02A Lesson Proper for Week 1

Historiography and Its Importance

The term historiography is the craft of writing history. It is the art of historical
writing and communicating in writing what the historian thinks he knows about
the past. Thus, when we speak of Chinese historiography, we refer to all or at
least the known written histories of the people of China, and Nigerian
historiography refers to the available historical works in Nigeria.
Historiography in another aspect is preoccupied with other men’s
interpretation of history; it is the study of other people’s understanding of the
historical process and the historian’s craft. Through the historical process, the
task before the historian is the trend of past events and the historian’s craft,
that is, the discovery of what happened in the past. Historiography does not
deal with specific histories; history does not seek to discover what happened
in the past nor give an account of past actions. However, it looks into what
others have said about history and how they have interpreted the past.
Therefore, historiography traces the trend of historical thought in specific
localities and in the world at large.
History and historiography as intertwined concepts
Historiography is the subject matter of history. In other words, without the
study of the past called history, historiography would not exist. Thus,
historiography is derived from history, thereby showing its importance. In the
next portion of this study session, we shall examine the justifications for
history as an academic discipline and as a worthwhile pursuit.
Importance of History
· Knowledge of Society. History provides societies with knowledge
about themselves. A society can know itself only by acquiring knowledge of its
history. A society has to know itself and understand its relationship with the
past, other societies, and other cultures. History meets this need; it makes
people aware of the character of their own time by providing them with
information about their past that they can study and compare with other
peoples' experiences.
· Used in problem-solving. History is useful in meeting new situations
and solving the problems of the present because a full understanding of
human behavior in the past allows us to solve the problems of the present
intelligently.
· A bridge of all disciplines. As a mediating discipline, history is also
useful because everything has a history. Medicine, banking, legal practice,
teaching religion, commerce, etc. have history. Thus, history, as a discipline,
covers a wide range of issues. A nurse would find a knowledge of the history
of nursing in her locality useful, while military personnel can also find the
history of the force invaluable. Therefore, history becomes a meeting ground
for different disciplines, thereby making it fascinating.
Why Study History?
According to Peter Stearns (1998), history should be studied because it is
essential to individuals and society and harbors beauty. The real functions of
the subject can be discussed in many ways because of different historical
talents and paths to historical meaning. All definitions of history’s utility,
however, rely on two fundamental facts.
1. History Helps Us Understand People and Societies
In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information about how people
and societies behave. Understanding the operations of people and societies is
difficult, although several disciplines attempt it. Exclusive reliance on current
data would needlessly handicap our efforts. How can we evaluate war if the
nation is at peace other than using historical materials? How can we
understand genius, the influence of technological innovation, or the role that
beliefs play in shaping family life if we do not use what we know about
information about past experiences? Several social scientists attempt to
formulate laws or theories about human behavior. However, even these
recourses depend on historical information, except for limited artificial cases in
which experiments can be devised to determine how people act. Major
aspects of a society’s operation, such as mass elections, missionary activities,
or military alliances, cannot be set up as precise experiments. Consequently,
history must serve, however imperfectly, as our laboratory, and data from the
past must serve as our most vital evidence in the unavoidable quest to
determine why our complex species behaves as it does in societal settings.
History offers the only extensive evidential base for the contemplation and
analysis of how societies function. People also need to have some sense of
how societies function simply to run their own lives.
2. History Helps Us Understand Change and How the Society We Live in
Came to Be
The second reason why history is inescapable as a subject of serious study
follows the first one closely. The past causes the present and the future. Any
time we want to know why something happened, that is, whether a shift in
political party dominance in the American Congress, a major change in the
teenage suicide rate, or a war in the Balkans or the Middle East, we have to
look for factors that took shape earlier. Occasionally, fairly recent history will
explain a major development, but often we need to look further back to
identify the causes of change. We grasp how things change, begin to
comprehend the factors that cause change, and understand what elements of
an institution or a society persist despite change only through studying history.
