji
Condition of pears Condition of pears Starch test Condition of pears Starch test

Keras Keras Berwarna biru tua Tidak masak

A1 – –
Hard Hard Highly stained Unripe

Keras Sederhana Sedikit berwarna Masak

B1 – –
Hard Intermediate Stained Ripe

Keras Keras Berwarna biru tua Tidak masak

A2 – –
Hard Hard Dark blue stained Unripe

Terlalu
Keras Lembut Tiada berwarna
B2 – – masak
Hard Soft Unstained
Overripe

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Perbincangan / Discussion •  leh kerana aukin disintesiskan di hujung pucuk,

O
1. Beg plastik B – yang ada buah pisang aukin akan bergerak ke bawah dan berkumpul di
Plastic bag B – with banana bahagian bawah pucuk.
2. Buah semakin berwarna, semakin banyak kanji dan semakin Since auxins are synthesised in the shoot tip, they will move
down and accumulate on the lower side of the shoot.
tidak masak.Sebaliknya, buah semakin kurang berwarna, lebih
masak. •  el di bahagian bawah memanjang dengan cepat
S
The more stain the fruit shows, the more starch it contains and the less daripada bahagian atas.
ripe it is. Conversely, the less stain the fruit shows, the riper the fruit is.\ The lower cells elongate rapidly than the upper side.
3. Etilena / Ethylene • Maka, pucuk membengkok ke atas.
As a result, the shoot bends upwards.
4. • Mempercepatkan pemasakan buah
Ethylene speed up the ripening of fruits •  pabila pucuk menegak, penyebaran auksin menjadi
A
• Merangsang penghasilan enzim selulase yang simetri.
Once the shoot tip is vertical, the distribution of auxins
menghidrolisis selulosa dinding sel, dan buah menjadi
become symmetrical.
lembut
Stimulating the production of cellulase which hydrolyses the • Maka, batang tumbuh tegak ke arah cahaya.
cellulose in the cell walls, making the fruit soft. Hence, the stem then grows straight up towards the light.
• Merangsang penukaran kanji kepada gula. • Ini menunjukkan fototropisme positif/ geotropism
Promotes the conversion of starch to sugar negatif.
This shows positive phototropism/ negative geotropism.
•  uksin yang diangkut dari pucuk ke akar akan
A
PRAKTIS SPM 5 berkumpul di bahagian bawah akar.
Auxin which is transported from the shoot down to the root
will also accumulate on the lower side of the root.
Soalan Objektif
•  epekatan auksin yang tinggi yang menyebabkan
K
1. C 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. C pemanjangan pucuk akan merencatkan pemanjangan
6. A 7. B 8. B sel akar.
High concentration of auxin that causes elongation of the
Soalan Struktur shoot inhibits the cell elongation in the root.
•  ahagian bawah hujung akar memanjang lebih lambat
B
Bahagian A
berbanding dengan bahagian atas.
1. (a) •  ujung pucuk / The tip
H The lower side of the root elongates slower than the upper side.
• Ini kerana jika dipotong atau rangsangan tersekat, • Maka, akar membengkok ke bawah.
tiada pembengkokan berlaku As a result, the root bend downwards.
Because if it is removed or blocked from the stimullus no •  pabila akar telah bergerak ke bawah, penyebaran
A
bending growth movement occurs. auksin menjadi seragam pada kedua-dua sisi.
•  embengkokan berlaku jika bahagian bawah
P Once the root is pointing directly downwards, the auxin
koleoptil ditutupi penutup legap distribution becomes equal on all sides.
Bending growth movement occurred if the lower part of the • Akar terus memanjang ke bawah.
coleoptile is covered with opaque shield The root continues to go straight downwards.
(b) Untuk menunjukkan bahawa kegagalan gerak balas • Ini menunjukkan fototropisme negatif/ geotropism
hujung koleoptil di susunan III bukan disebabkan oleh positif.
hujung koleoptil yang dipotong. This shows negative phototropisme/ positive geotropism.
To show that the failure to produce response in set-up III is not (b) •  uksin berkumpul di bahagian bawah hujung pucuk
A
due to the removal of the tip. akibat tarikan graviti.
(c) • Terdapat bahan yang dihasilkan di hujung koleoptil Auxin is accumulated at the underside of the shoot due to gravity.
Some substances are produced from the tip of the coleoptiles •  epekatan auksin yang tinggi merangsang
K
• Yang meresap melalui blok agar pertumbuhan pucuk.
Which can diffuse through the agar block High concentration of auxin stimulates growth in shoot.
• Ke bahagian bawah koleoptil
To reach the lower part of the coleoptile
•  leh itu sel-sel di bahagian bawah hujung pucuk
O
•  an membolehkan bahagian bawah hujung koleptil
D bertumbuh dan memanjang lebih cepat.
Therefore, the cells at the underside of the shoot grow and
membengkok elongate faster.
And lead to bending growth at the lower part of the coleoptile
• Akibatnya pucuk geotropisme negatif.
(d) Melebihi 100 mg/L pertumbuhan pucuk atau akar terencat This results the shoot showing negative geotropism.
More than 100 mg/L the shoot growth is inhibited
•  uksin berkumpul di bahagian bawah hujung akar
A
Melebihi 10 mg/L pertumbuhan akar terencat
More than 10 mg/L the root growth is inhibited
akibat tarikan graviti.
Auxin is accumulated at the underside of the root due to
Bahagian B gravity.
•  epekatan auksin yang tinggi merencatkan
K
1. (a) •  alam situasi Q, apabila pasu diletakkan
D pertumbuhan akar.
secara mengufuk, kedua-dua cahaya dan graviti High concentration of auxin inhibits growth in root.
menyebabkan auksin diangkut ke bahagian bawah • Pemanjangan sel pada bahagian bawah akar terencat
pucuk dan akar. Cell elongation at the underside of root is inhibited.
In situation Q, when the pot is placed horizontally, both light
and gravity causes auxins to be transported to the lower side
• Akibatnya akar menunjukkan geotropisme positif.
This results the root showing positive geotropism.
of both the shoot and root.

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(c) •  isang yang telah masak akan membebaskan

P
BAB Pembiakan Seks dalam Tumbuhan
etilena dalam bentuk gas.
Berbunga
6
The ripe bananas will release ethylene in the form of gas.
•  tilena akan merangsang / menggalakkan pemasakan
E Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
buah epal. \
Ethylene will stimulate / promote ripening apple.
Struktur Bunga
•  nzim dihasilkan untuk memecahkan dinding sel /
E 6.1 Structure of a Flower
menghidrolisiskan kanji kepada gula / melupuskan
kandungan klorofil dalam buah. Struktur Bunga
Enzyme is produced to break down the cell walls / hydrolyse Structure of a Flower
starch into sugars / degrades the chlorophyll content in the
1. Bunga / Flower
fruits.
2. pedunkel; sepal; petal; karpel; stamen
•  uah epal menjadi lebih lembut / lebih banyak gula /
B
peduncle; sepal; petal; carpel; stamen
perubahan warna.
The apple fruits become soften / increase in sugar / change 3. Keratan membujur sekuntum bunga:
colour. Longitudinal section of a flower:

Organ pembiakan jantan Stamen Karpel Organ pembiakan betina

Male reproductive organs Stamen Carpel Female reproductive organs

Stigma Menerima debunga

Stigma Receives the pollen grains
Anter
Menghasilkan debunga yang
Anther
membawa gamet jantan
Produces pollen grains which carry
male gamete
Stil Menyokong stigma
Style Supports the stigma

Filamen / Filmament Ovari / Ovary

Menyokong anter Mengandungi ovul

Supports the anther Contains ovule

Ovul / Ovule
Petal / Petal

Menghasilkan ovum
Produces ovum
Biasanya berwarna-warni
dan bau wangi untuk menarik
serangga pendebungaan
May be brightly coloured and scented Sepal Melindungi kudup bunga
to attract pollinating insects Sepal Protects the flower bud

Pedunkel / Peduncle

Menyokong bunga
Supports the flower

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Perbandingan antara Struktur Jantan dengan Struktur Betina dalam Bunga

Comparison between Male and Female Structures in a Flower

Bahagian jantan bunga / Male flower part Bahagian betina bunga / Female flower part

Stigma
Debunga Stigma
Pollen grain

Stil
Style
Filamen
Filament

Ovari Ovul
Anter Ovary Ovule
Anther

(a) Stamen : Berada di luar karpel (b) Karpel : Berada di dalam bunga
Stamen : Occurs outside the carpel Carpel : Occurs at the centre of the flower

(c) Setiap stamen terdiri daripada filamen panjang, dengan anter

(d) Karpel terdiri daripada ovari, stil dan stigma di bahagian atas.
berada di bahagian atasnya.
A carpel contains an ovary, style and stigma at the top.
Each stamen made up of a long filament, with an anther at the top.

(f) Di dalam ovari terdapat banyak ovul yang mengandungi gamet

(e) Anter menghasilkan debunga yang mengandungi gamet jantan.
betina.
The anther produces pollen grains, which contain the male gametes.
Inside the ovary are many ovules, which contain the female gametes.

(g) Anter membebaskan debunga ke persekitaran semasa

(h) Stigma menerima debunga.
pendebungaan.
Stigma receives pollen grains.
The anther releases pollen grains to the environment during pollination.

Pembentukan Debunga dan Pundi Embrio

6.2 Development of Pollen Grains and Embryo Sac Pundi debunga
Pembentukan Debunga dalam Anter Pollen sacs
The Formation of Pollen Grains in an Anther
Sel induk mikrospora (2n)
Microspore mother cell (2n)

Sel induk
Anter mikrospora
Anther Microspore
mother cell Nukleus
Nucleus

Nukleus penjana
Generative
Debunga nucleus
Pollen grain
Nukleus tiub
Tube nucleus

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1. pundi debunga / pollen sacs 1. pundi embrio / embryo sac

2. sel induk mikrospora / microspore mother cells 2. megaspora; meiosis; megaspora
3. meiosis / meiosis megaspore; meiosis; megaspores
4. debunga / pollen 3. merosot / disintegrate
5. tiub; penjana / tube; generative 4. mitosis; lapan / mitosis; eight
5. • telur; sinergid / egg; synergid
Pembentukan Pundi Embrio dalam Ovul • kutub / polar
The Formation of Embryo Sac in an Ovule • antipodal / antipodal

Pendebungaan dan Persenyawaan

6.3 Pollination and Fertilisation

1. debunga; anter; stigma / pollen; anther; stigma

2. jantan; persenyawaan / male; fertilisation
3. sel telur; diploid; nukleus kutub; triploid
Ovul egg cell; diploid; polar nuclei; triploid
Ovule (a) gula; percambahan; tiub debunga
germination; sugary: pollen tube
(b) stil; ovul; enzim / style; ovule; enzymes
(c) penjana; mitosis; jantan / generative; mitosis; male
(d) ovul / ovule
Sel induk megaspora (2n)
Megaspore mother cell (2n)
Tiub debunga / Pollen tube

Gamet jantan / Male gametes

Sel antipodal
Antipodal cells
Integumen Nukleus tiub / Tube nucleus
Meiosis
Integument Meiosis

Sel sinergid
Megaspora (n) Synergid cells
Megaspores (n) Megaspora
hidup (e) mikropil; merosot / micropyle; disintegrates
Surviving (f) jantan; telur; zigot; embrio / male; egg; zygote; embryo
megaspore
(g) jantan; kutub; endosperma / male; polar; endosperm

Mitosis (3 kali) Kepentingan Persenyawaan Ganda Dua dalam Kemandirian

Mitosis (3 times) Tumbuhan Berbunga
Importance of Double Fertilisation for the Survival of Flowering Plants

1. endosperma / endosperm
Lapan nukleus 2. nutrien / nutrients
dalam sitoplasma 3. percambahan / germination
Sel antipodal Eight nuclei
Antipodal cell Perkembangan Biji Benih dan Buah
within cytoplasm
6.4 Development of Seeds amd Fruits

Persenyawaan Ganda Dua dengan Perkembangan Biji Benih dan Buah

Double Fertilisation and Development of Seeds and Fruits

Nukleus kutub 1. biji benih; buah / seed; fruit

Polar nuclei 2. melindungi / protection
3. layu / wither
Sel telur (n)
Egg cell (n) Biji benih
The seed

Sel sinergid
Synergid cells 1. bunga / flower
2. zigot; ovari / zygote; ovary
3. buah; biji benih / fruit; seed

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Bunga selepas persenyawaan / Flower after fertilisation

Buah
Fruit
Parut
Scar
Stigma dan stil
Remains of stigma
and style
Bijih benih
Seed
Petal
Layu dan
gugur
Wither and Stamen Kulit biji benih
Ovul
fall off Seed coat
Sepal Ovule

Ovari Integumen
Ovary Integument Buah
Fruit

Struktur Biji Benih dengan Ovul

The Structure of Seeds to Ovules

Kulit biji benih

Integumen Seed coat
Integuments
Biji benih matang terdiri daripada embrio dan makanan
(disimpan di kotiledon atau endosperma).
Endosperma A mature seed contains an embryo and food (stored in the
Nukleus endosperma Endosperm cotyledons or endosperm).
Endosperm nucleus

Zigot Embrio
Zygote Biji benih diselaputi oleh kulit bijih benih keras, yang
Embryo
berasal daripada lapisan integumen ovul.
The seed is surrounded by a tough, seed coat derived from the
integuments which are the outermost layers of an ovule.
Ovul tersenyawa
Fertilised ovule

Struktur Buah dan Ovari

The Structure of Fruits to Ovary

1. Buah / fruit
2. Terdapat empat jenis buah / They are four types of fruits:

Jenis buah
Types of fruits

Buah ringkas Buah agregat Buah berganda Buah aksesori

Simple fruit Aggregate fruit Multiple fruit Accessories fruit

Buah berkembang daripada tisu

Buah berkembang daripada
Buah berkembang daripada Buah berkembang daripada selain ovari. Bagi buah epal, ovari
banyak karpel di banyak bunga
satu karpel atau beberapa banyak karpel di satu kuntum berada di dalam reseptakel.
yang bercantum.
karpel di satu kuntum bunga. bunga. The fruit develops largely from tissues
The fruit develops from many carpels
Fruit develops from a single carpel Fruit develops from many separate other than the ovary. In the apple fruit,
of the many flowers that form an
or several carpels of one flower. carpel of one flower. the ovary is embedded in a fleshy
inflorescence.
receptacle.

Contoh: kacang pis, lemon Contoh: raspberi, strawberi Contoh: nanas Contoh: epal
Example: pea, lemon Example: raspberry, strawberry Example: pineapple Example: apple

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Kepentingan Biji Benih untuk Kemandirian

6.5 Importance of Seeds for Survival

Biji benih kekal dorman dalam keadaan persekitaran yang tidak sesuai untuk percambahan termasuk
kekangan suhu atau air.
Seeds maintain dormancy under unfavourable environmental conditions for germination including temperature or water
restrictions.

Kepentingan Biji benih memberi perlindungan maksimum kepada anak benih pada peringkat awal perkembangan.
biji benih untuk Seeds afford maximum protection to the young plant at its early stage of development.
kemandirian
The importance of
seeds for survival
Biji benih mempunyai makanan simpanan untuk perkembangan anak benih sebelum fotosintesis bermula.
Seeds contain stored food that allows young plant to develop before photosynthesis begins.

Biji benih disesuaikan untuk penyebaran, ini membantu perpindahan gen tumbuhan ke habitat baru.
Seeds are adapted for dispersal, facilitates the migration of plant genotypes into new habitats.

Bahagian B
PRAKTIS SPM 6
1. (a)
• Butir debunga terbentuk dalam anter, satu anter
mempunyai empat kantung debunga.
Soalan Objektif Pollen grains are formed in the anther, an ather has four
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. C pollen sacs.
• Setiap kantung debunga mengandungi ratusan sel
Soalan Struktur yang dikenal sebagai sel induk debunga (2n).
Each pollen sac contains hundreds of cells called pollen
Bahagian A
mother cells (2n).
1. (a)
J: Ovul / Ovule • Setiap sel induk debunga mengalami meiosis untuk
K: Pundi embrio / Embryo sac membentuk empat sel debunga yang haploid/
(b) mikrospora (n).
Sel antipodal The microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form four
Antipodal cells haploid microspore cells (n).
• Nukleus setiap mikrospora membahagi secara mitosis
untuk membentuk nukleus tiub dan nukleus penjana.
The nucleus in each microspore divides by mitosis to produce
Nukleus kutub
tube nucleus and generative nucleus.
Polar nuclei
(b) • Ovul berkembang dari tisu ovari.
Sel telur The ovule develops from the ovarian tissue.
Egg cell
• Di dalam ovul terdapat tisu parenkima.
Inside the ovule is a parenchyma tissue.
Sel sinergid • Hanya satu sel megaspore/ sel induk embrio (2n)
Synergid cells membesar.
Only one diploid cell megaspore/ embryo sac mother cell (2n)
(c) (i) • Satu nukleus jantan bergabung dengan sel telur enlarges.
One male nucleus fuse with an egg cell
• S
 atu lagi nukleus jantan bergabung dengan dua • Sel induk embrio menjalani meiosis untuk membentuk
nukleus kutub empat sel haploid/ megapsora.
Another male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei Embryo sac mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploid
cells/ megaspores.
• Persenyawaan ganda dua berlaku
Double fertilisation occurs • Tiga daripada empat megaspora merosot, meninggalkan
(ii) • Ovul tidak disenyawakan satu di dalam ovul.
The ovule has not been fertilised Three of the four megaspores degenerated, leaving one in the
ovule.
• Embrio tidak membesar
The embryo stops growing • Megaspora yang tertinggal membesar dan nukleus
(d) Simpan di tempat kering/ sejuk yang kedap udara menjalani mitosis tiga kali untuk membentuk lapan
Place in dry/ cool place which is air tight nukleus.
The left megaspore enlarges and nucleus undergoes mitosis
three times to form eight haploid nuclei.

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• Tiga daripada lapan nukleus (berpindah ke hujung

BAB
sel) untuk membentuk sel antipodal, dua lagi nukleus Penyesuaian Tumbuhan pada Habitat
membentuk nukleus polar dan satu daripada tiga
nukleus lagi berkembang membentuk sel telur dan dua 7 Adaptations of Plants in Different Habitats

lagi menjadi sel sinergid.

Three of the eight nuclei (move to one end of the cell) to form
Penyesuaian Tumbuhan
antipodal cells, two nuclei form polar nuclei and another three 7.1 Adaptations of Plants
nuclei will develop to form an egg cell and two synergid cells.
(c) • Butir debunga dibebaskan oleh anter dipindahkan oleh Pengelasan Tumbuhan Berdasarkan Habitat
Classification of Plants Based on Habitats
lebah ke stigma, pendebungaan berlaku.
Pollen grains released by anther are transferred by bees to 1. Adaptasi / Adaptation
the stigma, pollination occurs.
2. daun; akar; batang / leaves; roots; stems
• Stigma merembes sukrosa untuk merangsang
3. (a) garam / salt content
percambahan butir debunga untuk membentuk tiub
debunga. (b) air / water
Stigma secretes sucrose to stimulate the germination of pollen (c) panas / hot
grains to produce pollen tube. (d) tawar / freshwater
• Nukleus tiub merembes enzim untuk menghidrolisis
tisu stil dan mengarah pertumbuhan tiub debunga Ciri Penyesuaian Tumbuhan Hidrofit, Halofit dan Xerofit
Adaptive Features of Hydrophytes, Halophytes dan Xerophytes
dalam stil.
Tube nucleus secretes enzyme to hydrolyse the style tissues (a) (i) nipis; kecil; air / thin; small; water
and direct the growth of pollen tube down the style.
(ii) kutikel; stomata / cuticle; stomata
• Tiub debunga tumbuh di sepanjang stil untuk memasuki
(iii) air / water
ovul melalui mikropil.
Pollen tube grows along style to enter ovule via the micropyle. (iv) duri; air / spines; water
(v) kutikel / cuticle
• Nukleus penjana dalam tiub debunga membahagi secara
mitosis untuk menghasilkan dua nukleus jantan. (vi) Akar; air / roots; water
Generative nucleus in the pollen tube divides mitotically to (b) (i) stomata / stomata
produce two male nuclei. (ii) lentisel / lenticels
• Pada mikropil, nukleus tiub merosot, hujung tiub debunga (iii) pneumatofor / pneumatophores
pecah. (iv) stomata; batang / stomata; stems
At the micropyle, the tube nucleus degenerates, the tip of
pollen tube burst open. (c) (i) aerenkima; keapungan / Aerenchyma; buoyancy
(ii) keapungan / buoyancy
• Nukleus jantan masuk ke dalam pundi embrio.
Male nuclei enter into the embryo sac. (iii) jangkang / prop
• Satu nukleus jantan bergabung dengan nukleus sel telur (iv) panjang / deep
untuk membentuk zigot diploid. (d) (i) lebar; fotosintesis / Broad; photosynthesis
One male nucleus fuse with egg cell nucleus to form a diploid (ii) besar; fotosintesis / large; photosynthesis
zygote. (iii) Batang; fotosintesis / stems; photosynthesis
• Satu lagi nukleus jantan bergabung dengan dua nukleus
kutub untuk membentuk nukleus endosperma triploid.
Other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to form a
triploid endosperm nucleus.
PRAKTIS SPM 7
• Persenyawaan ganda dua berlaku.
Double fertilisation occurs. Soalan Objektif
• Selepas persenyawaan, nukleus endosperma triploid 1. A 2. B 3. D 4. B 5. D
membahagi untuk membentuk tisu endosperma. 6. B 7. C 8. A
After fertilisation, the triploid endosperm nucleus divides to
form endosperm tissues. Soalan Struktur
• Zigot berkembang menjadi embrio. Bahagian A
Zygote develops into embryo.
1. (a) (i) 
• Ovul berkembang menjadi biji benih
The ovules develop into seeds. Habitat Jenis tumbuhan
• Integumen ovul berkembang menjadi kulit biji. Habitat Type of plants
Integument of ovule develops into seed coat.
Tumbuhan X Daratan Mesofit
Plant X Terrestrial Mesophyte

Tumbuhan Y Akuatik / air tawar Hidrofit

Plant Y Aquatic / freshwater Hydrophyte

(ii) X: Mempunyai xilem dan floem

Present of xylem and phloem

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Y: Mempunyai banyak pundi udara / tisu aerenkima • Pokok mempunyai pneumatofor yang tumbuh di permukaan
Has many air sacs / aerenchyme tissues laut untuk pertukaran gas.
(b) (i)  apat menembusi ke dalam tanah untuk menyerap
D The plants develop pneumatophores that grow above the sea level
air dan garam mineral for gas exchange.
Better access to water and mineral salts from great depths • Garam berlebihan disingkir melalui hidatod yang berada di
in the soil pinggir daun.
Luas permukaan yang lebih besar untuk penyerapan Excess salts are removed through hydathodes present at leaf
Larger surface area for absorption margins.
(ii) Untuk menyimpan isi padu air yang lebih tinggi • Garam berlebihan disingkir melalui hidatod yang berada di
For storage of large volumes of water pinggir daun.
Nisbah luas permukaan per isi padu yang kecil Excess salts are removed through hydathodes present at leaf
Small surface area to volume ratio margins.
Kurang kehilangan air secara transpirasi • Pokok mempunyai akar jangkang untuk sokongan dalam
Less water loss via transpiration tanah berlumpur yang lembut.
Berkebolehan menjalani fotosintesis The plants have prop roots for better support in the soft muddy soil.
Ability to photosythesise (b) • Ciri-ciri penyesuaian untuk hidup dalam keadaan yang
sangat kering diwujudkan melalui mutasi.
Bahagian B Adaptive feature(s) for survival in very dry conditions arise by
2. (a) Faktor abiotik / Abiotic factors: mutation.
• Keamatan cahaya matahari yang tinggi bagi tumbuhan • Daun kecil / dikecilkan menjadi duri / kutikel berlilin
menjalani fotosintesis. tebal / batang sukulen / akar yang panjang / mendalam
It has high sunlight intensity that is essential for the plants to carry / permukaan daun / batang berkilat / stoma tutup pada
out photosynthesis. waktu siang / apa-apa contoh yang sesuai.
• Suhu yang tinggi meningkatkan kadar metabolisme Small leaves / leaves reduced to spines / thick waxy cuticle /
succulent stems / long, shallow roots / deep roots / shiny surface
tumbuhan, tetapi jika terlalu tinggi akan menyebabkan
of leaves / stem / stomata close during the day / any example(s)
kekeringan. of these features.
The temperature is high that increases the metabolic rate in
plants, but it is too high can cause desiccation.
• Tumbuhan yang mempunyai ciri-ciri penyesuaian ini
bersaing dengan tumbuhan spesies sama yang tidak
• Paya bakau berada dalam keadaan kering dan basah yang
mempunyai ciri-ciri penyesuaian ini.
berubah-ubah akibat air pasang surut. Plants that have these adaptive feature(s) compete well with
Mangrove is under fluctuating dry and wet condition which is plants of the same species that do not have these adaptive
affected by the tides. features.
• Air adalah penting untuk menjalankan respirasi, fotosintesis • Tumbuhan ini dapat menyesuaikan diri dengan lebih
dan pengangkutan. baik dan membiak.
Water is essential to carry out respiration, photosynthesis and These (better adapted) plants survive and reproduce.
transport. • Mewariskan gen ini kepada generasi seterusnya.
• Tanah adalah subur untuk pertumbuhan pokok bakau, tetapi Pass on their genes to the next generation.
dalam keadaan anaerobik apabila air bertakung. • Tumbuhan yang tidak dapat mengekalkan kemandirian
Soil is fertile for the mangrove plants to grow, but is in anaerobic akan mati.
state once the soil is waterlogged. Plants that are not able to survive die.
• Pokok bakau tumbuh di muara sungai dan terdedah kepada • Tidak / kurang meninggalkan / Leave no / few offspring
air laut yang masin. Kemasinan air laut mempengaruhi
penyerapan air.
BAB
Mangrove plants live in estuaries where rivers join the sea and Biodiversiti
are thus exposed to fluctuating salinity. Salinity affects the water
absorption. 8 Biodiversity

• Pokok bakau terdedah kepada tiupan angin laut kencang

yang mungkin tercabut akarnya.
Sistem Pengelasan dan Penamaan Organisma
Mangrove plants are exposed to strong sea wind that may uproot 8.1 Classification System and Naming of Organisms
them.
Penyesuaian / Adaptations: Keperluan Sistem Pengelasan dan Penamaan Organisma
• Pokok bakau mempunyai daun hijau dengan kandungan The Necessity of Classification System and Naming of Organisms
kloroplas tinggi untuk fotosintesis.
1. pengelasan / Classification
Mangrove plants develop green leaves with abundant chloroplasts
that facilitate the process of photosynthesis. (a) Mengkaji; sistematik / Study; systematic
• Pokok disejukkan secara transpirasi yang memberi kesan (b) Memahami; evolusi / Understand; evolutionary
penyejukan. (c) Mengenal pasti / Identify
The plants are cooled down by transpiration that provides a cooling (d) ramalan / predictions
effect.
• Pokok bakau mempunyai kutikel berlilin tebal untuk Pengelasan Organisma
mengelakkan kehilangan air berlebihan semasa air surut. Classification of Organism
Mangrove plants have thick waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water 1. Taksonomi; ciri-ciri / Taxonomists; characteristics
loss during low tide.
2. alam / kingdoms
3. enam / six

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Hierarki Pengelasan
Hierarchy of Classification

Menuruni hierarki kumpulan …

On moving down the hierarchy of groups…
Alam (Animalia)
Kingdom (Animalia)

Filum (Kordata) Alam lain

Phylum (Chordata) Other phyla

Kelas (Mamalia) Kelas lain

Class (Mammalia) Other classes
Bilangan organisma
Lebih persamaan dan kurang dalam kumpulan
perbezaan di antara ahli-ahli meningkat
More similarities and fewer Number of organisms in
differences between the members Order (Carnivora) Order lain groups increasing
Order (Carnivora) Other orders

Famili (Felidae) Famili lain

Family (Felidae) Other families

Genus (Felis) Spesis lain

Genus (Felis) Other genera

Spesies (Felis catus) Spesis lain

Species (Felis catus) Other species Kucing rumah
Domestic cat

Ciri Utama Organisma dalam Setiap Alam

The Main Features of Organisms in Each Kingdom

Enam alam / The six kingdoms

1. Archaebacteria 3. Protista 4. Plantae 6. Animalia

(a) Bakteria sulfur (a) Protozoa (a) Tumbuhan tanpa biji benih (a) Invertebrata / Invertebrates
Sulfur bacteria Protozoa Seedless plants (b) Vertebrata / Vertebrates
(b) Alga (b) Tumbuhan berbiji benih
Algae Plants with seeds
(c) Kulapuk lendir
Slime molds 5. Fungi

2. Eubacteria (a) Yis (Unisel)

Yeasts (Unicellular)
(a) Thermus aquaticus (Taq) (b) Cendawan (Multisel)
Mushromms (Multicellular)

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Alam Archaebacteria / The Kingdom Archaebacteria • dua perkataan / two words

1. unisel / Unicellular • perkaitan / related
2. DNA / DNA • genus; spesis / genus; species
3. peptidoglikan / peptidoglycan • dicetak; digariskan / printed; underline
4. ekstrim / extreme Penamaan / Nomenclature
Alam Eubacteria / The Kingdom Eubacteria • nama; takson / naming; taxons
1. unisel / Unicellular • Nama / name
2. nukleus / nucleus • universal; Latin / Universal; Latin
3. DNA; protein / DNA; protein Felis
4. murein / murein Nama genus / Genus name
5. dedua / binary Bermula dengan huruf besar
Alam Protista / The Kingdom Protista Begins with a capital letter
1. unisel; multisel / Unicellular; multicellular catus
2. nukleus / nucleus Nama spesis / Species name
3. kromosom; protein / chromosomes; protein
Bermula dengan huruf kecil
4. dinding sel / cell wall Begins with a small letter
5. heterotrof; autotrof / heterotrophic; autotrophic
6. air / water
Kekunci Dikotomi
Protozoa / Protozoa Dichotomous Keys
(a) haiwan / Animal
Alga / Algae 1. dikotomi; mengenal pasti / Dichotomous; identify
(a) tumbuhan / Plant 2. dua / two
Kulapuk lendir / Slimes moulds 3. dilihat / observable
(a) fungi / Fungus Membina kekunci dikotomi untuk mengelaskan organisma
Alam Fungi / The Kingdom Fungi Constructing a dichotomous key to classify organisms
1. multisel; unisel / Multicellular; unicellular 1. bilangan / number
2. nukleus / nucleus 2. luaran / external
3. kromosom; protein / chromosomes; protein 3. dua / two
4. kitin / chitin Kekunci Dikotomi / Dichotomous key
5. heterotrof / heterotrophic 1. cacing tanah / earthworm
6. hifa / hyphae 2. lipan / centipede
7. spora / spores 3. ketam / crab
Alam Plantae / The Kingdom Plantae 4. belalang; labah-labah / grasshopper; spider
1. multisel / Multicellular
Biodiversiti
2. nukleus / nucleus 8.2 Biodiversity
3. kromosom; protein / chromosomes; protein
Konsep Biodiversiti
4. selulosa / cellulose The Concept of Biodiversity
5. autotrof / autotrophic
Tumbuhan tanpa biji benih / Seedless plants 1. organisma; ekosistem / organisms; ecosystems
(a) spora / spores 2.
(b) akar / roots Diversiti ekosistem / Ecosystem diversity
(c) rizoid / rhizoids
Tumbuhan berbiji benih / Plants with seeds
(a) biji benih / seeds
(b) vaskular / vascular
(c) berkayu / woody
(d) monokot; dikot / monocotyledonous; dicotyledonous
Alam Animalia / The Kingdom Animalia
Invertebrata / Invertebrates
• tidak mempunyai / without
Vertebrata / Vertebrates
• mempunyai / with

Sistem Tatanama Binomial

Binomial Nomenclature System Kepelbagaian ekosistem daratan dan akuatik yang terdapat di
suatu kawasan atau di Bumi.
Binomial / Binomial The variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on
• Linnaeus / Linnaeus the Earth.

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Diversiti spesis / Species diversity Mikroorganisma dan Virus

8.3 Microorganisms and Viruses

1. bakteria; protozoa; alga; kulat; virus; kecil

bacteria; protozoa; algae; fungi; viruses; small
2. unisel / unicellular
(a) Bakteria / Bacteria

DNA bulatan di
dalam sitoplasma
Kapsul / Capsule Circular DNA lying
free in cytoplasm
Flagela untuk Dinding sel terdiri
pergerakan daripada murein
Flagellum for Sitoplasma Cell wall made of murein
locomotion Cytoplasm

Bilangan dan kelimpahan spesis yang terdapat dalam komuniti

yang berlainan. Bakteria mempunyai tiga bentuk asas, iaitu basilus, kokus dan
The number and abundance of species present in different communities. spirilum.
There are three basic shapes of bacteria, namely bacillus, coccus and
spirillum.

Diversiti genetik / Genetic diversity

Bakteria basilus Bakteria kokus Bakteria berpilin

Bacillus bacteria Cocci bacteria Spiral bacteria

(a) penyakit / diseases

(b) pengeluar / producers
(c) nutrien / nutrient
(b) Protozoa / Protozoa
Variasi genetik individu dalam satu populasi.
1. haiwan / animal
The individual genetic variation within a population
2. air / water
3. dinding sel / cell wall
Pokok Filogeni 4. heterotrof / heterotrophic
Phylogenic Tree
5. parasit; penyakit / parasites; diseases
1. evolusi / evolutionary (c) Alga / Algae
2. filogeni / phylogenetic 1. fotosintesis / photosynthesis
3. leluhur / ancestor 2. daun / leaves
4. (a) Leluhur / ancestor (d) Fungi / Fungi
(b) Leluhur / ancestor 1. yis; kulat / yeasts; moulds
Kepentingan Biodiversiti Terhadap Alam Sekitar dan Manusia 2. heterotrof / heterotrophic
The Importance of Biodiversity on the Environment and Humans 3. patogen / pathogens
(a) makanan / food (e) Virus / Viruses
(b) karbon; air / carbon; water 1. bukan hidup / non-living
(c) ubatan / medicines 2. nukleik; kapsid / nucleic; capsid
(d) ekopelancongan / ecotourism 3. envelop / envelope
(e) semula jadi / natural 4. parasit; penyakit / parasites; diseases
(f) gen / genes
Peranan Mikroorganisma dalam Kitar Nitrogen
The Roles of Microorganisms in Nitrogen Cycle

1. 78
2. nitrat / nitrate

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Kitar nitrogen / The nitrogen cycle:

N2 di atmosfera (78%)
N2 in atmosphere (78%)

Protein haiwan
Protein tumbuhan
Protein in animals
Protein in plants

4 3 Asimilasi
Assimilation
Tumbuhan 6
Plants

Kematian
Death
2 Kematian
Death

v) Bakteria pendenitritan
Denitrifying bacteria
vi) Pengurai
(bakteria dan fungi)
i) Bakteria pengikat nitrogen di Decomposers
nodul akar legum (Bacteria and fungi)
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in legume
root nodules Nitrat (NO3–)
Nitrate (NO3–)

iv) Bakteria penitritan

Pereputan Nitrifying bacteria
5 Decay

Penitritan
Nitrification
1

Ammonium (NH4+) Nitrit (NO4-)

Ammonium (NH4+) Nitrite (NO4-)

ii) Bakteria pengikat nitrogen di

iii) Bakteria penitritan di dalam tanah
dalam tanah Nitrifying soil bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria

Peranan mikroorganisma dalam kitar nitrogen / The roles of different microorganisms in nitrogen cycle

Jenis / Type Contoh / Examples Apa yang dibuat / What they do

Bakteria pengikat nitrogen
(a) Rhizobium sp. nitrogen; ammonium / nitrogen; ammonium
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Bakteria pengikat nitrogen
(b) Azotobacter sp. nitrogen; ammonium / nitrogen; ammonium
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Bakteria penitritan
(c) Nitrosomonas sp. ammonium; nitrit / ammonium; nitrites
Nitrifying bacteria
Bakteria penitritan
(d) Nitrobacter sp. nitrit; nitrat / nitrites; nitrates
Nitrifying bacteria
Bakteria pendenitritan
(e) Pseudomonas sp. nitrat; nitrogen / nitrates; nitrogen
Denitrifying bacteria
Saprofit
(f) Kulat / Fungi ammonia / ammonia
Saprophytes

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1. Bakteria pengikat nitrogen; pengikat nitrogen; penitritan

Jenis patogen: Bakteria
Nitrogen fixing bacteria; nitrogen fixation; nitrification Types of pathogens: Bacteria
2. Nodul akar; legum / root nodules; leguminous
3. Tumbuhan; protein / plants; protein
5. Ammonium; nitrat; penitritan / ammonium; nitrates; nitrification Typhoid
6. bakteria pendenitritan; nitrogen / denitrifying bacteria; nitrogen Keracunan makanan
Food poisoning
Peranan Mikroorganisma
The Roles of Microorganisms

Mikroorganisma sebagai pengeluar Salmonella sp.