3. Importance of History in Our Own Lives
The two fundamental reasons for studying history underlie specific and
relatively diverse uses of history in our own lives. A well-told history is
beautiful. Many of the historians who most appeal to the general reading
public know the importance of dramatic and skillful writing, as well as of
accuracy. Biography and military history appeal in part because of the tales
they contain. History as art and entertainment serves a real purpose on
aesthetic grounds but also the level of human understanding. Well-told stories
reveal how people and societies have functioned and prompt thoughts about
the human experience in other times and places. The same aesthetic and
humanistic goals inspire people to immerse themselves to reconstruct
relatively remote pasts, which are far removed from the immediate, present-
day utility. Exploring what historians occasionally call the “pastness of the
past,” that is, the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives, involves
a sense of beauty and excitement and ultimately another perspective on
human life and society.
4. History Contributes to Moral Understanding
History also provides a terrain for moral contemplation. Studying the stories of
individuals and situations in the past allows a history student to test his or her
moral sense and hone it against some real complexities that individuals have
faced in difficult settings. People who have weathered adversity not only in
works of fiction but in real, historical circumstances can provide inspiration.
"History is teaching by example” describes this use of a study of the past, that
is, a study of certifiable heroes (i.e., the great men and women of history) who
successfully worked through moral dilemmas and ordinary people who
provide lessons in courage, diligence, or constructive protest.
5. History Provides Identity
History also helps provide identity, which is one of the reasons all modern
nations encourage its teaching in some form. Historical data includes
evidence about how families, groups, institutions, and whole countries were
formed and how they have evolved while retaining cohesion. For many
Americans, studying the history of one's own family is the most obvious use of
history because it provides facts about genealogy and (at a slightly more
complex level) a basis for understanding how the family has interacted with
considerable historical change. Family identity is established and confirmed.
Many institutions, businesses, communities, and social units, such as ethnic
groups in the United States, use history for similar identity purposes. Merely
defining the group in the present pales in comparison with the possibility of
forming an identity based on a rich past. Nations also use identity history and
abuse it occasionally. Histories that tell the national story, emphasizing
distinctive features of the national experience, are meant to provide an
understanding of national values and a commitment to national loyalty.
6. Studying History Is Essential for Good Citizenship
A study of history is essential for good citizenship. This is the most common
justification for the place of history in the school curricula. The advocates of
citizenship history also hope to promote national identity and loyalty through a
history spiced by vivid stories and lessons in individual success and morality.
However, the importance of history for citizenship goes beyond this narrow
goal and can even challenge it at some points.
The history that lays the foundation for genuine citizenship returns to the
essential uses of the study of the past. History provides data about the
emergence of national institutions, problems, and values because it is the only
significant storehouse of such data. History also offers evidence about how
nations have interacted with other societies, providing international and
comparative perspectives that are essential for responsible citizenship.
Studying history also helps us understand how recent, current, and
prospective changes that affect the lives of citizens are emerging or may
emerge and what causes are involved. Studying history also encourages
habits of mind that are vital for responsible public behavior, whether as a
national or community leader, an informed voter, a petitioner, or a simple
observer.
What Skills Does a Student of History Develop?
What does a well-trained student of history, schooled to work on past
materials and case studies in social change, learn how to do? The list is
manageable, but it contains several overlapping categories.
Ability to Assess Evidence. The study of history builds experience in
dealing with and assessing various types of evidence, that is, the type of
evidence historians use in shaping the most accurate pictures of the past that
they can. Learning how to interpret the statements of past political leaders
helps form the capacity to distinguish between the objective and the self-
serving among statements made by present-day political leaders. Learning
how to combine different kinds of evidence, such as public statements, private
records, numerical data, and visual materials, develops the ability to make
coherent arguments based on a variety of data. This skill can also be applied
to information that is encountered in our everyday life.
Ability to Assess Conflicting Interpretations. Learning history means
gaining skill in sorting through diverse, often conflicting interpretations.
Understanding how societies work, which is the central goal of studying
history, is inherently imprecise, and the same is also correct for understanding
what is going on in the present day. Learning how to identify and evaluate
conflicting interpretations is an essential citizenship skill for which history, as
an often-contested laboratory of human experience, provides training. This is
one area in which the full benefits of historical study occasionally clash with
the narrow uses of the past to construct identity. Experience in examining past
situations provides a constructively critical sense that can be applied to
partisan claims about the glories of national or group identity. The study of
history in no sense undermines loyalty or commitment, but it teaches the need
for assessing arguments and provides opportunities to engage in debate and
achieve perspective.