Microorganisms as producers
(a) klorofil / chlorophyll
(b) makanan; oksigen / food; oxygen Jenis patogen: Kulat
Types of pathogens: Fungi
Mikroorganisma sebagai pengurai
Microorganisms as decomposers
(a) Saprofit; enzim; mati / saprophytic; enzymes; dead
(b) Pengurai / Decomposers Kurap
Mikroorganisma sebagai simbion Ringworm
Microorganisms as symbionts
(a) Liken / Lichen
(b) Alga; fungi / Algae; fungi Trichophyton sp.
(c) Fungi; alga / Fungi; algae
Mikroorganisma sebagai parasit
Microorganisms as parasites
(a) bakteria; protista / bacteria; protists
PRAKTIS SPM 8
(b) hati; sel darah merah / liver; red blood cells
Soalan Objektif
Patogen dan Vektor 1. A 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. B
Pathogens and Vectors
6. B 7. D 8. B
Patogen / Pathogens
Soalan Struktur
Patogen; virus; penyakit / Pathogens; viruses; diseases
Vektor / Vectors Bahagian A
Vektor; patogen / vector; pathogens 1. (a)
Kesan Patogen terhadap Kesihatan Manusia Alam / Kingdom Animalia
The Effects of Pathogens on Human Health
Filum / Phylum Chordata
1. makanan; luka / food; wounds
Kelas / Class Mammalia
2. membiak; toksin / multiply; toxins
Order / Order Carnivora
Jenis patogen: Virus
Types of pathogens: Viruses Famili / Family Felidae
Genus / Genus Felis
Spesies / Species catus
Kanser serviks
Cervical cancer (b) • Nama pertama menunjukkan genus organisma itu
A first name which shows the genus to which the organism
belongs
• Nama kedua khas menunjukkan spesies
Human papilloma virus (HPV) A specific name shows the species
(c) Individu spesies yang sama mempunyai morfologi, anatomi,
fisiologi dan kelakuan yang serupa dan dapat saling
Jenis patogen: Protozoa
membiak untuk menghasilkan anak yang subur.
Types of pathogens: Protozoa
Individuals of the same species have similar morphology, anatomy,
physiology and similar behaviour, and can interbreed to produce
fertile offspring.
(d) • Dapat menunjukkan perkaitan rapat antara organisma
Malaria Can indicate how closely related organisms are
Malaria • Makluman tentang hubungan evolusi
Information of evolutionary relationships
Plasmodium sp.
• Dapat menyokong pengelasan terdahulu
Can support previous classification

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Bahagian B • Bakteria pengurai digunakan dalam rawatan kumbahan

untuk menukarkan kumbahan tersebut kepada baja dan
2. (a) (i) • Mikroorganisma P ialah virus. gas bahan api.
Microorganism P is a virus. Decomposers bacteria are used in sewage treatment to convert
the sewage into fertiliser and fuel gas.
• Virus sukar dikelaskan kerana virus merupakan
organisma tidak bersel. • Mikroorganisma biasanya digunakan dalam industri
Virus is difficult to classify because it is non-cellular makanan seperti yis untuk pembuatan roti dan dalam
organism. industri tenusu.
• Virus tidak menjalankan sebarang proses hidup Microorganisms are commonly used in food industry such as
yeast in bread-making industry and in dairy industry.
apabila berada di luar sel perumah.
Virus does not carry out any life process outside of a cell. • Kulat seperti Penicillium sp. digunakan dalam bidang
• Saiz virus terlalu kecil dan tidak boleh dilihat dengan perubatan untuk menghasilkan antibiotik.
Fungi such as Penicillium sp. used in the medical fields to
mikroskop cahaya.
produce antibiotics.
The size of a virus is too small and cannot be seen using
an electron microscope. • Bakteria digunakan untuk membersihkan tumpahan
(ii) • Membolehkan komunikasi di kalangan ahli sains minyak, maka mengelakkan pencemaran air.
Enable communication among scientist Bacteria is used to clear up the oil spills at sea thus prevent
water pollution.
• Membolehkan organisma dikenal pasti dengan
mudah dan tepat
BAB
Enable organisms to be identified easily and accurately Ekosistem
• Membolehkan maklumat tentang organisma tertentu
dijumpai dengan senang
9 Ecosystem

Allow information about a particular organism to be found

more rapidly
Komuniti dan Ekosistem
(b) • Secara saprofit 9.1 Community and Ecosystem
By saprophytes
• Aras ekologi / Ecological levels
• Hifa atau miselium merembeskan enzim
Hypha / mycelium secretes enzyme Spesies Populasi Komuniti Ekosistem
• Enzim mencernakan karbohidrat pada perumah yang Species Population Community Ecosystem
telah mati 1. Spesies; membiak / species; interbreed
Enzyme digests the carbohydrates on the dead host
2. Populasi; spesies / population; species
• Hifa menyerap hasil pencernaan / glukosa
Hypha absorbs the product of digestion / glucose 3. Komuniti; biosis / community; biotic
• Glukosa dioksidakan untuk menghasilkan tenaga 4. Ekosistem; abiosis / ecosystem; abiotic
Glucose is oxidised to produce energy • Nic dan Habitat / Niche and habitat
(c) • Mikroorganisma adalah pengurai di dalam ekosistem.
Microorganisms are decomposers in the ecosystem.
• Pengurai mengembalikan nutrien dan bahan bukan Habitat adalah tempat organisma hidup yang menyediakan
organik kepada tanah. makanan, perlindungan dan tapak untuk membiak.
Decomposers return organic and inorganic substances to the A habitat is the place where an organism lives that can provide food, shelter
ground. and a breeding site for a living organism.
• Bakteria pengikat nitrogen seperti Rhizobium sp. and
Azotobacter sp. dalam kitar nitrogen.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium sp. and Azotobacter sp.
in the nitrogen cycle.
• Menukarkan nitrogen atmosfera kepada nitrat di Nic adalah peranan yang dilakukan oleh suatu organisma yang
dalam tanah. merangkumi tingkah laku serta interaksinya dengan komponen
Converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate in the soil.
biosis dan abiosis dalam persekitarannya. Ia ditentukan oleh julat
• Nitrat diserap oleh tumbuhan untuk mensintesis protein. suhu tempat tinggal, jenis makanan, dan ruang hidup.
Nitrate is absorbed by plants to synthesise plants protein. The niche is the role that an organism which includes its behaviour and
• Dalam rantai makanan, tumbuhan dimakan oleh haiwan interactions with biotic and abiotic components in its environment. It is
determined by the temperature range in which the organisms live, the type
dan protein tumbuhan ditukarkan kepada protein
of food they eat, and the space they occupy.
haiwan.
In the food chain, plants eaten by animals, so the plant protein
is converted to animal protein.
• Haiwan-haiwan ternakan menjadi sumber pendapatan
bagi rakyat dan meningkatkan ekonomi negara melalui
import dan eksport produk daging dan lain-lain.
Livestock animals are a source of income for the people and
improve the economy through the import and export of meat
products and others.

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Komponen Biosis dan Komponen Abiosis dalam Ekosistem

The Biotic and Abiotic Components in an Ecosystem

Komponen abiosis – Komponen bukan hidup

Abiotic components – The non living components

(a) Kepekatan oksigen (f) Kelembapan udara (g) Kelajuan angin

Oxygen concentration Air humidity Wind speed

(h) Herbivor
(b) Keamatan Herbivores
cahaya Makan tumbuhan
Light intensity Eat plants
Pengguna
Consumers
(i) Karnivor
(c) Suhu Carnivores
Temperature Makan haiwan
Eat animals

(d) pH air (j) Tumbuhan Pengeluar

Water pH Plants Producers

(e) pH tanah
Soil pH (k) Bakteria di permukaan tanah Pengurai
Decomposers
Bacteria on surface of mud

Komponen biosis / Biotic components

Ekosistem kolam / A pond ecosystem
Organisma hidup / Living - organisms

Nutrisi Autotrof dan Nutrisi Heterotrof

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Nutrition Peranan dalam rantai makanan Aras trof
Role in food chain Trophic level
(a) Nutrisi autotrof / Autotrophic nutrition
• bukan organik; organic / inorganic; organic
(i) Fotoautotrof / Photoautotrophic Pengguna kuaterner Aras trof kelima
• CO2 / CO2 Quaternary consumers Fifth trophic level
• cahaya / light
• tumbuhan / plants
(ii) Nutrisi kemoautotrof / Chemoautotrophic nutrition
• CO2 / CO2 Pengguna tertiar (karnivor) Aras trof keempat
Tertiary consumers (Carnivores) Fourth trophic level
• inorganik / inorganic
(b) Nutrisi heterotrof / Heterotrophic nutrition
• organik / organic
(i) Saprotrof / Saprotrophic Pengguna sekunder (karnivor) Aras trof ketiga
• mati; reput / dead; decaying Secondary consumers (Carnivores) Third trophic level
(ii) Holozoik / Holozoic
• memakan / Eat
(iii) Parasit / Parasitic
• perumah / hosts Pengguna primer (Herbivor) Aras trof kedua
Primary consumers (Herbivores) Second trophic level
Komponen Biosis Mengikut Aras Trof
Biotic Components According to Trophic Levels

• Aras trof; pemakanan / trophic level; feeding Pengeluar / Producers

• rendah; tinggi / lower; higher Aras trof pertama
(Tumbuhan / alga) First trophic level
• hilang; hilang / lost; lost (Plants / algae)

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Pengaliran Tenaga dalam Rantai Makanan

Energy Flow in a Food Chain

Rantai; pemakanan; tenaga / chain; feeding; energy

• Pengaliran tenaga dalam rantai makanan / Energy flow in a food chain

Pengurai dan detritivor (makan tinja dan organisma mati)

Decomposers and detritivores (feeding on faeces and dead organisms)

Pengeluar Pengguna primer Pengguna sekunder Pengguna tertiar

Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers
Matahari 1–3% 10% 10% 10%
Sun
Tumbuhan Herbivor Karnivor Karnivor besar
Plants Herbivores Carnivores Top carnivores

Tenaga hilang sebagai pantulan cahaya Tenaga hilang sebagai haba semasa respirasi
Energy lost as reflected light Energy lost as heat during respiration

1) Cahaya matahari 2) Pengeluar, iaitu tumbuhan hijau, 3) Pengguna adalah organisma Pengguna sekunder
ialah sumber memerangkap tenaga cahaya yang mendapat tenaga makanan adalah karnivor yang
utama tenaga melalui fotosintesis, dan kemudian daripada organisma hidup yang makan haiwan lain
dalam rantai menukarnya kepada tenaga kimia lain. (pengguna primer).
makanan. dalam sebatian makanan. Consumers are organisms that Secondary consumers are
Sunlight is the main A producer, usually green plants captured obtain food energy from other living carnivores which feed on
source of energy in light energy through photosynthesis, and organisms. other animals (primary
the food chain. then is converted to chemical energy in ✓ Pengguna primer adalah consumers).
food compound. herbivor yang makan
pengeluar.
1 Primary consumers are herbivores
which feed on producers.

5 5 5

3 3

Anak panah
menunjukkan arah
aliran tenaga di Pengguna
rantai makanan. sekunder boleh
4) Pengurai, kulat dan bakteria, memperoleh tenaga dan nutrien Arrows point the
daripada bahan buangan (najis) dan sisa (bangkai) organisma direction of energy flow
dimakan oleh
lain. along the food chain. pengguna tertier.
Secondary
Decomposers, fungi and bacteria, obtain the energy and nutrients
consumers can be
from the wastes (eg. faeces) and remains (eg. dead bodies) of other
4 eaten by tertiary
organisms
consumers.

5) Tenaga hilang melalui perkumuhan, pembentukan tinja, dan bahagian yang tidak dimakan. Ia juga hilang sebagai haba semasa
respirasi.
Energy is lost through excretion, egestion, and in the form of uneaten body parts. It is also lost in the form of heat during respiration.

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Piramid Ekologi
Ecological Pyramids

• bilangan; biomas; tenaga / numbers; biomass; energy

1) Piramid bilangan / Pyramid of numbers

• Piramid bilangan menunjukkan bilangan organisma di setiap aras trof dalam ecosistem tertentu.
A pyramid of numbers shows the number of organisms at each trophic level in a given ecosystem.
• Luas setiap bar adalah berkadaran dengan bilangan organisma di setiap aras trof.
The area of each bar is proportional to the number of organisms at that trophic level.

Pengguna tertier
Tertiary consumers 1 Helang / Eagle

Saiz individu Pengguna sekunder

Secondary consumers 4000 Katak / Toads Bilangan organisma
bertambah
berkurang
The size of
The number of
each individual Pengguna primer
increases Primary consumers 70 000 Belalang / Grasshoppers organisms decreases

Pengeluar 6 000 000 Rumput / Grass plants

Producers

Masalah: Dalam kes tertentu, piramid boleh disongsangkan.

Problems: In some cases, pyramid may be inverted.

Kes 1 / Case 1 Kes 2 / Case 2

Pengeluar adalah sangat besar (contoh pokok rambutan) Parasit (contoh kutu) hidup di perumah (contoh kucing)
The producer is very large (eg. a rambutan tree) Parasites (e.g. fleas) feed on the consumers (eg. a cat)

Pengguna sekunder 10 Burung / Birds

Secondary consumers
Parasit
Parasites 2 000 Kutu / Fleas
Pengguna primer
Primary consumers 10 000 Ulat / Caterpillars
Perumah 1 Kucing / Cat
Host
Pengeluar 1 Pokok / Tree
Producers

Jadi / So

2) Piramid biojisim / Pyramid of biomass

• Piramid biojisim mewakili jumlah biojisim [bilangan individu × jisim individu] setiap aras trof pada suatu masa.
A pyramid of biomass represents the total biomass [number of individuals × mass of each individual] at each trophic level at any one time.
• Ini dapat menyelesaikan masalah berkaitan skala dan piramid bilangan songsang.
This should solve the scale and inversion problems of the pyramid of numbers
Pengguna sekunder Burung / Birds (20 g/m2)
Secondary consumers

Pengguna primer
Primary consumers Ulat / Caterpillar (80 g/m2)

Pengeluar Pokok / Tree (1600 g/m2)

Producers

Walaupun begitu, masih ada masalah

Even so, there are still problems

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• Piramid biojisim akan menjadi songsang apabila organisma di aras trof rendah membiak dengan kadar yang lebih tinggi
berbanding organisma pada aras trof yang lebih tinggi.
A pyramid of biomass may become inverted when organisms at a lower trophic level have a much higher reproduction rate than organisms at a
higher trophic

Pengguna primer Zooplankton (21 g/m2)

Primary consumers Zooplankton

Pengeluar Fitoplankton (4 g/m2)

Producers Phytoplankton (4 g/m2)

Jadi adalah lebih baik untuk pertimbangkan

So it might be better to consider

3) Piramid tenaga / Pyramid of energy

• Piramid tenaga menunjukkan kandungan tenaga setiap aras trof bagi suatu ekosistem dalam tempoh masa tertentu.
A pyramid of energy represents the energy content of each trophic level of an ecosystem over a period of time.

Pengguna tertier
Tertiary consumers Helang / Eagle 10 kJ m–2

Pengguna sekunder
Secondary consumers Katak / Toads 1,00 kJ m–2 year–1

Pengguna primer
Primary consumers Belalang / Grasshoppers 1,000 kJ m–2 year–1

Pengeluar Rumput / Grass

Producers 10,000 kJ m–2 year–1

Jenis Interaksi antara Komponen Biosis

Types of Interaction Between Biosis Components Bakteria pengikat nitrogen (Rhizobium) dan tumbuhan kekacang
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) and legumes plants
• Untung; rugi / benefit; harmed
(a) simbiosis / symbiosis
(i) Mutualisme / Mutualism (+,+)
(ii) Komensalisme / Commensalism (+,0)
(iii) Parasitisme / Parasitism (+,-)

Simbiosis
Symbiosis

• Simbiosis / Symbiosis
• Simbion / symbionts
Tumbuhan membekalkan Bakteria hidup dalam nodul
1. Mutualisme / Mutualism molekul organik tinggi akar, membekalkan sebahagian
• Mutualisme, simbiosis, untung (+, +) tenaga kepada bakteria besar nitrogen yang diperlukan
Mutualism, symbiotic, benefit (+, +) simbion. oleh tumbuhan kekacang.
The plants supply energy- The bacteria live inside nodules on
rich organic molecules to the the root of legumens, supply the
bacterial symbionts. plants with the most of the nitrogen
their required.

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Mikoriza - gabungan antara kulat dan akar tumbuhan (b) Ikan badut dan tentakel buran laut.
Mycorrhizae - associations between fungi and the roots of plants Clownfish among sea anemone’s tentacles

Tumbuhan membekalkan
karbohidrat kepada fungi.
The plant provideds carbohydrates
to the fungi

Fungi yang tumbuh ke dalam

tanah dan akar memindahkan
mineral seperti fosforus kepada Ikan badut terlindung daripada pemangsa, kerana kebanyakan
tumbuhan. ikan mengelakkan diri dari tentakel buran laut.
The fungi which grow into the Clownfishes are protected from predators, because most fishes avoid
surrounding soil and the root transfer the stinging sea anemone’s tentacles
minerals such as phosphorus to the
plant.
Jika ikan badut mengundang ikan lain untuk dimakan oleh
buran laut. → Mutualisme.
If the clownfish attract other fishes to be eaten by the sea anemone
→ Mutualism
Umang-umang dan buran laut.
Hermit crabs and sea anemones
3. Parasitisme / Parasitism
• simbiosis, parasite, perumah (+,─)
symbiotic, parasite, host (+, ─)

Parasit bertambah
Parasite increases

Perumah bertambah Parasitisme Perumah berkurang

Host increases Parasitism Host decreases

Buran laut mendapat pengangkutan dan makanan.

The sea anemone gets a free ride and food.

Parasit berkurang
Umang-umang menggunakan tentakel penyengat buran Parasite decreases
laut untuk mengumpul makanan dan perlindungan diri.
The crab uses the stinging tentacles of the sea anemone to gather (a) Ektoparasit / Ectoparasites
food and to protect itself. Luar; ektoparasit / surface; ectoparasites
(b) Endoparasit / Endoparasites
2. Komensalisme / Commensalism dalam, endoparasit / within, endoparasites
• Komensalisme; untung (+,0) Saprofitisme / Saprophytism
Commensalism; benefit (+, 0) • Saprofitisme; mati / Saprophytism; dead
• Saprofit / Saprophytes
(a) Ikan remora dan jerung / Remora fish and the shark • Penguraian; nutrien / Decomposition; nutrients
Saprofit: Organisma yang
mendapat nutrien daripada bahan
organik yang mati atau reput.
Saprophytes: Organisms which obtain
nutrients from dead or decaying
organic matter.
✓ Contoh: kulat, bakteria
Examples: fungi, bacteria

Ikan remora melekat pada badan jerung untung dengan Persaingan / Competition
mendapat pengangkutan dan sisa makanan. • Makanan; air; cahaya; tempat / food; water; light; space
Remoras which attach themselves to the beliefs of sharks benefit by • Rugi / harmed (─,─)
getting a free ride and feeding on a shark’s leftover.
Persaingan intraspesifik / Intraspecific competition
• individu / individuals
Jerung untung jika ikan remora menyingkirkan ektoparasit di
• lebih; keperluan / more; needs
badannya. → Mutualisme.
The shark benefits if remoras remove its ectoparasites. → Mutualism Persaingan interspesifik / Interspecific competition
• berlainan / different

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Pemangsaan / Predation Spesies penyesar / Successor species