Experience in Assessing Past Examples of Change. Experience in
assessing past examples of change is vital to understand the change in
society today; it is an essential skill in our “ever-changing world.” The analysis
of change means developing some capacity for determining the magnitude
and significance of change because some changes are more fundamental
than others. Comparing particular changes to relevant examples from the past
helps history students develop this capacity. The ability to identify the
continuities that always accompany even the most dramatic changes also
comes from studying history similar to the skill to determine the probable
causes of change. Learning history helps one determine if one main factor,
such as a technological innovation or a deliberate new policy, accounts for a
change or whether because generally, several factors combine to generate
the actual change that occurs.
Hence, the study of history is crucial to the promotion of that elusive creature,
that is, a well-informed citizen. It provides basic factual information about the
background of our political institutions and about the values and problems that
affect our social well-being. It also contributes to our capacity to use evidence,
assess interpretations, and analyze change and continuities. No one can ever
deal with the present as the historian deals with the past—we lack the
perspective for this feat, but we can move in this direction by applying
historical habits, and we will function as good citizens in the process.
History Is Useful in the World of Work
History is useful for work. Its study helps create good business people,
professionals, and political leaders. The number of explicit professional jobs
for historians is considerable, but most people who study history do not
become professional historians. Professional historians teach at various levels,
work in museums and media centers, do historical research for businesses or
public agencies, or participate in the growing number of historical
consultancies. These categories are important to keep the basic enterprise of
history going, but most people who study history use their training for various
professional purposes. History students find their experience directly relevant
to jobs in a variety of careers and in studying fields such as law and public
administration. Employers often deliberately seek students with the kinds of
capacities historical study promotes. The reasons are not hard to identify;
history students acquire a broad perspective that gives them the range and
flexibility required in many work situations by studying different phases of the
past and various societies in the past. These students develop research skills,
the ability to find and evaluate sources of information, and the means to
identify and evaluate diverse interpretations. Work in history also improves
basic writing and speaking skills and is directly relevant to many analytical
requirements in public and private sectors, where the capacity to identify,
assess, and explain trends is essential. Historical study is an asset for a
variety of work and professional situations, although it generally does not
directly lead to a particular job slot as the students of some technical fields do.
However, history particularly prepares students for the long haul in their
careers, its qualities helping adaptation and advancement beyond entry-level
employment. In our society, many people who are drawn to historical study
worry about its relevance. In our changing economy, people are concerned
about future job opportunities in most fields. However, historical training is not
an indulgence; it applies directly to many careers and can help us in our
working lives.
Why study history? The answer is because we must gain access to the
laboratory of human experience. When we study history reasonably well and
acquire some usable habits of mind, as well as some basic data about the
forces that affect our own lives, we emerge as people with relevant skills and
an enhanced capacity for informed citizenship, critical thinking, and simple
awareness. The uses of history are varied. Studying history can develop
several “salable” skills, but its study must not be pinned down to the narrowest
utilitarianism. Some history that is confined to personal recollections about
changes and continuities in the immediate environment is essential to function
beyond childhood. Some history depends on personal taste, where one finds
beauty, the joy of discovery, or intellectual challenge. Between the
inescapable minimum and the pleasure of deep commitment comes the
history that provides a real grasp of how the world works through cumulative
skill in interpreting human record.
FOUNDATION OF DATA
Primary Source(s)
· It is a document created during the time of your research subject about your
research subject. These documents are directly connected with the events or
people being researched (Concordia University Texas Library, 2020).
· It contains original information that is not derived from interpretation,
summarizing, or analyzing someone else’s work (Eastern Institute of
Technology, nd).
· These are first-hand accounts that are created at the time a historical event
occurred or are records of original ideas. It consists of information that has not
been analyzed, commented on, or interpreted. It can be biased, depending on
the viewpoint of the author. These sources are valuable because they give an
exact account of historical events or new ideas (Westminster Giovale Library,
nd)
· These sources are original or new materials, such as an activist giving a
speech, a scientist conducting original research, a student drawing original
conclusions from others’ works, an artist creating a piece of artwork, or your
grandmother writing an autobiography. Primary sources are firsthand and not
interpreted by anyone else; they offer a personal point of view and are created
by witnesses of, or participants in, an event (except in cases of historical
research written after the fact). Researchers also create primary sources
(Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota, 2013).