• pemangsa; mangsa / predator; prey Rhizophora sp.
• pemangsa; mangsa / predator; prey • jangkang; lumpur; pemendapan / prop; mud; firmer
• tinggi; kering / higher; drier
Mangsa bertambah
Prey increases • Rhizophora sp. / Rhizophora sp.
Bruguiera sp.
• banir; lingkaran; lumpur / buttress; loops; mud
• laut / sea
Pemangsa berkurang Pemangsaan Pemangsa bertambah • menjauhi / further
Predator decreases Predation Predator increases • Pandanus sp. / Pandanus sp.
Kepentingan Ekosistem Paya Bakau
The Importance of Mangrove Ecosystem
(a) Kayu / Wood
Mangsa berkurang (b) Perlindungan persisiran / protection
Prey decreases
(c) Sumber / Resources
(I) mangsa; pemangsa / prey; predator (d) air / Water
• makanan / food (e) iklim / Climate
(II) pemangsa; mangsa / predator; preys • sinki karbon / carbon sinks
• mangsa / prey (f) Habitat; kawasan pembiakan / Habitat; nurseries
(III) pemangsa / predator (g) Ekopelancongan / Ecotourism
• pemangsa; mangsa / predators; prey
Ekologi Populasi
Ekosistem Paya Bakau 9.2 Population Ecology
A Mangrove Ecosystem
Taburan tumbuhan dipengaruhi oleh faktor abiotik berikut
• tropika / tropical Plant distributions are affected by abiotic factors such as
Komponen biosis / Biotic components • Cahaya / Light
(a) Pengguna / Consumers • Suhu / Temperature
(b) Pengeluar / Producers • Air / Water
(c) Pengurai / Decomposers • pH / pH
• Kandungan garam / Salinity
Komponen abiosis / Abiotic components • Mineral / Minerals
(a) cahaya / sunlight
Taburan haiwan dipengaruhi oleh / Animal distributions are affected by
(b) Angin / winds • Makanan / Food
(c) Air laut / Seawater • Suhu / Temperature
(d) Tanah / Soil • Air / Water
Penyesuaian Pokok Bakau / Adaptations of Mangrove Trees • Tapak pembinaan / Breeding sites
(a) Oksigen; lentisel / Oxygen; lenticles • Faktor geografi / Geographical factors
(b) pneumatofor / pneumatophores Taburan organisma akuatik dipengaruhi oleh
Aquatic organism distributions are affected by
(c) bercabang luas; sokongan / cable; support
• Cahaya / Light
(d) jangkang; menyokong / prop; anchor • pH / pH
(e) vivipariti / viviparous • Kandungan garam / Salinity
(f) Hidatod; garam / Hydathodes; salt Faktor biotik yang mempengaruhi taburan organisma seperti
(g) sukulen / succulent Biotic factors affecting distribution of organisms such as
(h) berkutikel / cuticle • Pemangsaan / Predation
• Herbivor / Herbivory
Pengkolonian dan Sesaran • Persaingan / Competition
Colonisation and Succession
Suhu / Temperature
• sesaran ekologi / ecological succession • suhu optimum / optimum temperature
• mengubah; pertumbuhan / modify; replace • enzim / enzymes
• ternyahasli / denaturation
• kepelbagaian; bertambah; komuniti klimaks
• tenaga; pertumbuhan / energy; growth
diversity; increases; climax community
Cahaya / Light
Spesies perintis / Pioneer species
• Cahaya matahari / Sunlight
Avicennia sp. & Sonneratia sp. • fotosintesis / photosynthesis
• lumpur; organik / sediments; matter • pertumbuhan / grow
• padat; tinggi / compact; firm pH / pH
• Rhizophora sp. / Rhizophora sp. • besar / larger
• mineral / mineral
• nitrogen; fosforus / nitrogen; phosphorus

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Menganggarkan Saiz Populasi Organisma Contoh / Examples:

Estimate Population Size of Organisms
1. Saiz populasi pepatung =
• kuadrat / Quadrat The population size of the dragonflies =
• Kuadrat / quadrat (30 × 20)
N= = 120
5
Menggunakan Kuadrat 2. Saiz populasi siput =
Use of The Quadrat The population size of the snails =
(200 × 130)
1. rawak / random N= = 520
50
2. dikenal pasti / identified
3. Frekuensi; kepadatan; litupan / frequency; density; cover
PRAKTIS SPM 9
(i) Frekuensi / frequency
(ii) Kepadatan / density Soalan Objektif
(iii) litupan / coverage
1. C 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. D
Contoh / Examples:
6. D 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. A
1. Frekuensi / Frequency
F = ( 3 / 5) x 100 = 60% Soalan Struktur
Kepadatan / Density = Bahagian A
D = 7 / (5 x 1m2) = 1.4 m-2
1. (a) (i) • Unit yang terdiri daripada organisma hidup /
2. F = ( 6 / 10 ) x 100 = 60%
komponen komponen biotik dan persekitaran
Kepadatan / Density = abiotik yang saling berinteraksi
D = 81 / (10 x 1 m2) = 8.1 m-2 Unit made up of living organisms / biotic component and
3. Peratus litupan / Percentage coverage = the abiotic environment which interacting together

C = (0.32+0.78+0.18+0.64+0.20+0.15) / (6 x 1 m2) x 100 = (ii) • Fotoautotrof / menjalankan fotosintesis / menukar

2.27 / 6 x 100 = 37.8 % tenaga cahaya kepada tenaga kimia
Photoautotrophic / carries out photosynthesis / converts
• haiwan; kutu kayu; serangga / animals; woodlice; insects light energy to chemical energy
• Sintesis sebatian organik kompleks dari sebatian
Populasi kutu kayu (N) bukan organik
A population of woodlice (N) Synthesises complex organic compounds from inorganic
compounds
• Menduduki aras trof terendah / pertama
Occupies lowest / first trophic level
Sampel ditangkap secara rawak (n1)
Random sample captured (n1) (iii) Tempat organisma hidup yang menyediakan
makanan, perlindungan dan tapak untuk membiak.
The place where an organism lives that can provide food,
Ditandakan dengan shelter and a breeding site for a living organism.
Ditanda cincin, tag, cat berwarna (b) (i) Populasi / Population
Marked atau varnis kuku. (ii) Komuniti / Community
Marked with a ring, tag,
coloured paint or nail varnish. (iii) Fotoautotrof / pengeluar primer
Photoautotroph / primary producer

Dan dilepaskan (iv) Nic / Niche

And released 2. (a) (i) • Pokok bunga / Flowering plant
(ii) • Ular dan burung / Birds and snakes
(b) (i) Pokok bunga → ulat beluncas → burung → helang
Flowering plant → caterpillars → birds → eagles
Sampel bergaul dengan populasi (ii)
Sample mixed with population
Helang
Eagle
Burung
Birds
Beberapa hari kemudian, sampel kedua Ulat beluncas
ditangkap di kawasan yang sama (n2) Caterpillars
A few days later, a second sample is caught in the Satu pokok bunga
same locality (n2) A flowering plant

(c) Tenaga / haba pada setiap aras hilang

Energy / heat at each level loss because of
1. bahagian tidak dimakan / bukan semua bahagian
Sampel bertanda dikira (n3)
Marked sample is counted (n3) organisma boleh dimakan
inedible parts / not all the organism can be eaten

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2. bahagian tidak dicerna / bukan semua dicerna / 3) Apabila populasi pemangsa bertambah, populasi
pembuagan tinja mangsa berkurang
indigestible parts / not all is digested / egestion / faeces When the population of predator increases, the population
3. hilang semasa respirasi / pergerakan / perkumuhan / of prey decreases
pencernaan 4) Lebih banyak mangsa dimakan oleh pemangsa
loss from respiration / movement / excretion / digestion More prey are eaten by predators
(d) (i) 1) Pada mulanya, populasi belalang bertambah kerana (c) Simbiosis / Symbiosis
kurang pemangsa (ular) yang memakannya dan Simbiosis adalah interaksi rapat di antara dua atau lebih
dapat membiak dengan lebih banyak spesies yang hidup bersama.
Initially, the grasshopper population increases as there Symbiosis is a close interaction between two or more species which
are less predators (snakes) feeding on them and they can live together.
reproduce more • Simbion sama ada mendapat untung, tidak terjejas, atau
2) Walau bagaimanapun, populasi menurun secara rugi.
mendadak kerana persaingan untuk makanan The symbionts may benefit from, be unaffected by, or be harmed
However, their population decreases later dramatically due by the relationship.
to the competition for food • Terdapat tiga jenis perhubungan simbiosis:
3) Pokok bunga satu-satunya pengeluar makanan di There are three types of symbiotic relationships
jaring makanan ini / tidak menghasilkan makanan 1) Mutualisme / Mutualism
yang mencukupi untuk populasi yang semakin Mutualisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
meningkat. kedua-dua organisma mendapat untung → (+,+).
The flowering plant is the only producer of food in this Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both
food web / does not produce enough food for the growing organisms benefit → (+,+).
population
2) Komensalisme / Commensalism
(ii) 1) Pada awalnya, populasi ulat beluncas kekal kerana Komensalisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
tergolong dalam rantai makanan berlainan / ular satu organisma mendapat untung, dan organisma
bukan pemangsa lain tidak untung atau rugi. → (+,0).
Initially, the caterpillar population remains constant because Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one
they belong to two different food chains / snakes / do not organism benefit, and the other one is neither benefit nor
prey on them harmed → (+, 0).
2) Kedua-dua belalang dan ulat beluncas memakan
3) Parastisme / Parastism
sumber makanan yang sama (daun pokok bunga),
Parasitisme adalah hubungan simbiosis di mana
pertambahan populasi belalang akan bersaing
satu organisma hidup di organisma lain. Oleh itu,
dengan ulat untuk makanan
parasite untung dan organisma perumah rugi.
However, both grasshoppers and caterpillars feed on the
same food source (leaves of flowering plant), an increase → ( + , – ).
in the population of grasshopper provides competition for Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism
food with the caterpillars lives in or on another organism. Thus, the parasite benefits
and the host organism is harm. → ( + , – ).
3) Tiada ular, populasi belalang meningkat, lebih
Saprofitisme / Saprophytism
banyak makanan untuk burung, populasi burung
meningkat, lebih banyak ulat beluncas akan Saprofitisme adalah interaksi di mana organisma hidup
dimakan. mendapat makanan daripada bahan organik yang mati.
No snakes, grasshopper population increases, more food Saprophytism is an interaction in which living organisms feed on
for birds, bird population increases, more caterpillars are dead organic matter.
eaten. • Saprofit menguraikan bahan organik itu.
Saprophytes responsible for decomposition of the organic
Bahagian B
matter.
3. (a) (i) Saprofitisme / Saprophytism • Penguraian membebaskan nutrien ke ekosistem yang
(ii) • Cendawan tumbuh pada bahan organik yang dapat diserap oleh tumbuhan.
mati
 Decomposition releases nutrients into the ecosystem which can
Mushrooms grow on dead organic materials be absorbed by plants.
• Cendawan mengeluarkan enzim Pemangsaan / Predation
Mushrooms secrete enzyme Pemangsaan adalah interaksi antara spesies, pemangsa,
Mengurai sebatian organik kompleks kepada produk membunuh dan memakan spesies yang lain, mangsa.
yang ringkas / glukosa Predation is an interaction between species in which one species,
Break down complex organic compound into simple product / the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey
glucose • Dalam pemangsaan, pemangsa untung (+) sementara
(b) (i) Mangsa / Prey: Arnab / Rabbit mangsa rugi (–)
Pemangsa / Predator: Musang / Fox In predation, the predator gains benefit (+) while the prey is
harmed (–).
(ii) 1) Apabila populasi mangsa meningkat, populasi
pemangsa meningkat
When the population of prey increases, the population of
predator also increases
2) Ini kerana pemangsa mempunyai lebih makanan
dan membiak dengan cepat
This is because the predators have more food and
reproduce faster

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BAB
Kelestarian Alam Sekitar
10 Environmental Sustainability

Ancaman Alam Sekitar

10.1 Threats to Environment

Bermaksud
Means

Keadaan alam sekitar yang kekal sama Keperluan masa kini dipenuhi
The responsible interaction with the environment
Memastikan tanpa menjejaskan keperluan
To ensure
• tanpa mengalami masalah kekurangan atau penurunan sumber semula jadi generasi akan datang.
to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources The needs of today’s population
are met without jeopardising the
• dan kualiti alam sekitar yang terjamin untuk satu tempoh masa yang panjang. ability of future generations to
and allow for long-term environmental quality. meet their needs.

Ancaman Alam Sekitar

Threats to Environment

Pembakaran bahan api fosil

Pertanian / Agriculture
Combustion of fossil fuels
Penyahhutanan / Deforestation

Sebab / Causes
Gas rumah hijau / Greenhouse gases CO2 Pengasidan lautan
Karbon dioksida, gas metana, oksida nitrogen, CFC Ocean acidification
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC

Kesan rumah hijau Pemanasan global dan perubahan iklim

Greenhouse effect Global warming and climate change

Kesan ke atas persekitaran / Effects on the environment

Kehilangan habitat / Habitat destruction
Perubahan iklim ketara / Extreme climatic change
• Gelombang haba / Heat waves
• Kehilangan biodiversiti • Taufan / Hurricanes
Kemusnahan Loss of biodiversity • Banjir / Flood
ekosistem • Kepupusan spesies • Kemarau / Drought
Ecosystem collapse
Species extinction • Kebakaran hutan / Forest fire

Pelunturan karang laut / Coral bleaching

Pencairan ais kutub • Kenaikan aras laut
Penurunan tangkapan ikan / Fish stock decline Sea level rise
dan glasier
Melting of polar ice • Persisiran pantai tenggelam
Jangkitan penyakit / Spreads of diseases caps and glaciers Coastal submersion

Kesan langsung ke atas kesihatan manusia Migrasi manusia Banjir di bandar dan ladang
Direct impact on human health Human migration Flooding of cities and farmland

Kesan ke atas manusia

Effects on humans Kehilangan hasil tanaman dan ladang
Loss of crops and farmlands

Kecederaan fizikal kepada manusia

Direct physical harm to humans

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Kesan rumah hijau / The greenhouse effect Tanah runtuh dan banjir kilat / Landslide and flash flood
1. solar / solar • tadahan / catchment
2. atmosfere / atmosphere • tanah runtuh / landslides
3. inframerah / infrared • sungai / rivers
• Banjir / flood
4. rumah hijau / greenhouse
Perubahan kitar semula bahan
Gas rumah hijau / Greenhouses gas
Changes in recycling of materials
(a) Karbon dioksida / Carbon dioxide
- fotosintesis; rumah hijau / photosynthesis; greenhouse
(b) metana / Methane - berkurang / drops
(c) nitrogen / Nitrous Perubahan iklim / Climatic changes
(d) CFC • transpirasi / transpiration
Penyahhutanan / Deforestation • hujan / rainfall
hutan / forest • panas / drought
Kesuburan tanah mengurang / Reduction in soil fertility Kehilangan biodiversiti dan kepupusan spesies
• hakisan / erosion Loss of biodiversity and species extinction
- akar / root • perubahan / medicinal
• subur / Fertile • habitat; kepupusan / habitats; extinction
• kesuburan / fertility • rantai / chains

Pencemaran Pencemaran adalah pembebasan bahan dari aktiviti manusia yang menjejaskan alam sekitar.
Pollution Pollution is the release of substances from human activities that are harmful to the environment.

2. Kedua-dua SO2 dan NOx bergabung dengan wap air dalam atmosfera untuk
1. Pembakaran bahan api fosil di loji janakuasa, membentuk asid sulfurik dan asid nitrik.
Both SO2 and NOx combine with water vapour in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
kilang perindustrian dan kenderaan bermotor and nitric acid.
membebaskan sejumlah besar sulfur dioksida
(SO2) dan oksida-oksida nitrogen (NOx). Sulfur dioksida Asid sulfurik
The combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, Sulphur dioxide H 2O Sulphuric acid
factories and motor vehicles release large quantity of
sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
Oksida nitrogen Asid nitrik
Nitrogen oxides Nitric acid

4. Hujan asid terbentuk (pH air hujan < 5.0) 3. Asid sulfurik dan asid nitrat melarut dalam air hujan.
Acid rain is formed (pH of rain water < 5.0) Sulphuric acid and nitric acid dissolve in rain water.

Kesan / Effects

Tanah Air tasik dan sungai Hutan Bangunan

Soils: Water in lakes and rivers: Forests: Buildings:
• Tanah menjadi berasid. • Ion aluminium tidak larut (Al3+) • Merosakkan daun tumbuhan • Menghakis landasan
The soil becomes acidic. berkumpul di tasik dan sungai Damages the leaves of plants dan jambatan logam
• Ion yang penting (kalium, Insoluble aluminium ions (Al3+) • Kurang pembentukan Corrodes metal railing
kalsium dan magnesium) accumulate in lakes and rivers. klorofil, maka and bridges
terlarut resap. • Kepekatan Al3+ yang tinggi mengurangkan fotosintesis. • Merosakkan struktur
More valuable ions (potassium, akan menyebabkan kematian Poor chlorophyll formation, batu kapur dan marmar.
calcium and magnesium) are ikan dan invertebrata lain. thereby reducing Damages imestone and
leached away. The high concentration of Al3+ photosynthesis. marble structure.
• Ini melambatkan pertumbuhan cause fish and invertebrates die.
tanaman.
This slows the growth of crops.

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Eutrofikasi Pengayaan suatu ekosistem akuatik dengan baja berlebihan (nitrat, fosfat, dll.)
Eutrophication The enrichment of an aquatic ecosystem with chemical nutrients (nitrates, phosphates, etc.)

Input kumbahan
tanpa rawatan. Pengaliran baja
Input of untreated bukan organik dari
sewage. Peningkatan kepekatan nitrat dan ladang pertanian.
Leaching of inorganic
fosfat terlarut.
fertilisers from
Increased concentration of soluble
agricultural land.
nitrates and phosphates.

Alga menggunakan nutrien Ini menghalang penembusan cahaya

untuk tumbuh dengan pesat. matahari untuk tumbuhan akuatik lain.
Algae use nutrients to grow very This restricts the penetration of sunlight for
rapidly – algal bloom. other aquatic plants.

Mati / Die

Organisma akuatik mati Tumbuhan tidak

kerana kekurangan Kuantiti bahan organik menjalankan
oksigen. Mati / Die yang banyak. Mati / Die fotosintesis dan
Aquatic organisms die from Large quantities of organic mati.
lack of oxygen. materials Plants cannot
photosynthesise
and die.

Menggalakkan pertumbuhan bakteria aerob (pengurai) yang

menggunakan oksigen.
Stimulates the growth of aerobic bacteria (decomposers) which consume oxygen.

Kandungan oksigen di dalam air menurun - BOD tinggi.

Oxygen levels in the water decreases - high BOD. BOD: Keperluan oksigen
biokimia
Biochemical oxygen
demand

BOD: Jumlah oksigen yang diperlukan oleh mikroorganisma aerob untuk menguraikan bahan organik dalam suatu sampel air.
BOD: The amount of oxygen consumed by aerobic microorganisms to decompose organic materials in a sample of water.