Example of primary sources:
· Autobiographies and memoirs
· Books, articles, or news stories written at the time of the event
· Diaries and journals
· Data and original research
· Speeches and interviews
· Letters and memos
· Government documents from that period
· Census statistics
· Organizational records from that period
· Documentaries that rely on primary source materials
· Photographs
· Art (from a period)
· Maps (from a period)
· Personal narratives
· Internet communications (including listservs and emails)
· Any of the above reprinted in the original format and language
Questions to Ask When Determining If Something is a Primary Source:
· Did the author create this research originally?
· Is the information uninterpreted data or statistics?
· Is the source an original work?
· Did the information come from personal experience?
Why Use Primary Sources?
Sources that present new research, original conclusions based on the
research of others, or an author’s original perspective are helpful and effective
for your needs. The use of these resources allows one to interpret the
information instead of relying on the interpretations of others, which s is why
your instructors may require you to find original research for your assignments.
Note: Given that primary sources reflect the true meanings and ideas that
were introduced by authors, the information itself may not be completely
objective, well-reasoned, or accurate.

Secondary Source(s)
· It is a document created at a later time, which was often much later than the
period of the event being researched, by someone who did not experience the
said event. These documents have no direct personal connection with the
events or people being researched, but they may benefit from being able to
put the event “in context” or perspective (Concordia University Texas Library,
2020).
· These works have been based on primary (or another secondary) sources.
These sources are generally an interpretation, a summary, an analysis, or a
review (Eastern Institute of Technology, nd).
· It offers commentary, analysis, or interpretation of the primary sources.
These sources are written many years after an event or by people that are not
directly involved in the event. These sources are often written by people who
have expertise in the field and can be biased, depending on the viewpoint of
the author (Westminster Giovale Library, nd).
· These sources interpret, include, describe, or draw conclusions based on
works written by others. Secondary sources are used by authors to present
evidence, back up arguments and statements, or represent an opinion by
using and citing multiple sources. Secondary sources are often referred to as
being “one step removed” from the actual occurrence or fact (Saint Mary’s
University of Minnesota, 2013).
Example of secondary sources:
· Encyclopedias
· Chronologies
· Biographies
· Monographs (a specialized book or article)
· Most journal articles (unless written at the time of the event)
· Most published books (unless written at the time of the event)
· Abstracts of articles
· Paraphrased quotations
· Dictionaries
· Textbooks
· Webpages
· Documentary movies
· Analysis of a clinical trial
· Commentaries
· Literature reviews and meta-analyses
Questions to Ask When Determining If Something Is a Secondary
Source:
· Did the author consult multiple sources to create this work?
· Is this information an interpretation or paraphrasing of another author’s
work?
· Did the information come from second-hand reporting?
· Is the source a textbook, review, or commentary?
Why Use Secondary Sources?
Secondary sources are best for uncovering the background or historical
information about a topic and broadening your understanding of a topic by
exposing you to others’ perspectives, interpretations, and conclusions.
However, critiquing an original information source (primary source) is a better
option if you plan to reference it in your work.
 02A Lesson Proper for Week 2

THE PHILIPPINES as an archipelago

As an archipelago nation, the Philippines has more than 7,100 islands with a
coastline that stretches 10,850 miles. The archipelago has no land boundaries.
Taiwan is the nearest country to the north, Brunei and Malaysia to the
southwest, Indonesia to the south, Vietnam to the west, and China to the
northwest. The Philippines is surrounded by the South China Sea in the west,
the Pacific Ocean in the east, the Sulu and Celebes Seas in the south, and
the Bashi Channel in the north. These tropical and mountainous islands have
a land area of 115,831 square miles. The country comprises three major
regions, that is, Luzon, which is the largest island in the north; the Visayas,
which is an island group in the center; and Mindanao, which is the largest
island in the south. These regions have distinct political, social, and cultural
differences. The capital city of the country is Manila in Luzon. The climate is
always tropical and warm because the Philippines is 5° to 20° north of the
equator. The Philippines is a part of the Southeast Asian nations. Its
neighboring countries are Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand,
Brunei, East Timor, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. It has a strategic location
and open to diverse cultural influences coming from Asia and beyond.