Sebab / Causes Pencemaran bunyi / Noise pollution

baja / fertilisers tidak diingini; berlebihan / Unwanted; excessive
kumbahan / sewage Sebab / Causes
buangan / wastes • Mesin / machine
Akibat / Effects Isu / Issues
oksigen; kematian / oxygen; death • pendengaran / hearing
Pencemaran cahaya / Light pollution • kemurungan / stress
terlalu terang; berlebihan / Too bright; excessive • ekosistem / ecosystems
Sebab / Causes
• jalan / Streetlights
Isu / Issues
• mengelirukan / disorients

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Kehilangan biodiversiti / Loss of biodiversity

Punca / Causes
Pemburuan
Kemasukan berlebihan Pencemaran
spesies luar Overexploitation Pollution
Perubahan iklim &
Kehilangan Invasive species
pemanasan global
habitat
Climate change &
Habitat loss
global warming

Pengaruh /Influencers
• Pertumbuhan populasi
manusia
Human population growth
• Peningkatan penggunaan
Increasing consumption Kehilangan biodiversiti / Biodiversity loss
• Penurunan kecekapan sumber Penurunan bilangan gen, individu organisma, spesies, dan
Reduced resource efficiency ekosistem di kawasan tertentu
Reduction in the number of genes, individual organisms, species,
and ecosystems in a given area

Ledakan pertumbuhan populasi manusia / Human population explosion

Populasi dunia
World population

7 billion

6 billion Pertumbuhan pesat populasi manusia disebabkan oleh kemajuan

berterusan dalam bidang nutrisi, perubatan dan teknologi.
5 billion The rapid increase of human population is due to continuing improvements
in nutrition, medicine and technology.
4 billion

3 billion

2 billion

1 billion

0
10,000 BCE 8,000 BCE 6,000 BCE 4,000 BCE 2,000 BCE 0 2019

Pertambahan penggunaan sumber seperti tanah, makanan, air, udara,

bahan api fosil dan mineral Pertambahan keperluan asas manusia
Increase consumption of resources such as land, food, water, air, Increase of human needs
fossil fuels and minerals

Akibat / Effects

Pengurangan sumber semula jadi Pertambahan bahan sisa buangan seperti bahan pencemar udara dan air, bahan toksik
Depletion of natural resources
dan gas rumah hijau.
Increase waste products as a result of consumption such as air and water pollutants, toxic materials
and greenhouse gases

Kehilangan biodiversiti
Loss of biodiversity

Kemusnahan alam sekitar / Environmental degradation

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Eksperimen 10.1
Keputusan / Results
Botol reagen Sampel air Masa yang diambil bagi warna larutan metilena biru luntur (jam) Nilai BOD
Reagent bottle Water sample Time taken for methylene blue solution to decolourise (hour) Bod value
A Air sungai / River water 1 6
B Air kolam / Pond water 2 5
C Air longkang / Drain water 3 4
D Air paip / Pipe water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 2
E Air telaga / Well water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 3
F Air suling / Distilled water Warna biru kekal selepas 5 jam / Blue colour remains after 5 hours 1
Perbincangan / Discussion 5. • Nilai BOD yang lebih rendah menunjukkan kualiti air lebih
1. Digunakan sebagai penunjuk untuk menguji kehadiran oksigen baik, dan air tidak tercemar.
dalam sampel air. Ia berwarna biru dengan adanya oksigen dan Low BOD values indicate better water quality, and therefore the
luntur jika tiada oksigen. water is not polluted.
Used as an indicator to test for the presence of oxygen in the water • Nilai BOD yang lebih tinggi menunjukkan sampel air lebih
samples. It is blue when oxygen is present and colourless where there tercemar. Sampel air mengandungi banyak bahan organik,
is no oxygen.
ini mendorong pertumbuhan pengurai khususnya bakteria
2. Untuk mengelakkan teroksida oleh oksigen atmosfera. aerob.
To avoid being oxidised by atmospheric oxygen.
High BOD values indicate the water samples are more polluted. The
3. Untuk mengelakkan oksigen berlebihan terlarut dalam sampel air. water sample contains high organic matter, such condition encourage
To avoid more oxygen from dissolving in the water samples. the growth of decomposers especially aerobic bacteria.
4. Jika warna larutan metilena biru menjadi luntur dengan cepat, ini • Ini menurunkan tahap oksigen terlarut dalam sampel air.
menunjukkan oksigen terlarut dalam sampel air adalah rendah, This reduces the level of dissolved oxygen in water sample.
dan sampel air sangat tercemar.
If the methylene blue solution decolourises rapidly, this shows that the
Pemeliharaan, Pemuliharaan dan Pemulihan Ekosistem
dissolved oxygen in the water sample is low, and the water sample is 10.2 Preservation, Conservation and Restoration of Ecosystem
highly polluted.

Pemeliharaan ekosistem / Preservation of ecosystem

Usaha melindungi suatu ekosistem supaya dapat mengekalkan Pemulihan ekosistem

Restoration of ecosystem
keadaan semula jadi.
To maintain some part of the ecosystem unchanged.
Proses memperbaiki kemusnahan ekosistem
semula jadi akibat aktiviti manusia dan berusaha
Elak perubahan iklim mengembalikan ke keadaan asal.
Revert climate change The processes of repairing the damage human activities have
caused to natural ecosystems and seek to return them to
Pembangunan lestari an earlier state.
Sustainable development

Ekosistem utuh Penanaman semula Kawalan hakisan

Intact ecosystem Replanting Erosion control

Pemulihan tanah / Soil restoration

Pemuliharaan ekosistem / Conservation of ecosystem

Pemuliharaan in situ / In situ conservation
• Mengekalkan spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di habitat asalnya Tindakan melindungi spesies, habitat semula jadi dan
Maintains plant and animal species within their natural habitats. keseluruan ekosistem daripada kepupusan.
• Contoh: Taman Negara dan Taman Laut The act of protecting species, their natural habitats and entire
Examples: National Park and Marine Park. ecosystems from extinction.
• Perlindungan spesies terancam
Pemuliharaan ex situ / Ex situ conservation Protection of endangered species
• Memulihara spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di luar habitat asalnya • Mengurangkan penggunaan sumber semula jadi dan
Conserves plant and animal species outside their natural habitats penghasilan sisa buangan.
• Contoh: Zoo dan Taman Botani Reduction in the use of natural resources and waste production.
Examples: Zoos and Botanical Gardens

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Amalan dalam Melestarikan Alam Sekitar

10.3 Practices in Environmental Sustainability PRAKTIS SPM 10
Amalan yang Menyumbang kepada Kelestarian Alam
Practises that Contribute to Environmental Sustainability
Soalan Objektif
(a) Konsep 5R / 5R concept 1. A 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. C
1) Menolak / Reuse 6. D 7. A 8. B
2) Kurangkan / Reduce
Soalan Struktur
3) Guna semula / Reuse
4) Baiki / Repair Bahagian A
5) Kitar semula / Recycle
1. (a) 1. Karbon dioksida memerangkap / menyerap
(b) tenaga / energy sinaran haba yang dipantulkan dari bumi
(c) diperbaharui / Renewable Carbon dioxide traps / absorbs heat radiation reflected from
(d) air / Water earth
(e) pokok / trees 2. Membawa kepada peningkatan suhu atmosfera
Leading the an increase in the atmosphere temperature
(f) tenaga / energy 3. Menyebabkan pemanasan global
(g) Pengangkutan / transportation Cause global warming
(h) angin / wind (b) (i) Karbon dioksida adalah bahan mentah proses
fotosintesis
Status Sekuriti Makanan di Malaysia Carbon dioxide is a raw material for photosynthesis
The Statue of Food Security in Malaysia 1. Peningkatan kepekatan karbon dioksida atmosfera
1. Ketersediaan / Availability akan meningkatkan kadar fotosintesis
An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
2. Akses / Access will result in an increase in the overall photosynthetic rate
3. Penggunaan / Utilisation 2. Oleh itu, lebih banyak karbon dioksida atmosfera
4. Kestabilan / Stability akan diserap
Hence, more carbon dioxide will be absorbed to counteract
Sekuriti makanan / Food security the increase
mencukupi; selamat; berkhasiat; pemakanan (ii) 1. Ketumpatan stomata tumbuhan menurun dengan
sufficient; safe; nutritious; dietary peningkatan kepekatan karbon dioksida atmosfera
Stomatal density of plants decrease with an increase in
Teknologi Hijau atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration
10.4 Green Technology 2. Ini mengurangkan kadar pertukaran gas tumbuhan
Mendefinisikan Teknologi Hijau As a result, it will reduce the rate of gas exchange in plants
Define Green Technology 3. Dan mengurangkan pengambilan CO2 atmosfera
This reduce the uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere
produk; sistem; alam sekitar; manusia 4. Kadar fotosintesis mungkin tidak meningkat kepada
products; systems; environment; human
tahap yang dijangka
Tonggak Dasar Teknologi Hijau Negara Photosynthetic rate may not increase to the expected extent
Pillars of National Green Technology Policy (c) 1. Penurunan kepadatan stomata mengurangkan
(a) Tenaga / Energy transpirasi tumbuhan
(b) Ekonomi / Economy A decrease in stomatal density will reduce the transpiration in
(c) Alam sekitar / Environment plants
2. Ini akan mengurangkan hujan
(d) Sosial / Social
This will reduce rainfall
Kriteria Teknologi Hijau / Criteria of Green Technology 3. Iklim persekitaran akan berubah
(a) alam sekitar / environment The regional climate will be altered
(b) rumah hijau / greenhouse 2. (a) (i) 1. Kepekatan oksigen terlarut menurun ketika air
(c) sihat / healthy mengalir dari Lokasi X ke Lokasi Y
(d) tenaga / energy The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases as water
flows from from Location X to Location Y.
(e) diperbaharui / renewable
2. Pembuangan kumbahan mengandungi sejumlah
Aplikasi Sains Sosial untuk Menyelesaikan Masalah dan Cabaran besar bahan organik
Alam Sekitar Sewage discharge contains large amount of organic matter
The Applications of Social Science to Solve Environment Problems and 3. Mikroorganisma di hilir menggunakan oksigen
Challenges terlarut
(a) Penglibatan / Participation Microorganisms downstream used dissolved oxygen
(b) Kemahiran / Skills 4. Untuk penguraian bahan organik
For the decomposition of the organic matter
(c) Sikap / Attitudes
(ii) 1. Kepekatan oksigen terlarut adalah sangat rendah
(d) Pengetahuan / Knowledge
di Lokasi Y, organisma akuatik aktif mati kerana
(e) Kesedaran / renewable kekurangan oksigen
As the concentration of dissolved oxygen is very low at
Location Y, active aquatic organisms die because lack of
oxygen

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2. Y hanya spesies yang toleransi kepada oksigen Mengurangkan penggunaan sumber semula jadi
rendah dapat hidup di Lokasi Y dan penghasilan sisa buangan.
Y only low-oxygen tolerant species can survive at location Y Reduction in the use of natural resources and waste
(b) (i) 1. Bahan organik kian habis digunakan, semakin production
kurang mikroorganisma melakukan penguraian / Pemuliharaan in situ / In situ conservation:
penguraian menurun • Mengekalkan spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di
As organic matter has been used up, less microorganisms habitat asalnya
carry out decomposition / decomposition decreases Maintains plant and animal species within their natural
2. Oksigen terlarut bertambah dalam air disebabkan habitats.
oleh fotosintesis tumbuhan akuatik • Contoh: Taman Negara dan Taman Laut
Oxygen continue to dissolve in the water due to Example: National Park and Marine Park
photosynthesis of aquatic plants
Pemuliharaan ex situ / Ex situ conservation:
(ii) 1. Lokasi Z mempunyai habiat yang berbeza.
• Memulihara spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan di luar
Location Z has different habitat.
habitat asalnya.
2. Ciri biotik dan abiotik lokasi Z adalah berbeza.
Conserves plant and animal species outside their natural
The biotic an abiotic properties of location Z are different.
habitats.
3. Kadar aliran air lebih perlahan di Lokasi Z. / daun
gugur dari pokok berdekatan. • Contoh: Zoo dan Taman Botani
Example: Zoos and Botanical Gardens
The rate of water flow is slower in Location Z / fallen leaves
from trees nearby (c) 1. Elakkan gangguan pada penyu betina yang bertelur
Avoid disturbance to nesting females
Bahagian C
2. Melindungi penyu kecil daripada pemangsa
1. (a) (i) 1. Pada asalnya tidak banyak Protect young from predators
Not many to begin with 3. Elakkan pencemaran laut // Jangan membuang
2. Adalah karnivor sampah ke laut / elakkan bahan buangan daripada
Are carnivorous kapal / elak pencemaran cahaya di pantai
3. Bilangan mangsa kurang Avoid sea pollution // Do not throw rubbish into sea / avoid
Prey number few discharge from boats / light pollution at beaches
4. Kadar pembiakan lebih perlahan 4. Berhati-hati ketika manjala ikan
Slower reproduction rate Take care when fishing with nets
5. Menghijrah ke kawasan lain 5. Hentikan pemburuan penyu dewasa / larangan
More likely to migrate to other rate
penjualan produk penyu
(ii) 1. Faktor berkaitan ketumpatan Stop hunting of adults / trading ban on turtle products
Density dependent factors 6. Program Pembiakbakaan dalam Kurungan
2. Persaingan untuk makanan / tempat tinggal / sumber Captive Breeding Programmes
Competition for food / nesting sites / resources
7. Pusat pemeliharaan / Zoo / Conservation areas / Zoos
3. Populasi besar memudahkan penyebaran penyakit
Large population spreads disease more easily 8. Pendidikan / ekopelancongan / Education / ecotourism
4. Populasi besar menarik perhatian mangsa
Large population attracts predators BAB
(b) Pemeliharaan ekosistem / Preservation of ecosystem Pewarisan
- Usaha melindungi suatu ekosistem supaya dapat
mengekalkan keadaan semula jadi.
11 Inheritance

To maintain some part of the ecosystem unchanged

- Elak perubahan iklim / Revert climate change Pewarisan Monohibrid
- Pembangunan lestari / Sustainable development
11.1 Monohybrid Inheritance
- Ekosistem utuh / Intact ecosystem • pokok kacang pis / pea plants
Pemulihan ekosistem / Restoration of ecosystem
- Proses memperbaiki kemusnahan ekosistem Kacukan Monohibri
Monohybrid Cross
semula jadi akibat aktiviti manusia dan berusaha
mengembalikan ke keadaan asal. • monohibrid; tunggal / Monohybrid; single
The processes of repairing the damage human activites
• satu / one
have caused to natural ecosytems and seek to return them
to an earlier state. Eksperimen Mendel / Mendel’s experiments
- Penanaman semula / Replanting • kacuk; tulen / cross; pure
- Pemulihan tanah / Soil restoration • induk; P; tinggi; rendah / Parental; P; tall; short
- Kawalan hakisan / Erosion control • F1, tinggi / F1, tall
Pemuliharaan ekosistem / Conservation of ecosystem • F2 / F2
• 3:1
- Tindakan melindungi spesies, habitat semula jadi
dan keseluruan ekosistem daripada kepupusan. Kesimpulan / Conclusion
The act of protecting species, their natural habitats and • gen / genes
entire ecosystems from extinction. • dua / two
• Perlindungan spesies terancam: • induk / parent
Protection of endangered species: • sama / equal
• alternatif / alternative
• dominan / dominant

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Istilah yang Berhubung dengan Pewarisan / Terms related to Inheritance:

Gen / Gene Alel / Allele
Unit asas pewarisan yang terdiri daripada satu segmen molekul Bentuk alternatif gen bagi trait tertentu yang menduduki lokus gen yang sama
DNA di kromosom. di sepasang kromosom homolog.
The basic unit of inheritance consisting of a segment of a DNA molecule Alternative forms of the same gene for a trait which occupying same gene
on a chromosome. locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

Gen ketinggian pokok

Gene for height of plant

Alel pokok tinggi Alel pokok rendah

Allele for tall plant Allele for short plant

Gen
Gene

Gen bagi ciri-ciri

berlainan
Genes for different
characteristics
Molekul DNA
DNA molecule

Kromosom / Chromosome Sepasang kromosom homolog / A pair of homologous chromosome

Ciri / Characters Trait / Traits

Sifat ketara organisma yang diwarisi dan ditentukan oleh gen. Varian bagi setiap ciri khusus.
A heritable feature that varies among organisms which is determined by gene. Each variant for a character.

Tujuh ciri kacang pis dikaji oleh Mendel (setiap ciri mempunyai dua trait berbeza).
Seven characters in Mendel’s study of peas plants (each character had two distinctly contrasting traits).

Ciri-ciri / Characters Trait dominan / Dominant trait Trait resesif / Recessive trait

Ketinggian pokok Rendah / Short

Tinggi / Tall
Stem height

Batang
Stems

Kedudukan bunga Aksial / Axial Terminal / Terminal

Flower position

Warna pod Hijau / Green Kuning / Yellow

Pod colour
Pod
Pods
Bentuk pod Licin / Inflated Berkedut / Constricted
Pod shape

Bentuk biji benih

Seed shape Bulat / Round Berkedut / Wrinkled

Biji / bunga Warna biji benih Kuning / Yellow Hijau / Green

Seed colour
Seeds / flowers

Warna bunga Ungu / Purple Putih / White

Flower colour

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Alel dominan / Dominant alleles

(a) Fenotip / Phenotypes (b) Genotip / Genotypes • fenotip / phenotypes
• besar / capital
Ciri yang dapat dilihat
Kandungan gen suatu organisma, Alel resesif / Recessive allele
yang ditonjolkan oleh suatu
biasanya ditunjukkan dalam simbol. • fenotip / phenotypes
organisma. The genetic makeup for the organism, • kecil / lower
An organism’s appearance or
which is most often shown in symbols.
observable traits. Homozigot / Homozygotes
• serupa / identical
(a) Trait dominan / Dominant traits • dominant; resesif / dominant; recessive
(b) Trait resesif / Recessive traits Heterozigot / Heterozygous
• berbeza / different
Rajah Kacukan Pewarisan Monohibrid/ / Monohybrid Cross Diagrams

Induk / Parental (P) Pokok tinggi Pokok rendah

Tall plant Short plant
Setiap pokok induk baka tulen mempunyai
Fenotip / Phenotypes: dua alel yang sama (TT atau tt).
TT tt
Each true-breeding plant of the parental generation
has two identical alleles (TT or tt).
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: T t

Persenyawaan
Fertilisation
Gabungan gamet induk menghasilkan
Generasi F1 Tt hibrid F1 yang mempunyai kombinasi Tt.
F1 Generation
Semua All Union of parental gametes produces F1 hybrids
Genotip / Genotypes: tinggi / tall having a Tt combination.
Fenotip / Phenotypes:
Pendebungaan
sendiri / Self-pollination
F1 × F1 Pokok tinggi Pokok tinggi
F1 Selfed Tall plant
X Tall plant

Genotip / Genotypes: Tt Tt

Meiosis Alel terpisah kepada gamet yang berbeza.