Filipinos are mostly Malay people. The archipelago lays on the edge of the so-
called Ring of Fire, which is a chain of active volcanoes marking the
intersection of two tectonic plates. The presence of the Ring of Fire makes the
possibility of an earthquake or volcanic eruption an ever-present danger. The
islands are originally volcanic and mostly mountainous. The highest point in
the country is the peak of Mount Apo in Mindanao, which is 9,692 feet above
sea level, followed by Mount Pulag in Luzon, which is 9,324 feet above sea
level. The worst recorded calamity in the Philippines occurred in June 1991
when Mount Pinatubo in central Luzon blew up, thereby causing widespread
devastation.
The archipelago is geologically a part of the Philippine Mobile Belt, which is
situated between the Philippine Sea Plate, the South China Sea Basin of the
Eurasian Plate, and the Sundra Plate. The Mindanao Trench (also known as
the Philippine Trench) is an 820-mile submarine trench that is found in the
east of the Philippine Mobile Belt and a part of a collision of tectonic plates.
The Galathea Depth, which is the deepest point in the Philippines Sea Plate,
has a depth of 34,580 feet. The Philippine Fault System consists of a series of
seismic faults that produce several earthquakes per year, most of which
cannot be felt.
The Philippines is located within many of Southeast Asia’s main bodies of
water, such as the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea,
and Luzon Strait. The coastlines of many islands are irregular, with numerous
bays, gulfs, and inlets. Manila Bay is the most commercially important
coastline because of its naturally sheltered harbor. The largest gulfs, Leyte
and Panay gulfs, are in located the Visayan Islands. The Philippines’ large
rivers are generally not navigable, except for short portions. Streams are
subject to typhoons and flooding during the monsoon season. The longest
river is the Cagayan River in north-central Luzon, which flows northward to
the sea. Other long rivers in Luzon are Agno and Pampanga rivers, which
cross the central Luzon Valley. Chico River flows through the Cordillera
Central in northern Luzon and irrigates the mountainsides. Pasig River, which
is one of Luzon’s shortest rivers, flows through Manila, thereby giving it
commercial significance. It originates in the island’s largest lake, that is,
Laguna de Bay, and empties into Manila Bay. Mindanao has two main rivers.
The Mindanao River (Rio Grande de Mindanao) receives the waters of
Pulangi River. Agusan Rivers flows north into the Bohol Sea. The largest lake
in the Philippines is Laguna de Bay, which is a freshwater lake located 13
kilometers (8 miles) southeast of Manila. Its surface area is 922 square
kilometers (356 square miles). Sewage and toxic waste from the surrounding
urban areas contaminate its water. Taal Lake, which is 56 kilometers (35
miles) south of Manila, occupies a huge volcanic crater and contains an active
volcano. Lake Lanao is the largest lake in Mindanao and the source of the
Agusan River, which exits the lake at the Maria Christina Falls. Lake Lanao is
347 square kilometers (134 square miles) in area.
Controversial Territory
The Philippines’ territorial sea claims extend 100 nautical miles off the
coastline all around the country under the 1898 Treaty of Paris. A 1978
presidential decree increased the claim to 285 nautical miles into the South
China Sea, encompassing the disputed Spratly Islands, which is known as the
Kalayaan (Freedom) Islands in the Philippines. The United States indicates
that the claim is excessive, thereby violating the international freedom of
navigation. The Philippines also claims sovereignty over its continental shelf,
extending 200 nautical miles from its coastline, under the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea. The Philippines claims sovereignty over
the Spratly Islands, which is locally known as the Kalayaan (Freedom) Islands.
China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam make similar claims. The islands at
stake are those with underwater oil and natural gas resources. The 2002
Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea eased tensions
in the Spratly Islands, but it fell short of a legal code of conduct. The national
oil companies of China, the Philippines, and Vietnam signed a joint accord in
2005 to conduct marine seismic studies in the Spratly Islands.
The Philippines also claims Malaysia’s Sabah state. The Sultanate of Brunei
granted this region to the Sultanate of Sulu as a reward for assisting him
against his enemies. The Sultanate of Sulu leased Sabah to the British North
Borneo Company in 1878 for the sum of 5,000 Malaysian ringgits annually
and weapons to defend against the Spaniards. In 1920, Sabah was made a
British crown colony. In 1963, the British formally ceded Sabah to Malaysia. In
2003, violent mass deportations of Filipinos residing in Sabah led to
discussions about the claim. Malaysia still pays the annual rent of 5,000
Malaysian ringgits (approximately US$1,500) to the Sultan of Sulu’s heirs.