(= Hukum Segregrasi)
Gamet / Gametes: T t T t Alleles have separated into different gametes.
(= Law of Segregation)
Persenyawaan Gamet jantan / Male gametes
Fertilisation
T t
Segi empat Punnett menunjukkan semua
Gamet betina / Female gametes

kombinasi alel anak yang mungkin dalam

TT Tt kacukan ini.
T A Punnett square shows all the possible
tinggi / tall tinggi / tall combination of alleles in offspring in the cross.
( ) ( )

Tt tt
t tinggi / tall rendah / short
( ) ( )
Generasi F2
F2 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes: TT Tt tt

144424443
Nisbah genotip 1 2 1 Kedua-dua gamet bagi dan adalah
: :
Genotypes ratio: T atau t, ini menghasilkan empat genotip
yang mungkin.
tinggi / tall rendah / short
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Both and gametes can be T or t, giving four
Nisbah fenotip possible genotypes.
Phenotypic ratio:
3 1
:

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Hukum Mendel I Eksperimen Mendel / Mendel’s Experiments

Mendel’s First Law
1. dua; warna; bentuk / two; colour; shape
segregasi / segregation 2. kuning; bulat; hijau; berkedut / round; yellow; wrinkled; green
1. alel / alleles 3. kuning bulat / yellow round
2. terpisah; meiosis; gamet / segregates; meiosis; gamete
3. gamet; satu / gamete; one 5. 9; 3; 3; 1
Langkah Kacukan Dihibrid / The Steps of The Dihybrid Cross
Pewarisan Dihibrid Biji benih kacang pis kuning bulat baka tulen.
11.2 Dihybrid Inheritance
Pea plants from pure-breeding yellow round seeds.
Kacukan Dihibrid Biji benih kacang pis hijau berkedut baka tulen.
Dihybrid Cross Pea plants from pure-breeding green wrinkled seeds.
• dihibrid; dua; dua / Dihybrid; two; two
• warna; bentuk / colour; shape
Rajah Kacukan Dihibrid/ / A Dihybrid Cross Diagrams
Induk / Parental (P) Kuning bulat Hijau berkedut
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Yellow round Green wrinkled
Genotip / Genotypes : YYRR yyrr
X
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: YR Persenyawaan yr

Fertilisation Anak F1 adalah heterozigot bagi
YyRr kedua-dua gen.
Generasi F1 Semua F1 progeny are heterozygous for both
F1 Generation bijih benih kuning bulat genes.
Genotip / Genotypes : All
yellow round seeds
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
Pendebungaan sendiri
F1 × F1 Self-pollination
Kuning bulat Hijau berkedut Empat jenis gamet terbentuk dengan
F1 Selfed Yellow round Green wrinkled
kadar yang sama (pengaturan
Genotip / Genotypes : YyRr YyRr
bebas).
Four different types of gametes are
X formed in equal proportions (independent
Meiosis assortment).
Gamet / Gametes : YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr

Persenyawaan : Gamet jantan / Male gametes

Fertilisation :
YR Yr yR yr Terdapat 16 kombinasi gamet
apabila persenyawaan gamet
Gamet betina / Female gametes

berlaku di antara kedua induk F1

YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr secara rawak.
There are 16 possible combinations of
gametes when random fertilisation of
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr gametes from the two F1 parents occurs.

yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr

yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

Generasi F2 : 1 YYRR
F2 Generation : 2 YYRr 1 YYrr 1 yyRR 1yyrr
Genotip / Genotypes : 2 YyRR 2 Yyrr 2 yyRr
4 YyRr
9 3 3 1 Empat fenotip
Nisbah genotip : : : :
Genotypes ratio : muncul di generasi
Kuning bulat Kuning berkedut Hijau bulat Hijau berkedut F2.
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Four phenotypes
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Green round Green wrinkled
appear in the F2
Nisbah fenotip : generation.
9 3 3 1
Phenotypic ratio : : : :

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Kesimpulan Mendel / Mendel’s conclusion Gene and Alel

• Bentuk; Warna; berlainan / shape; colour; different 11.3 Genes and Alleles
• Kombinasi / combinations
• terpisah; bebas / seperate; independently Lokus gen adalah kedudukan gen tertentu pada suatu kromosom. Alel
dan lokus dengan gen pada kromosom:
Hukum Mendel II A gene locus is the position for a particular gene on a chromosome. The alleles
Mendel’s Second Law and loci to genes in a chromosome:

• pengaturan / assortment.
• tidak bergantung; gamet / independently; gamete
• rawak / randomly
Sepasang kromosom homolog, satu diwarisi daripada
Gen – panjang tertentu DNA di kromosom, berada pada kedudukan
induk jantan, dan satu lagi daripada induk betina.
yang disebut lokus. A pair of homologous chromosomes, one is inherited from the
Gene – a specific length of DNA of the chromosome, occupying a position male parent, and the other from the female parent.
called a locus.

Alel – bentuk alternatif gen bagi trait tertentu.

Alleles – the alternative forms of gene for a trait.
A a Di setiap lokus, individu mempunyai dua alel, setiap
satu pada setiap kromosom homolog.
At each locus, an individual has two alleles, one on each
homologous chromosome.
D D
Pada lokus ini, gen adalah homozigot (alel yang sama).
At these loci, the genes are homozygous (same alleles).

F F
j j Tiga pasang alel di tiga lokus berlainan.
Pada lokus ini, gen adalah heterozigot (alel berbeza). Three pairs of alleles at three different loci.
At this locus, the gene is heterozygous (different alleles). R r

Pewarisan Manusia 1 pasang kromosom seks (Pasangan ke 23)

11.4 Inheritance in Humans 1 pair of sex chromosomes (23rd pair)
Jenis Kromosom Manusia • jantina / sex
Types of Human Chromosomes • Perempuan; XX / female; XX
• Lelaki; XY / Male; XY
Setiap sel manusia biasanya mempunyai 23 pasang, sejumlah 46
kromosom. • homolog; tidak homolog / homologous; not homologous
In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total Kariotip manusia / Human karyotypes
of 46 of chromosomes. • Kariotip / karyotype
22 pasang autosom / 22 pairs autosomes • homolog; size / homologous; size
• jantina / sex • autosom; seks / autosomes; sex
• saiz; panjang / size; length

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
44 autosom
44 autosomes

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18
16 17 18

2 kromosom seks 2 kromosom seks

19 20 21 22 XX 19 20 21 22 XY Sex chromosomes
Sex chromosomes

Kariotip seorang perempuan normal Kariotip seorang lelaki normal

The karyotype of a normal female The karyotype of a normal male

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A) Kumpulan darah ABO / ABO blood groups

Kariotip seorang perempuan
Sindrom Down • ABO
1 2 3 4 5
The karyotype of a Down syndrome female • tunggal; pelbagai / single; multiple
• Bilangan kromosom = 47 - A / A
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (45 + XX) - B / B
Number of chromosomes = 47 - Tiada / No
(45 + XX)
• dominan / dominant
13 14 15 16 17 18 • M e m p u n y a i l e b i h s a t u
• kodominan / codominance
kromosom di kromosom 21.
Has an extra copy of
19 20 21 22 XX chromosome number 21. Fenotip (Kumpulan darah) Genotip
Phenotype (Blood group) Genotype

A IAIA / IAIO

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 B IBIB / IBIO

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 AB IAIB

17 18 19 20 21 22 X Y O IOIO
Kromosom tersusun mengikut saiz / Chromosomes organised by size

Kacukan yang mungkin di antara ibu bapa yang mempunyai kumpulan darah yang berlainan:
The possible cross between parents with different blood groups:

Kes 1 / Case 1:
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B

Genotip / Genotypes :
IAIO IBIO
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes : IA IO IB IO
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

IB Io
Female gametes
Gamet betina

IA IAIB IAIO

IO IBIO IOIO

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IAIO IBIO IOIO

AB A B O
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah Kumpulan darah
AB A B O
Blood group Blood group Blood group Blood group
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :

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Kes 2 / Case 2:
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes:
IAIA X IBIB
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: IA IA IB IB
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation
Gamet jantan / Male gametes

IB IB

Gamet betina
Female gametes
IA IAIB IAIB

IA IAIB IAIB

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB

AB AB
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip / Phenotypic ratio : Semua All
berkumpulan darah AB / blood group AB

Kes 3 / Case 3
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes :
IAIA X IBIO
Meiosis
IA IA IB IO
Gamet / Gametes:    

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

IB IO
Female gametes
Gamet betina

IA IAIB IAIO

IA IAIB IAIO

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IAIO

AB AB A A
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group : Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Nisbah fenotip / Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:

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Kes 4 / Case 4
Induk / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
Kumpulan darah A / Blood group A Kumpulan darah B / Blood group B
Genotip / Genotypes :
IAIO X IBIB
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: IA IO IB IB
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

IB IB

Female gametes
Gamet betina IA IAIB IAIB

IO IBIO IBIO

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : IAIB IBIO

AB AB B B
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kumpulan darah / Blood group : Kumpulan darah / Blood group

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:

B) Faktor Rhesus (Rh) / Rhesus factor (Rh)

Rh-positif / Rh-positive (Rh+) Rh-negatif / Rh-negative (Rh-)

Individu yang mempunyai faktor Rhesus. Individu yang tidak mempunyai faktor Rhesus.
An individual that has the Rhesus factor. An individual that does not has the Rhesus (Rh) factor.

Rh + Rh–
Antigen Rh
Rh antigen

Antibodi Rh
Rh antibody

• Faktor Rh dikawal oleh sepasang alel: alel Rh dan alel rh.

The Rh factor is controlled by a pair of alleles: Rh allele and rh allele.

Alel Menentukan penghasilan Dominan atau resesif

Allele Responsible for the production of Dominant or recessive

Rh Antigen Rh Dominan / Dominant

Tiada penghasilan antigen Resesif / Recessive

rh
Not producing antigen

• Pengaglutinan berlaku apabila antigen bertindak balas dengan antibodi seseorang tanpa antigen.
The antigen results in agglutination when it reacts with antibodies from an individual without the antigen.

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Kes 1 / Case 1
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative

Genotip / Genotypes : Rh Rh rh rh
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Rh Rh rh rh
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

rh rh

Female gametes
Gamet betina
Rh Rh rh Rh rh

Rh Rh rh Rh rh

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes: Rh rh

Fenotip / Phenotypes: Rhesus positif (heterozigot) / Rhesus positive (heterozygous)

Nisbah fenotip Semua All

Phenotypic ratio: rhesus positif / rhesus positive

Kes 2 / Case 2
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes: Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative

Genotip / Genotypes: Rh rh rh rh
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: Rh rh rh rh
   
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

rh rh
Female gametes
Gamet betina

Rh Rh rh Rh rh

rh rh rh rh rh

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Rh rh rh rh

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Rhesus positif / Rhesus positive : Rhesus negatif / Rhesus negative

Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :

C) Talasemia / Thalasemia
• Talasemia adalah sejenis penyakit pewarisan yang mengurangkan pembentukan hemoglobin normal dalam sel darah merah.
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder that reduces the production of normal haemoglobin in the red blood cells.

• Talasemia disebabkan oleh gen autosom resesif.

Thalassemia is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

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Kes 1: Jika salah seorang induk adalah pembawa / Case 1: If one parent is a carrier:
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Ibu normal / Normal mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Fenotip / Phenotypes :
BB Bb
Genotip / Genotypes : X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: B B B b
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

B b

Female gametes
Gamet betina
B BB Bb

B BB Bb

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : BB Bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal Normal Pembawa Carrier

/ /
Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :

Kes 2: Jika kedua-dua induk adalah pembawa / Case 2: If both parents are carrier:
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu pembawa / Carrier mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb Bb
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: B b B b
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina

B BB Bb

b Bb bb

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : BB Bb Bb bb
 

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal Normal Pembawa Carrier Thalasemia Thalassemia
/ / /
Nisbah fenotip 1 2 1
Phenotypic ratio : : :

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Kes 3: Jika salah seorang induk pengidap Talasemia / Case 3: If one parents is Thalassemia patient:
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu normal / Normal mother Bapa talasemia / Thalassemia father
Genotip / Genotypes : BB bb
X
Meiosis
B B b b
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

b b

Female gametes
Gamet betina
B Bb Bb

B Bb Bb

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Pembawa Carrier

/
Nisbah fenotip Semua pembawa All carrier
Phenotypic ratio : /
Kes 4: Jika salah seorang induk pengidap Talasemia dan satu lagi adalah pembawa
Case 4: If one parents is Thalassemia patient and another a carrier
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu talasemia / Thalassemia mother Bapa pembawa / Carrier father
Genotip / Genotypes : bb Bb
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: b b B b
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

B b
Female gametes
Gamet betina

b Bb bb

b Bb bb

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Bb bb

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Pembawa Carrier Talasemia Thalassemia
/ /
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:

D) Kebolehan menggulung lidah / Ability to roll the tongue

• Kebolehan menggulung lidah (R) adalah dominan kepada tidak boleh menggulung lidah (r)
In humans, the ability to roll tongue (R) is a dominant over inability to roll tongue (r).

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Kes 1 / Case 1
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Boleh menggulung lidah Tidak boleh menggulung lidah
Ability to roll tongue Inability to roll tongue
Genotip / Genotypes : RR rr
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: R R r r
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

r r

Female gametes
Gamet betina
R Rr Rr

R Rr Rr

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Kebolehan menggulung lidah Ability to roll tongue

/
Nisbah fenotip Semua All
Phenotypic ratio : boleh menggulung lidah / able to roll tongue

Kes 2 / Case 2
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Boleh menggulung lidah Tidak boleh menggulung lidah
Able to roll tongue Unable to roll tongue
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr X rr
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: R r r r
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

r r
Female gametes
Gamet betina

R Rr Rr

r rr rr

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : Rr rr

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Boleh menggulung lidah Tidak boleh menggulung lidah

Ability to roll tongue Inability to roll tongue
Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1
:

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E) Bentuk lekapan cuping telinga / Types of earlobe

• Bentuk cuping telinga bebas (F) manusia adalah dominan kepada cuping telinga melekap (f).
In humans, having free earlobes (F) is dominant over having attached earlobes (f )

Induk (P) / Parental (P)

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Cuping telinga bebas / Free earlobes Cuping telinga bebas / Free earlobes

Genotip / Genotypes : Ff Ff
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: F f F f
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

F f

Female gametes
Gamet betina
F FF Ff

f Ff ff

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : FF Ff Ff ff
   

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Cuping teinga bebas / Free earlobes Cuping teinga melekap / Attached earlobes

Nisbah fenotip 3 1
Phenotypic ratio : :

F) Penentuan jantina / Sex determination

• Dalam sel badan manusia, kromosom seks menentukan jantina individu.
In a human body cell, the sex chromosomes determine the sex of an individual.

Anak perempuan
Female child
44 + XX Sperma membawa kromosom Y atau
Semua ovum yang dihasilkan
kromosom X.
membawa kromosom X.
A sperm carries either a Y chromosome or an X
All the ova produced carry X chromosomes.
chromosome.

Sell soma perempuan mempunyai 44 Sel soma lelaki mempunyai 44 +

+ XX kromosom. XX XY XY kromosom.
The somatic cells of a female have 44 + XX The somatic cells of a male have 44 +
chromosomes. XY chromosomes.

Ibu Bapa
Mother Father
Anak lelaki
Male child
44 + XY

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Induk (P) / Parental (P)

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Ibu / Mother Bapa / Father
Perempuan / Female ( ) Lelaki / Male ( )
Genotip / Genotypes :
44 + XX X 44 + XY
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: 22 + X 22 + X 22 + X 22 + Y
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

22 + X 22 + Y

Female gametes
Gamet betina
22 + X 44 + XX 44 + XY

22 + X 44 + XX 44 + XY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : 44 + XX 44 + XY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan / Female Lelaki / Male

Nisbah fenotip 1 1
:
Phenotypic ratio :

• sama / equal G) Pewarisan ciri terangkai seks (buta warna, hemofilia)

Sex-linked inheritance (colour blindness, haemophilia)
• rawak; 50% / random; 50%
1. terangkai seks / sex-linked
• lelaki / male
2. genetik; X / genetic; X
3. Buta warna; hemofilia; resesif; X
Colour blindness; haemophilia; recessive; X
4. Lelaki / Males

Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female (XX)

Lelaki / Male (XY) Perempuan / Female (XX)

Gen berkaitan dengan seks berada pada bahagian kromosom

seks ini.
The genes concerned with sex are located on this part of the sex
chromosomes.

Gen untuk penglihatan warna – alel

resesif menyebabkan buta warna
Gene for colour vision – the recessive
allele causes colour blindness

Mana-mana alel dominan atau resesif yang terletak di

kawasan ini akan muncul dalam fenotip lelaki.
Any dominant or recessive allele located in this region will show up
in the phenotype of the male.

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Pewarisan buta warna / The inheritance of colour blindness Pewarisan hemofilia / The inheritance of haemophilia
merah dan hijau / red and green membeku / cloth

Kunci / Key – XB : Alel dominan / Dominant allele Kunci / Key – XH : Alel dominan / Dominant allele
Xb : Alel resesif / Recessive allele Xh : Alel resesif / Recessive allele
Fenotip Genotip / Genotype Fenotip Genotip / Genotype
Phenotype Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female Phenotype Lelaki / Male Perempuan / Female
Penglihatan normal Penglihatan normal
X Y
B
XB XB XH Y XH XH
Normal vision Normal vision
Pembawa / Carrier – XB Xb Pembawa / Carrier – XH Xh
Buta warna / Colour-blind X Y
b
Xb Xb Buta warna / Colour-blind X Y
h
Xh Xh

Kes 1: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki buta warna dan isterinya yang penglihatan normal.
Case 1: A cross between a colour-blind man his wife with normal vision.
Induk (P) / Parental (P)
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan normal / Normal female Lelaki buta warna / Colour-blind male
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXB XbY
X
Meiosis
Gamet / Gametes: XB XB Xb Y
   
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

Xb Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina

XB XBXb XBY

XB XBXb XBY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XBY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki normal / Male normal

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio :
1 1
:
Kes 2: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki penglihatan normal dan isteri yang buta warna.
Case 2: A cross between normal vision man and his colour-blind wife.
Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan buta warna Lelaki normal
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Colour-blind female Male normal

Genotip / Genotypes : XbXb XBY

X
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: Xb Xb XB Y
   
Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

XB Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina

Xb XBXb XbY

Xb XBXb XbY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XbY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki buta warna / Male colour-blind

Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :

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Kes 3: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki penglihatan normal dan isteri pembawa alel buta warna.
Case 3: A cross between a normal vision man and his wife who carries of colour-blind allele.

Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Carrier female Male normal

Genotip / Genotypes : XBXb XBY

X
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: XB Xb XB Y
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

XB Y

Female gametes
Gamet betina
XB XBXB XBY

Xb XBXb XbY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XBXB XBXb XBY XbY

Perempuan normal Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal Lelaki buta warna
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Female normal Female carrier Male normal Male colour-blind

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :

Kes 4: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki hemofilia dan isterinya yang normal.
Case 4: A cross between a haemophiliac man and his normal wife.

Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan normal Lelaki hemofilia

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Normal female Haemophiliac male

Genotip / Genotypes : XHXH XhY

X
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: XH XH Xh Y
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

Xh Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina

XH XHXh XHY

XH XHXh XHY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XHY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki normal / Male normal

Nisbah fenotip 1 1
Phenotypic ratio : :

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Kes 5: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki normal dan isteri hemofilia.

Case 5: A cross between a normal man and his haemophiliac wife.

Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan hemofilia Lelaki normal

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Haemophiliac female Normal male
Genotip / Genotypes : XhXh XHY
X
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: Xh Xh XH Y
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

XH Y

Female gametes
Gamet betina
Xh XHXh XhY

Xh XHXh XhY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XhY

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Perempuan pembawa / Female carrier Lelaki hemofilia / Male Haemophiliac

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1
:

Kes 6: Kacukan di antara seorang lelaki normal dan isteri yang pembawa alel hemofilia.
Case 6: A cross between a normal and his wife who is a carrier of haemophiliac allele.

Induk (P) / Parental (P) Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal

Fenotip / Phenotypes : Carrier female Male normal

Genotip / Genotypes : XHXh XHY

X
Meiosis

Gamet / Gametes: XH Xh XH Y
   

Persenyawaan / Fertilisation Gamet jantan / Male gametes

XH Y
Female gametes
Gamet betina

XH XHXH XHY

Xh XHXh XhY

Generasi F1 / F1 Generation
Genotip / Genotypes : XHXH XHXh XHY XhY

Perempuan normal Perempuan pembawa Lelaki normal Lelaki hemofilia
Fenotip / Phenotypes : Female normal Female carrier Male normal Haemophiliac male

Nisbah fenotip
Phenotypic ratio : 1 1 1 1
: : :

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Pewarisan manusia dengan mengkaji pedigri keluarga / Human inheritance by studying family pedigrees
• Pedigri; trait / pedigree; traits

Garis ini menghubungkan bapa dan ibu

This link links the faher and the mother
Kunci /Key:

Lelaki normal
Setiap baris I Garis ini Normal male
mewakili
menghubungkan
generasi 1 2
ibu bapa kepada
baharu Perempuan normal
anak-anak.
Each horizontal Normal female
This line links
row represents a
the parents to
new generation.
their offspring. Lelaki mempunyai trait
Male with the trait

II
Perempuan mempunyai trait
Female with the trait
1 2 3
Ini menunjukkan anak-anak daripada ibu bapa yang sama.
This show the offspring from the same father and mother.

Individu 5 = kumpulan darah A / Individual 5 = blood group A Individu 8 = kumpulan darah AB / Individual 8 = blood group AB
• I0 • A ; B
• IA ; B • O ; IA IB
• IA I0 ; A • AB
(iii) 1. R menerima kedua-dua alel dominan, T daripada
PRAKTIS SPM 11
kedua-dua induk untuk trait tinggi.
R received both dominant alleles, T from both parents for
tall trait
Soalan Objektif 2. R menerima alel dominan B dari induk P dan alel
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. A resesif b dari Q untuk trait bunga ungu.
R received dominant allele B from parent P and recessive
6. A 7. A 8. A 9. A 10. A allele b from Q for purple flower trait.
11. A 12. B 13. B 14. B 3. Alel dominan (T, B) menunjukkan trait.
Dominant allele (T, B) shown the trait.
Soalan Struktur
(c) (i)
Bahagian A
TB Tb tB tb
1. (a) Trait : Pokok rendah dan bunga putih
Trait: Short plant and white flower
1. Trait pokok rendah dan bunga putih tidak ditunjukkan TTBB TTBb TtBB TtBb
di generasi F1
The traits of short plant and white flower is not shown in TTBb TTbb TtBb Ttbb
F1 generation
2. Trait resesif hanya ditunjukkan apabila kedua-dua TtBB TtBb ttBB ttBb
alel resesif hadir
Recessive trait will be shown when both recessive alleles TtBb Ttbb ttBb ttbb
present
(b) (i) (iii) 1. Berdasarkan Hukum Mendel kedua / Hukum
pengaturan bebas
Induk / Parents : P  Q
Based on Mendel second law / Law of independent
Fenotip / Phenotype :
assortment
Genotip / Genotype : TtBb TTbb
2. Semasa pembentukan gamet, setiap ahli daripada
Gamet
pasangan alel boleh bergabung secara rawak
Gametes dengan mana-mana satu ahli pasangan alel yang
lain
TB Tb tB tb Tb During gamete formation, each member of a pair of alleles
may combine randomly with member of another pair of
allele
3. Nisbah 9: 3: 3: 1 / The ratio = 9:3:3:1
4. Nisbah fenotip = 9 tinggi, ungu : 3 tinggi, puith : 3
Anak TTBb TTbb rendah, ungu : 1 rendah, putih
Offspring R TtBb Ttbb Phenotypic ratio : 9 tall, purple : 3 tall, white : 3 short,
purple : 1 short, white

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2. (a) 1. Bapa Aminah adalah buta warna, kromosom X mesti

BAB
mengandung alel resesif untuk buta warna. Variasi
12
As Aminah’s father is colour blind, he must has a X chromosome Variation
bearing the recessive allele for colour blindness
2. Sebagai seorang perempuan, Aminah mewarisi
kromosom X yang mengandungi alel resesif dari
bapanya. Jenis dan Faktor Variasi
Being a female, Aminah must has inherited the X chromosome
12.1 Types and Factors of Variation
bearing the recessive allele from her father.
Variasi
3. Sebaliknya, Aminah adalah normal, dia mempunyai Variation
kromosom X dengan label dominan untuk penglihatan
normal daripada ibunya. • fenotip; spesies / phenotypes; species
On the other hand, Aminah is normal, therefore she must have (a) membezakan / distinguish
a X chromosome bearing dominant allele for normal eye sight (b) kemandirian / survival
from her mother.
(c) penyesuaian / adapt
4. Oleh itu, Aminah adalah heterozigot
Therefore, Aminah is a heterozygote. Jenis Variasi
(b) (i) Tidak / No The Type of Variation
1. Rajah tidak menunjukkan kandungan genetik fetus.
The diagram cannot reveal the genetic make-up of the • Terdapat dua jenis variasi / There are two types of variations:
foetus.
Variasi selanjar Variasi tidak selanjar
2. Rajah hanya menunjukkan bilangan dan bentuk Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
kromosom.
The diagram only show the number and the appearance
of chromosomes Variasi selanjar Variasi tidak selanjar
3. Rabun warna disebabkan oleh kehadiran alel resesif Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
pada kromosom seks 1. tidak ketara / not distinctive 1. ketara / distinctive
Colour blindness is due to the presence of recessive allele
on the sex chromosome 2. perantaraan; ekstrim 2. tiada; tiada / no; no
(ii) Perempuan / Female intermediate; extremes intermediate; extremes
1. Pasangan kromosom ke-23 dalam kariotip 3. kuantitatif; boleh 3. kualitatif; tidak boleh
mempunyai saiz yang sama quantative; can qualitative; cannot
The 23rd pair of chromosome in the karyotype have a similar 4. genetik; persekitaran 4. genetik; tidak
size. genetic; environmental genetic; not
2. Fetus mempunyai kedua-dua kromosom X
The foetus has both X chromosomes 5. normal / normal 5. diskrit / discrete

Variasi selanjar / Continuous variation

Variasi selanjar disebabkan oleh gabungan kesan genetik dan persekitaran.
18 Continuous variation is due to the combined effects of genes and the environment.
16
Number of individuals
Bilangan individu

14
Carta bar ‘bilangan individu’ boleh dilukis semula sebagai graf lengkung licin
12
kerana ada ketinggian perantaraan yang mungkin di antara dua ekstrim.
10
The bar chart of ‘number of individuals’ can be redrawn as a smooth curve because there
8 are many possible intermediate height between the two extremes.
6
4
2

1.59 1.66 1.75 1.83 1.92 2.00 2.08 2.33 Terdapat julat ketinggian yang berbeza.
Ketinggian / Height (cm) There could be differences about the range of the heights.
Variasi tidak selanjar / Discontinuous variation

Variasi tak selanjar disebabkan oleh kesan genetik sahaja.

46
Discontinuous variation is due to the effect of genetic only.
42
Percentage of population
Peratus populasi

Carta bar ‘peratus populasi’ tidak dalam bentuk graf lengkung licin kerana
tiada kumpulan darah perantaraan.
The bar chart of ‘percentage of population’ cannot be a smooth curve because there is
no intermediate blood group.

9
3
Hanya ada kumpulan darah A, B, AB atau O.
AB A O B
There can only be A, B, AB or O blood group.

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Punca Variasi dengan Jenis Variasi / Causes of Variation to Types of Variation:

Faktor genetik / Genetics factor Faktor persekitaran / Environmental factors

Pindah silang semasa meiosis

Crossing over at meiosis
Suhu / Temperature

Penyusunan bebas kromosom semasa meiosis

Independant assortment of chromosomes at meiosis
Cahaya / Light

Persenyawaan rawak gamet

Random fertilisation of gametes pH / pH

Mutasi / Muttation

Pembiakan Seks Membawa kepada Variasi / Sexual Reproduction Leads to Variation

1. Kromosom homolog 2. Pertukaran bahan genetik

berpasangan semasa di antara kromatid.
meiosis bermula. Genetic material is 3. Kombinasi gen
C
a

Homologous chromosomes exchanged between baharu.

paired up as meiosis begins. chromatids. New gene
A

combinations

Bilangan gamet berlainan

tanpa had.
a
a

C
b
C
b

Limitless number of different

B

c
A

B
A

gametes.

Kedua proses berlaku secara rawak dalam penghasilan gamet jantan (sperma) dan gamet betina
(ovum).
Both processes occur randomly in the production of male gametes (sperms) and female gamete (ovum).

2. Empat jenis gamet Mana-mana satu

berbeza terbentuk hanya sperma boleh
daripada dua pasang bersenyawa dengan
kromosom. Dengan mana-mana ovum.
cara ini, manusia dapat Any sperm can fuse
with any ovum.
menghasilkan gamet
1. Pasangan kromosom homolog yang berlainan.
menyusun secara rawak, Atau / or There are four different
gametes form just two pairs
menghasilkan gamet dengan
of chromosomes. Each
kombinasi gen yang berlainan. human produces many
Homologous pairs may arrange randomly, different gametes in this way.
producing different combinations of genes
in the gametes.

Variasi di kalangan anak.

Variation among offspring.

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Faktor persekitaran / Environmental factors

• Sesetengah variasi dari segi fenotip disebabkan oleh persekitaran dan tidak diwarisi melalui gen.
Some phenotypic variation is caused by the environmental and not passed on through genes.

Suhu / Temperature: Cahaya / Light: pH / pH:

Primrose Cina / Chinese primrose • Pokok yang menerima lebih Hydrangea
• Suhu panas – Bunga berwarna putih. banyak cahaya matahari • Dalam keadaan beralkali – bunga berwarna merah
Warm temperature – white flowers. tumbuh dengan lebih baik jambu.
• Suhu sejuk – bunga berwarna merah. Plants which receive more In alkali condition – pink flowers.
Cool temperature – red flowers. sunlight grow better. • Dalam keadaan berasid – bunga berwarna biru.
In acidic condition – blue flowers.

Variasi yang Berpunca daripada Interaksi antara Faktor Genetik • Fenotip adalah hasil genotip dan pengaruh persekitaran.
dengan Faktor Persekitaran The phenotype is the product of genotype and influences of the
Variation Caused by Interaction between Genetic and Environmental environment.
Factors
• Rupa suatu organisma adalah dipengaruhi oleh genotip dan Fenotip = Genotip + kesan persekitaran
persekitaran. Phenotype = Genotype + effects of the environment
The appearance of an organism is influenced by both its genotype
and its environment.

Julia Julia
Julia & Kiki Makan makanan Gen obesiti tidak
J J J
Kembar seiras mempunyai J K rendah lemak. dirangsang.
gen yang dapat menyerap Eats low fat foods. Obesity genes not triggered.
lemak dua kali lebih cepat
daripada orang biasa.
Identical twins have genes
that absorb fats twice as fast Kiki Kiki
as the average person.
Makan makanan Gen obesiti dirangsang.
JK tinggi lemak. K Obesity genes triggered.
Eats fatty food.

2. Apakah bentuk graf? / What is the shape of the graph?

Variasi selanjar Variasi tak selanjar
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation Lengkung taburan normal / Normal distribution curve
(B) Variasi tak selanjar / Discontinuous variation
• genetik; persekitaran • gen / genes
genetic; environmental • Tidak / No Perbincangan / Discussion
• Contoh / Example: x
• Contoh / Example: 1. (a) × 100
- Ketinggian y
- Kumpulan darah
Height Blood group x = bilangan murid / number of pupils
- Warna kulit - Jenis corak cap ibu jari y = jumlah murid dalam kelas / total number of pupils in the class
Skin colour Fingerprint patterns x
(b) × 100
- Berat badan - Jenis cuping telinga y
Body weight Ear lope shape x = bilangan murid / number of pupils
- Lilitan dada - Kebolehan menggulung lidah y = jumlah murid dalam kelas / total number of pupils in the class
Chef circumference Tongue rolling ability
2. • Kebolehan menggulung lidah / The ability to roll the tongue
• Kumpulan darah / Blood group
Eksperimen 12.1 • Bentuk cuping telinga / Shape of the ear lopes

(A) Variasi selanjar / Continuous variation Mutasi

Mutation
Perbincangan / Discussion
1. Apakah julat yang paling umum? / What is the most common? Mutasi / Mutation
(a) Julat ketinggian? / height range? 150-154 cm • spontan; kekal / sudden; permanent
• gamet; soma / gametes; somatic
(b) Julat berat badan / body weight range? 50 - 54 kg • semulajadi; rawak; mutagen / naturally; randomly; mutagen

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Mutagen / Mutagen

Jenis mutagen / The types of mutagen

Agen fizikal / Physical agents Agen kimia / Chemical agents Agen biologi / Biological agents
• Radioaktif / Radioactive • Benzena / Benzene • virus / viruses
• Sinar - X / X - rays • Fomaldehid / Formaldehyde • makanan / Food
• ultra-ungu / Ultra-violet • Abestos / Abestos - kulat / fungi
• gamma / Gamma • mustard / Mustard - kekacang / nuts
• Suhu / temperature • Tar / Tar - daging / meat

Mutan / Mutan
Gen atau organisma yang diubah secara genetik / Genetically altered genes or organisms.
Jenis mutasi / Types of mutation:

Jenis mutasi / Types of mutations

Mutasi gen / Gene mutation Mutasi kromosom / Chromosomal mutations

Contoh Perubahan bilangan kromosom Perubahan struktur kromosom

Examples Change in chromosome number Change in chromosome structure

Contoh / Examples Contoh / Examples

1. Anemia sel sabit 1. Sindrom Down / Down syndrome

Sickle cell anaemia 2. Sindrom Turner / Turner syndrome 1. Sindrom cri du chat
Cri du chat syndrome
2. Albinisme / Albinism 3. Sindrom Klinefelter / Klinefelter syndrome
4. Sindrom Jacob / Jacob syndrome

Mutasi gen / Gene mutation

DNA Polipeptida / Polypeptide

Normal ATG CAG TTT TTA CGC AAT Met – Gln – Phe – Leu – Arg – Asn

(a) Gantian bes

Base substituition Met – Gln – Phe – Ser – Arg – Asn Satu asid amino
ATG CAG TTT TCA CGC AAT yang berbeza dalam
polipeptida terhasil.
One different amino acid in
(b) Penyongsangan bes the polypeptide produced.
Base inversion ATG CAG TTT TAT CGC AAT Met – Gln – Phe – Tyr – Arg – Asn

(c) Pelenyapan bes

Base deletion ATG CAG TTT TAC GCA AT - Met – Gln – Phe – Tyr – Ala – ––
Protein yang dihasilkan
biasanya tidak berfungsi.
The resulting protein is
usually non-functional.
(d) Sisipan bes
Base insertion ATG CAG TTT TTT ACG CAA T Met – Gln – Phe – Phe – Thr – Gln

Mutasi gen dan anemia sel sabit / Gene mutation and sickle-cell anemia
1. Anaemia sel sabit disebabkan oleh mutasi gen yang menghasilkan hemoglobin sel sabit (Hbs) pada gen β-hemoglobin.
Sickle cell anaemia is caused by gene mutation that produces sickle cell haemoglobin (Hbs) is in the gene for β-haemoglobin.
2. Ini terhasil daripada gantian satu bes pada gen yang mengkod rantai polipeptida di hemoglobin.
It results from the substitution of a single base in the gene that code for a polypeptide chain in haemoglobin.

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Bes ganti / Substituted base

3’ 5’ 1. Di gen, bes T digantikan dengan bes
3’ 5’
DNA C T C A pada satu kedudukan.
C A C
In the gene, base T is replaced by base A
Sebahagian gen Sebahagian gen at one position.
hemoglobin normal hemoglobin mutasi
Part of normal Part of mutated
haemoglobin gene haemoglobin gene
2. Polipeptida yang terbentuk mempunyai
asid amino valina dan bukan asid
mRNA G A G G U G glutamik.
5’ 3’ The polypeptide made has one different
5’ 3’
amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid.
mRNA normal mRNA rosak
Normal mRNA Faulty mRNA

3. Apabila aras oksigen rendah, molekul

hemoglobin abnormal menyebabkan
Protein Glu Val sel darah merah menjadi berbentuk
sabit.
Hemoglobin normal Hemoglobin sel sabit When oxygen levels are low, the abnormal
Normal haemoglobin Sickle cell haemoglobin haemoglobin molecules cause the red
(Hbs) blood cells to become sickle - shaped.

4. Sel sabit tidak cekap dalam

mengangkut oksigen dan menyekat
salur darah, mengakibatkan kerosakan
tisu akibat kekurangan oksigen.
The sickle cell is less efficient at carrying
oxygen and blocks blood vessels, resulting
Sel darah merah normal Sel sabit / Sickle cells in tissue damage from lack of oxygen.
Normal red blood cells

Mutasi gen dan albinisme / Gene mutation and albinism B) Perubahan dalam bilangan kromosom
• melanin / melanin Change in chromosome number.
• mutasi / mutation • kromosom; kromatid; Tak-disjunsi
• resesif / recessive chromosomes; chromatids; Non-disjunction

Mutasi kromosom / Chromosomal mutations

• struktur; bilangan / structure; number
A) Perubahan dalam struktur kromosom
Change in chromosome structure
Tak-disjunsi di meiosis II
1. Penyelapan / Deletion Non-disjunction at meiosis II
terputus; kehilangan / breaks; loss
2. Penggandaan / Duplication
penambahan / gain
3. Penyongsangan / Inversion
tersongsang / reversed
4. Translokasi / Translocation
terputus; tertukar / breaks; exchanged n n+1 n–1
Sindrom cri du chat / Cri du Chat syndrome
Tak-disjunsi di meiosis I
• penyelapan / deletion Non-disjunction at meiosis I

Suara tangisan bayi seperti anak kucing ‘miao’.

The infant’s cry sounds like a kitten mewing.

Persenyawaan
Fertilisation
Individu terlibat mempunyai / The affected individual has
• Kepala kecil / Small head
• Wajah muka abnormal (muka seperti bulan’)
Facial abnormalities (‘moon face’)
• Terencat akal / Mental retardetion n+1 n–1

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Sindrom Down / Down syndrome:

• Sindrom Down disebabkan oleh terlebih satu kromosom nombor 21 di sel badan.
Down syndrome is caused by an extra chromosome number 21 in each body cell.
• Bilangan kromosom = 47 (2n+1) / Number of chromosomes = 47 (2n+1).

Agihan kromosom induk tidak

Bilangan kromosom sama semasa meiosis.
Sel organ seks
Agihan kromosom diploid: 46 (manusia) 46 Uneven distribution of parental
Cell in sex organ
sama di gamet. Diploid number of chromosomes at meiosis.
Chromosomes distributed chromosomes:
equally between the 46 (humans)
gametes Meiosis
Meiosis normal
Normal meiosis

Bilangan haploid Bilangan haploid Gamet 24 22

Haploid number Haploid number Gametes
n = 23 n = 23 Mempunyai dua
kromosom 21
Jika persenyawaan Has two
berlaku chromosomes 21
If fertilisation occurs

Genotip seperti ini

This genotype

Sel mempunyai 47 kromosom

(3 kromosom 21)
Cell has 47 chromosomes
(3 copies of chromosome 21)
Hasilkan fenotip ini
Results in this phenotype

• Leher pendek / Short neck

• Semasa meiosis, pasangan kromosom 21 gagal terpisah secara normal
• Muka bulat / Distinctive round face
dan kedua kromosom ke sel anak yang sama.
• Mata sepet / Slanted eyes
During meiosis, the pair of chromosome 21 fails to separate normally and both
• Hidung penyek members of the pair go to the same daughter cell.
Flat nose
• Jika gamet yang mempunyai 24 kromosom bergabung dengan gamet
• Lidah pendek
normal, zigot terhasil akan mempunyai 47 kromosom.
Protruding tongue
If the gamete containing 24 chromosomes fuses with a normal gamete, the resulting
• Terencat akal zygote will have 47 chromosomes.
Mental retardation

Contoh Bilangan kromosom Kromosom terlibat Ciri-ciri

Example No of chromosomes Chromosomes involved Characteristics

• Perempuan / Female
Kekurangan satu
(a) Sindrom Turner 45 • Organ seks tidak matang / Sex organs do not mature
kromosom X.
Turner syndrome (44+X0) • Mandul / Infertile
Has less one X chromosome.
• Mempunyai kecerdasan normal / Most have normal intelligence

• Lelaki / Male
• Mempunyai testis kecil, menghasilkan kurang sperma
(b) Sindrom Klinfelter 47 Lebih satu kromosom X
Have small testes, produce few sperm
Klinefelter syndrome (44+XXY) Has an extra X chromosome
• Mandul / Infertile
• Payudara membesar / Developed breast

• Lelaki / Male
• Biasanya lebih tinggi / Usually taller than average
• Mengalami masalah jerawat yang berterusan
(c) Sindrom Jacob 47 Lebih satu kromosom Y
Suffer from persistent acne
Jacobs syndrome (44 + XYY) Has an extra Y chromosome
• Mengalami masalah pertuturan dan membaca
Have speech and reading problems
• Tidak mandul / Fertile

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Mutasi gen melibatkan Perubahan urutan bes

perubahan dalam urutan mengubah kod genetik Protein yang rosak atau
Ciri organisma berubah.
bes gen tertentu. untuk sintesis protein. tiada protein terhasil. Berlaku variasi.
Characteristics of an
A gene mutation involves a Changes in the base A defective protein or no Variation occur.
organism change.
change in the sequence of sequence alter the genetic protein may be produced.
bases of a particular gene. code for protein synthesis.