Topography
The Philippines lies between Taiwan and Borneo in the Pacific Ocean and the
South China Sea. Nearly 3,000 islands out of the more than 7,000 islands in
the Philippines are named. The 11 largest islands account for more than 90%
of the total land area. More than 70% of the population resides on the two
largest islands, that is, Luzon and Mindanao, which together comprise more
than 70% of the land area. The Philippines is divided into three regions, that is,
the northern islands of Luzon and Mindoro, the central Visayan and Palawan
Islands, and the southern islands of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago.
Luzon, which is the largest island, has an area of 104,690 square kilometers
(40,421 square miles). Three parallel mountain ranges run from north to south
in Luzon. The longest range, which is the Sierra Madre, is on the east coast.
The Cagayan River Valley, which separates the Sierra Madre from the
western Cordillera Central range, is on the west coast. Mountainside rice
terraces create deep steps into the slope of the Cordillera Central, which is
more than 6 meters (20 feet) high. Luzon’s highest peak, that is, Mount Pulag,
is 2,930 meters (9,613 feet) high. The Zambales Mountains are in the
westernmost part of Luzon and ends at Manila Bay. The southern end of the
island, which is called the Bicol Peninsula, is mountainous and has many
volcanoes. Southeastern Luzon has the low-lying Ragay Hills and a 91-meter
(299-foot) deep river gorge. Luzon has two lowland areas, that is, the Central
Plain and the Cagayan Valley. Central Plain is the largest at 240 kilometers
(149 miles) long and 64 kilometers (40 miles) wide. The plain has many
swamps because it is only slightly above sea level. Cagayan Valley has an
area of 10,360 square kilometers (4,000 square miles). Mindoro is the island
to the southwest of Luzon; its land area is 9,736 square kilometers (3,759
square miles). A mountain range runs from north to south across the island
with coastal plains on either side. The highest peak, that is, Mount Halcon, is
2,587 meters (8,488 feet) high. As the largest island, it is composed of six
main regions, namely, the National Capital Region, Cordillera Administrative
Region, Ilocos (Region 1), Cagayan Valley (Region 2), Central Luzon (Region
3), Southern Tagalog (Region 4), and Bicol (Region 5).
The Visayan island group includes more than half the Philippine islands.
Seven of these islands are populated. The group has a total land area of
61,077 square kilometers (23,582 square miles). The major islands are Samar
(13,079 square kilometers), Negros (12,703 square kilometers), Panay
(11,515 square kilometers), Leyte (7,213 square kilometers), Cebu (4,421
square kilometers), Bohol (3,865 square kilometers), and Masbate (3,268
square kilometers). The easternmost islands of Samar and Leyte are
connected by a bridge. Samar and Leyte have dense jungle forests, and each
has a central mountain range. Southern Samar has rocky hills. Chocolate Hills,
which is cone-shaped mounds covering 52 square kilometers (20 square
miles), is located southwest in Bohol. Chocolate Hills range from 50 meters to
200 meters (164–656 feet) high and are covered in vegetation that turns
brown during summer. The rest of the island consists of plateaus. To the west
is Cebu, which is a long, narrow island with a hilly interior. Negros, which is
the island to the west of Cebu, is primarily lowlands. The volcanic rock Tablas
Plateau is located in the southwest. Negros has one high volcanic mountain
range. Panay is the westernmost island in the system; it has a hilly western
coast and northern lowlands. Masbate is located in the north of Visayas and
has hilly areas. Palawan is a part of the Calamian Islands in the eastern
Philippines. The total land area of Palawan is 11,655 square kilometers (4,500
square miles), 8–48 kilometers (5 to 30 miles) wide, and more than 442
kilometers (275 miles) long. Mountains run the entire length of the island,
surrounded by a narrow coastline. The highest peak is 2,085 meters (6,841
feet) high. The major region comprises three main regions, namely, western
(region 6), central (region 7), and eastern Visayas (region 8).
Mindanao, which is the country’s second largest island, has a total land area
of 94,630 square kilometers (36,537 square miles). The Pacific Cordillera
range lies on the island’s eastern coast. Agusan River separates itself from
the Cordillera central range to the west. Mount Apo in the central mountain
system is the highest elevation in the country at 2,804 meters high (9,199
feet). The two ranges end in the Bukidnon-Lanao Plateau, which has several
deep canyons and extinct volcanoes. The plateau has an elevation of 609
meters (1,998 feet). The Davao-Agusan Trough is a lowland area in the east
that becomes flooded seasonally. South-central Mindanao has two marshes.
Western Mindanao, which is a mountainous area, is called the Zamboanga
Peninsula. The Sulu Archipelago is southwest between the Zamboanga
Peninsula and Indonesia. It comprises more than 800 small islands with a
total area of approximately 4,144 square kilometers (1,600 square miles).
Mindanao consists of the following regions: western Mindanao (region 9),
northern Mindanao (region 10), southern Mindanao (region 11), central
Mindanao (region 12), and Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.
Climate and Environment
As a tropical climate country, the Philippines remains hot and humid
throughout the year. Monsoons and rain-bearing winds strongly affect the
islands. The monsoons blow from the southwest from May to October and
from the northeast from November to February. Temperatures stay constant
from north to south during the year, and seasons consist of wet and dry
periods. The western part of the country has two seasons. Summer, which is
the rainy season, begins in May and ends in November. Winter, which is the
dry season in most of the Philippines, starts in December and ends in May.
December through February is cool and dry, but March through May is hot
and dry. The tropical storm season lasts from June to October, with most of
the storms coming from the southeast. Typhoons annually lash out in the
islands, especially those closest to the Pacific. Even a weak typhoon can now
cause flash flooding and tragic loss of human life and property because of
deforestation. An example is what happened when Typhoon Uring hit Ormoc,
Leyte on November 5, 1991. The land of the Philippines is characterized by
irregular coasts, alluvial plains, narrow valleys, and rolling hills and mountains
running from north to south. It used to have a lush and tropical forest cover
with a diverse ecosystem. However, deforestation reduced forests to only
19.4% by the end of the 20th century. Deforestation occurs when lumber
companies cut down all trees in the forests in a given area without replanting
trees, although they are required by law to do so at present. Another problem
is that several corrupt timber magnates and Filipino politicians conspire in
illegal timber export. Deforestation continues to be one of the major sources
of ecological damage in the country, thereby threatening all animal and plant
species. Resource-rich marine mangroves and coral reefs are also rapidly
disappearing as a result of huge commercial trawling, aquaculture, pollution,
and illegal fishing practices that include the use of cyanides and dynamite to
increase the catch.
Race and Ethnicity
The most significant ethnic minority is Chinese. Many Filipinos have Chinese
ancestry because of intermarriage. The colonization of the islands by the
Spaniards (1565–1898) and Americans (1898–1946) has influenced the
development of Philippine society and culture. A total of 78 different spoken
languages and 500 dialects exist across the archipelago, all belonging to the
Malayo-Polynesian linguistic family. While the majority of Filipinos can speak
the national language, that is, Tagalog or Pilipino, and they share the same
national identity, each group tends to identify with the primary language group
to which it belongs. The two principal languages are Tagalog, which is spoken
in the provinces around Manila, and Cebuano, which is used throughout the
Visayas and Mindanao. Other major languages are Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Bicol,
Waray, Kapampangan, and Pangasinense. English is widely used throughout
the islands and the language of education and trade. Almost 50 other
indigenous tribal groups exist in the Philippines, comprising approximately
20% of the population. These tribal groups are historically and culturally
different from the mainstream group of Filipinos and have long struggled to
keep their land and cultural identity intact. The Philippines is the only Christian
nation in Asia. More than 60% of Asia’s Christian population lives in the
Philippines, and their number is increasing. In 1986, over 50 million people in
the Philippines were Christians. By the 1990s, this number reached over 65
million. Approximately 11 million people in the Philippines are non-Catholic
Christians, practicing in over 350 organizations, most of which operate under
the umbrella organization of the National Council of Churches in the
Philippines. The largest denomination includes the gospel-style Philippines for
Jesus Movement and the Protestant Iglesia ni Cristo. The largest religious
minority group is the Muslim population, with Islam being a much older
presence than Christianity. The estimates of the Muslim population range
between 3.9 million and 7 million or 5%–9% of the population. Approximately
94% of these Filipino Muslims are concentrated in the western and southern
parts of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and the southern part of Palawan.