(a) Mutasi sel soma / Mutations of somatic cells (b) Mutasi sel gamet / Mutations of gametes
• sel / cells • semua / every
• diwarisi / inherited • diwarisi / inherited

Gamet
Gametes Mutasi gamet
Gamete mutation

Embrio
Mutasi soma Embryo
Somatic mutation

Kesan tompok Organisma

Patch of affected Organism
area Mutasi di
seluruh badan
Entire body carries
the mutation

Gamet organisma
Gametes of the organism
Tiada gamet Separuh gamet
membawa mutasi membawa mutasi
None of gametes Half of gametes
carry mutation carry mutation

(a)  Mutasi sel soma / Mutations of somatic (b)  Mutasi sel gamet / Mutations of gametes

PRAKTIS SPM 12 3. Ciri-ciri adalah kuantitatif – 3. Ciri-ciri adalah kualitatif –

boleh diukur tidak dapat diukur
The characteristics are The characteristics are qualitative
Soalan Objektif quantitative – can be measured – cannot be measured
1. B 2. C 3. C 4. A 5. C 6. D
4. Dipengaruh oleh faktor
7. D 8. D 9. D 10. C 11. C 4. Dipengaruh oleh faktor
persekitaran dan genetik
genetik
Soalan Struktur Influenced by environmental and
Influenced by genetic factor
genetic factors
Bahagian A
1. (a) (i) Ketinggian : Variasi selanjar / Height : Continuous variation 5. Dikawal oleh pelbagai gen 5. Dikawal oleh satu gen
Kumpulan darah : Variasi tak selanjar Controlled by multiple genes Controlled by a single gene
Blood group: Discontinuous variation
(ii) 6. Lengkung taburan normal 6. Lengkung taburan diskrit
Variasi selanjar Variasi tak selanjar berbentuk lonceng berbentuk bar berasingan
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation Normal distribution bell-shaped Discrete distribution separate
1. Tunjukkan perbezaan tidak 1. Tunjukkan perbezaan yang curve bar chart
ketara ketara
(b) • Diet / Tabiat makan / Diet / Eating habit
Show not distinctive differences Show distinctive differences
2. Mempunyai ciri perantaraan 2. Tiada ciri perantaraan • Penyakit / disease
antara individu No intermediates • Gaya hidup / stress / lifestyle / stress
Has intermediates between the
• Budaya / culture
individuals

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(c) Faktor / Factors: (c) 1. Mutasi kromosom / mutasi gen mengubah urutan DNA /
Faktor persekitaran contohnya: cahaya, nutrien, air struktur kromosom atau bilangan kromosom
Environmental factors such as sunlight, nutrient, water Chromosome / gene mutation changes DNA sequence /
Penerangan / Explanation: chromosome structure or number
Buah pisang lebih besar menerima lebih banyak nutrien / 2. Ini mewujudkan variasi DNA baru / alel baru
cahaya matahari berbanding dengan buah pisang lebih This creates new DNA variation / new alleles
kecil yang mendapat kurang nutrien / cahaya matahari 3. Alel baru memberi kombinasi alel baru
The bigger banana fruits receive more nutrients / sunlight compared New alleles create different combinations of alleles
to the smaller banana fruits which receive less nutrients / sunlight 4. Gen yang mengalami mutasi menghasilkan protein
2. (a) (i) Mutasi kromosom / pelenyapan gen berlainan dan mengakibatkan ciri / genotip yang
Chromosomal mutation / gene deletion berbeza
(ii) • Pendedahan kepada bahan radioaktif The mutated gene will be expressed differently and lead to
Exposure to radioactive substances different characteristics / genotypes
• Pendedahan kepada sinar-X / sinar gamma / sinaran
ultraviolet BAB
Exposure to X-ray / gamma ray / ultraviolet light
Teknologi Teknologi
• Bahan kimia karsinogenik / carcinogenic chemicals 13 Genetic Technology
(b) Punca: Mutasi gen / Cause: Gene mutation
Penerangan / Explanation:
Kejuruteraan genetik
• Perubahan bes bernitrogen di DNA 13.1 Genetic Engineering
Changes of nitrogenous base in DNA.
• Perubahan urutan asid amino untuk sintesis protein Kejuruteraan Genetik
Changes in the sequence of amino acids for protein synthesis Genetic Engineering
• Protein cacat terbentuk / Defective protein formed

Proses manipulasi urutan DNA organisma untuk membentuk kombinasi gen baharu dengan trait baharu.
The manipulation of DNA sequences in organisms to produce new combination of genes with new traits.

Secara / By

Gen dari satu spesies dipindahkan ke spesies lain melalui teknologi

Suatu gen yang diubah suai dimasukkan semula ke dalam individu
DNA rekombinan untuk menghasilkan organisma transgenik.
spesies yang sama.
A gene from one species may be transferred to another via recombinant
A gene may be altered and reinserted into an individual of the same species.
DNA technology to produce a transgenic organism.

Menghasilkan
Creates

Organisma terubahsuai genetik (GMO)

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

GMO adalah organisma di mana maklumat genetik telah diubah secara bukan semula jadi.
GMO is an organism of which genetic information has been changed in a way that does not occur naturally by mating.

(a)  Mikroorganisms GM
(c)  Haiwan GM
   GM microorganisms    GM animals
Contoh: Bakteria, yis
Examples: Bacteria, yeast Contoh: Ikan salmon, lembu, kambing
Examples: Salmon, cow, goat

(b)  Tumbuhan GM
   GM plants
Contoh: Padi, kelapa sawit, kapas, nenas, jagung, kacang soya dan tomato
Examples: Rice, oil palm, cotton, pineapple, corn, soybean and tomato

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Teknik Asas Kejuruteraan Genetik 4. • membahagi / divides

The Basic Technique of Genetic Engineering • protein / protein
1. Memotong / Cutting Aplikasi Kejuruteraan Genetik / The Application of Genetic Engineering
• Enzim / enzyme
• makanan; insulin / food; insulin
2. • vektor / vector
• DNA ligase / DNA ligase A) Penghasilan Makanan Terubahsuai Genetik
Production of Genetically Modified Food (GMF)
3. perumah / host
• bereplikasi / replicate • makanan / food

Susu yang dihasilkan oleh lembu GM Kambing GM menghasilkan faktor Beras GM dengan gen dafodil dapat
mengandungi protein manusia yang sesuai pembeku darah dalam susu untuk pesakit menghasilkan b-karoten yang akan ditukar
untuk bayi pramatang. hemofilia. kepada vitamin A dalam manusia.
Powdered milk from GM cows contains a human GM goats produce clotting factor in their milk for GM rice with daffodil genes can produce b-carotene
protein which is good for premature babies. haemophiliacs. which converted to vitamin A in humans.

Tomato GM boleh disimpan lebih lama Kacang soya GM dengan gen rintang racun Salmon GM dengan gen pengawal hormon
kerana gen yang menyebabkan pelembutan perosak membolehkan petani menyembur pertumbuhan dapat tumbuh ke saiz
tomato telah disingkir. ladang untuk mematikan rumpai dan bukan pasaran dalam jangka masa yang lebih
GM tomatoes can last longer because a gene pokok kacang soya. singkat.
causing the softening of tomatoes is removed. GM soybeans with a herbicide resistance gene GM salmon with growth hormone regulating genes
allow farmers spray fields and kill weeds, not can grows to market sizes in significantly less time.
soybean plants.

B) Penghasilan Insulin / The Production of Insulin

Pada masa dahulu / In the past Kejuruteraan genetik / Genetic engineering

• Insulin haiwan (lembu dan babi) disuntik pada pesakit • Insulin manusia boleh dihasilkan oleh bakteria terubahsuai
diabetes. genetik (E. coli).
Animal (cows and pigs) insulin was injected into patients to control Human insulin can be produced by genetically modified bacteria (E.
diabetes. coli).
• Insulin haiwan adalah / Animal insulin was: • Insulin GM terhasil adalah / The GM insulin produced is:
– mahal – Lebih murah dan tulen
Expensive Cheaper and purer
– Pembekalan terhad – Terdapat dalam kuantiti yang banyak
Available in large quantities
Its supply was limited
– Adalah sama secara kimia dengan insulin manusia.
– Struktur kimia adalah berbeza daripada insulin manusia. Chemically the same as human insulin.
The chemical structure is slightly different from human insulin. – boleh diterima oleh orang ramai yang mempunyai
– Sebilangan pesakit diabetes alergi erhadap protein haiwan kepercayaan agama yang pelbagai
Some diabetics were allergic to the animal forms Acceptable to people with a range of religious beliefs

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Sel manusia yang membawa gen insulin. Sel E.coli dengan plasmid
Human cell carrying the insulin gene E. coli cell with plasmid

Gen insulin
Insulin gene
Plasmid 2. Dapatkan plasmid dari
Plasmid bakteria E. coli.
1. Dapatkan fragmen DNA yang Obtain a plasmid from E. coli
mengandungi gen insulin bacterium
Obtain a DNA fragment containing
the insulin gene.

Plasmid
Plasmid
Gen insulin
Insulin gene

3. Potong fragmen DNA dan plasmid dengan menggunakan enzim pembatasan yang
sama (yang berfungsi seperti gunting).
Cut the DNA fragment and the plasmid with the same restriction enzyme (works like a pair of
scissors).

Plasmid terbuka
Open plasmid

4. Gen insulin dimasukkan ke dalam plasmid

dan disambungkan dengan menggunakan
Plasmid
Plasmid rekombinan
rekombinan
DNA ligase.
Recombinant
Recombinant plasmid
plasmid
The insulin gene is inserted into plasmid and joins
together using DNA ligase.

5. Plasmid rekombinan boleh dimasukkan ke dalam

sel bakteria.
The recombinant plasmids can be introduced into the
bacterial cells.

6. Apabila E. coli mengganda, banyak gen

insulin terhasil. Sejumlah besar insulin Insulin
boleh dihasilkan melalui sintesis protein. Insulin
As the E. coli multiplies, copies of the insulin gene
are also produced. Large amounts of insulin are
made by protein synthesis.

Insulin
7. Insulin diekstrak dan ditulenkan untuk digunakan. Insulin
The insulin is extracted and purified for use.

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Kebaikan dan Keburukan Penghasilan GMO dan GMF (f) Penghasilan metabolit mikrob
The Advantages and Disadvantages of GMOs and GMF Productions Production of microbial metabolites
(g) Nanobioteknologi / Nanobiotechnologys
Kebaikan penghasilan Keburukan penghasilan Terapi gen / Gene therapy
GMO dan GMF GMO dan GMF genetik / genetic
Advantages of Disadvantages of
GMO and GMF productions GMO and GMF production Prinsip asas / Basic principle
• normal / normal
1. hasil pertanian / crop yields 1. kesihatan / health
• protein / protein
• kesihatan / health
• antibiotik; patogen • gejala / symptoms
antibiotic; pathogens Penyakit genetik akibat mutasi gen tunggal:
Genetic diseases caused by mutations in a single gene:
2. persekitaran / environment 1. Anaemia / anaemia
2. pemakanan / nutritional
• ekologi / ecological 2. fibrosis / fibrosis
3. rintangan / resistance 3. bersaing / compete 3. Huntington / Huntington
4. alergi / allergy 4. etika / Ethical 4. SCID
Pesakit penyakit genetik / Patient with genetic disease
5. perisa / flavour
1. sumsum tulang / bone marrow
6. pembaziran; kos 2. Virus / viruses
wastage; cost
3. normal / normal
Bioteknologi Pemprofilan DNA / DNA profiling
13.2 Biotechnology Pemprofilan DNA; DNA / DNA profiling; DNA
Bioteknologi Aplikasi Pemprofilan DNA / Application of DNA profiling
Biotechnology 1. forensik / forensic
2. ibu bapa / parentage
Bioteknologi / Biotechnology
3. mangsa / victims
organisma; biologi; produk / organisms; biological; products
4. genetik / genetic
Bidang bioteknologi / Fields of biotechnology
5. penderma / donors
(a) Bioteknologi hijau / Green biotechnology
Bagaimana pemprofilan DNA berfungsi?
- Pertanian / Agriculture
How does DNA profiling work?
(b) Bioteknologi perang / Brown technology
1. darah; kulit; rambut / blood; skin; hair
- Zon kering & gurun / Arid zone & desert
– +
(c) Bioteknologi emas / Gold biotechnology +
– +
- Bioteknologi nano, bioinformatik +
+
– +
–
–+
Bioinformatics, nano biotechnology + –
– – – + –
–+
(d) Bioteknologi hitam / Dark biotechnology +
+
+ –
– – –
–
+
+
- Bioterorisme & senjata biologi –
– – +
Bioterrorism & biological weapons + –

(e) Bioteknologi putih / White technology Sel kulit / Skin cells

- Industri penghasilan / Industrial production 2. DNA / DNA
(f) Bioteknologi merah / Red technology
- Perubatan & kesihatan manusia / Medicine & human health
(g) Bioteknologi biru / Blue technology
- Penggunaan sumber marin / Use of marine resources
(h) Bioteknologi kelabu / Grey technology
- Alam sekitar , bioremediasi / Environmental, bioremediation
(i) Bioteknologi ungu / Violet technology
- Undang-undang, etika & falsafah / Law, ethics & philosophy
(j) Bioteknologi kuning / Yellow technology
- Penghasilan makanan & pemakanan Sampel DNA
Food production & nutrition DNA sample

Aplikasi bioteknologi dalam kehidupan
Applications of biotechnology in life 3. DNA; enzim / DNA; enzyme
(a) Terapi gen / Gene therapy
(b) Pembersihan tumpahan minyak / Cleaning of oil spills
(c) Pemprofilan DNA / DNA profiling
(d) Penghasilan tumbuhan bertoleransi herbisid / serangga perosak DNA
Production of insect / herbicide tolerant plants
(e) Bioinformatik / Bioinformatics

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Bioinformatik / Bioinformatics
komputer; perisian; data / computer; software; data
(a) DNA / DNA
(b) gen / genes
(c) protein / proteins
Fragmen DNA (d) protein / proteins
DNA fragments
Kepentingan bioteknologi dalam kehidupan
The importance of biotechnology in life
(a) kesihatan / health
- nutrien / nutrients
4. elektroforesis / electrophoresis (b) pertanian / agriculture
- kualiti / quality
Fragmen DNA pada permulaan DNA (c) perubatan / medicine
Fragments at start - penyakit / diseases
(d) haiwan / animals
– - transgenik / transgenic
Fragmen besar (e) tumbuhan / plants
Fragmen bergerak dengan - ciri-ciri / characteristics
DNA negatif perlahan (f) alam sekitar / environment
bergerak Large fragments move - pencemaran / pollution
ke hujung slowly
positif Fragmen kecil
Negative DNA bergerak pantas PRAKTIS SPM 12
fragments melalui gel
move to Small fragments move
positive end quickly through gel Soalan Objektif
1. B 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. D
+ 6. C 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. B

5. saiz / size Soalan Struktur

Kegunaan cap jari DNA sebagai bahan bukti jenayah Bahagian A
Uses of DNA fingerprinting as criminal evidence
suspek 1 / suspect 1 1. (a) 1. Terminal B / Terminal B
2. DNA adalah molekul bercas negatif
Perkembangan tumbuhan GM bertolenrasi serangga perosak DNA is a negatively charged molecule.
Developing insect-resistant GM plants
3. Dari terminal negatif A, ia tertarik ke terminal positif B
toksin Bt / Bt toxin
It is attracted to the positive terminal B from the negative
Bacillius thiurengensis membawa gen toksin Bt terminal A.
Bacillius thiurengensis carrying the gene for Bt toxin (b) Jalur M / Band M.
1. Berbanding dengan jalur N, jalur M lebih mendekati
titik permulaan
Compared to band N, band M is near to the starting point
Gen toksin Bt 2. Ini menunjukkan bahawa fragmen DNA lebih besar
Gene for Bt toxin bergerak dengan lebih perlahan berbanding jalur N
This indicated that it contains larger DNA fragments which
move slower than those in band N.
(c) • Q
• Jalur Q adalah sama dengan En. Abu atau Pn. Siti
Gen toksin Bt The bands of Q are either common to those of En. Abu or
Gene for Bt toxin those of Pn. Siti
Plasmid (d) • Separuh daripada bahan genetik seseorang individu
Plasmid berasal daripada bapa
Half of the genetic material of an individual comes from the
Plasmid rekombinan father
Recombinant plasmid • Dan separuh lagi daripada ibu
And the other half from the mother.
1. toksin Bt; enzim / Bt toxin; enzyme
2. (a) 1. Kacukan selektif melibatkan kacukan pelbagai variasi
2. toksin Bt; plasmid / Bt toxin; plasmid spesies yang sama atau spesies terdekat
3. Plasmid / plasmid Selective breeding involves crossing different varieties of the
same species or different species of closely related species
4. plasmid; toksin Bt / plasmid; Bt toxin 2. Gen yang terlibat dalam menghasilkan b-karoten tidak
6. toksin Bt / Bt toxin terdapat di dalam pokok yang akan dikacuk dengan
padi
The genes involved in producing b-carotene were not in a plant
that would cross breed with rice
Sel jagung
Corn cell

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 Biologi  Tingkatan 5 Jawapan 

(b) 1. Tanaman diubahsuai untuk rintang terhadap racun

rumpai
Crop plants modified to be resistant to herbicides
• Untuk mengurangkan persaingan dengan rumpai
To reduce competition with weeds
2. Tanaman diubahsuai untuk rintang terhadap serangga
perosak
Crop plants modified to be resistant to insect pests
• Untuk meningkatkan hasil tanaman
To increase crop yield
3. Tumbuhan diubahsuai untuk menghasilkan protein bagi
kegunaan perubatan
Plants modified to produce proteins use in medicine
• Untuk mengelakkan masalah pencemaran oleh protein
haiwan
To avoid any problem of contamination by animal proteins
4. Tumbuhan diubahsuai untuk melambatkan kematangan
buah
Plants modified to delay ripening of fruits
• Kurangkan pembaziran makanan
There is less wastage of food
(c) 1. Pertambahan kuantiti hasil makanan / hasil pertanian
Increase quantity of food produced / crop yields
2. Pertambahan kualiti hasil makanan / nilai pemakanan /
perisa dan tekstur makanan
Improved quality of food produced / nutritional value / flavour
and texture of food
3. Peningkatan rintangan terhadap perosak / mengurangkan
pembaziran makanan akibat dimakan perosak
Increased resistance to pests / reduce wastage of food to pests
4. Penyingkiran ciri penyebab alergi dalam makanan
Elimination of allergy-causing properties of food

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