Anthropologists believe that the islands of the Philippines are being inhabited
for 250,000 years. The first arrivals were the Aetas or pygmies, who crossed
the land bridge from Asia approximately 30,500 years ago. After the
disappearance of the land bridge, the early Malays who came by barangays
from the Indonesian Islands migrated via sea travel. Hence, the majority of the
Filipinos are of Malay descent. The tropical maritime climate is marked by
high temperatures, high relative humidity, heavy precipitation, and light winds.
The northeast monsoon months are December to February, while the
southwest monsoon season is from May to October. Typhoons generally
occur during the monsoon seasons. In most areas, the maximum daily
temperatures at the sea level range from 27 °C to 28 °C, dropping to l9 °C at
night. The mean relative humidity varies from 75% to 90%. The average
annual rainfall registers between 42 inches in the extreme south-western
portion of Mindanao to 180 inches in the mountains of northern Luzon. The
two distinct seasons are wet and dry. The wet season is generally the time for
rice planting. The population as of the 2000 census is 76.5 million and is
concentrated in 12 major islands, which constitute 95% of the available land
space. This value represents an increase of 11.5% or 7.9 million over the
1995 census count of 68.6 million people. The population grew at a rate of
2.36% annually between 1995 and 2000. If the annual growth rate continues
to increase at 2.36%, then the Philippine population is expected to double in
approximately 29 years. The life expectancy at birth for the total population is
estimated at 68.12 years. The population is made up of 86% Christian Malay,
6% Muslim Malay, 5% Chinese, and 3% indigenous groups. Manila, which is
the principal city, accounts for approximately 8% of the national population.
The greater proportion, which is only over 63%, lives in or near villages
(barrios) of less than 5,000 residents. Almost 37% of the populace is under 14
years of age. Philippine society is a product of eastern and western cultural
influences that blend into a distinctive entity. Four cultures and two major
religions have shaped the modern Philippines. Early exposure to Chinese
cultural and commercial influence, more than three centuries of Spanish
colonial rule, and almost 50 years of American tutelage have altered but not
obscured the Malayan character of the Philippine society. The basic unit of
the Philippine society is the nuclear family, with the father as the head; the
family includes extended relatives of husband and wife. Social stratification is
governed by wealth and education, which is a by-product of Spanish and
American influences. The upper class constitutes 11% (e.g., professionals,
civil servants, teachers, and business people), and the lower class comprises
89% (e.g., farmers, laborers, fisherman, merchants, etc.). Literacy is
substantially higher in the Philippines than in other countries in Southeast
Asia. According to the 2002 census, 95% of the total population 15 years of
age and over can read and write in at least one language. Literacy ranges
from 91.5% in the Greater Manila area to 55%–65% in the rural countryside.
Therefore, a large proportion of the nation’s population uses some form of
mass communication. In 2003, 26 broadsheets are being released
(newspapers and tabloids), 12 of which are written in the English language. A
total of 366 AM and 290 FM radio stations and 75 television and broadcast
stations also existed in 2003. The Philippine press is one of those that enjoy
the most freedom worldwide because of its propensity for muckraking, which
is a legacy of American journalism.
Filipino, which is a derivative of Tagalog, is the officially designated language
spoken by 46% of the population, while English is understood by 40% of the
population and serves as the lingua franca in the government, business, mass
media, and academia. We have more than or equal to 87 indigenous
languages in the Philippines. However, 86% of the population belong to eight
major linguistic groups, namely, Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Ilongo, Bicolano,
Waray-Waray, Pangasinense, and Kapampangan. All eight major linguistic
groups belong to the Austronesian or Malay-Polynesian language family, each
of which has impressive literary traditions, especially Tagalog.
 02A Lesson Proper for Week 3

Prehistory of the Philippines and Southeast Asia

The early history of the Philippines has a remarkable blend of the antiquity of
Southeast Asia due to the modern delimitation of the region and is connected
with the prehistoric times of China. It was distinct to its geographical area,
which includes Burma, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Many questions about the study of
precolonial settlements in the Philippines are unanswered. A considerable
number of the early evidence of the coastal communities that may have
existed and could have been used by modern archaeologists to learn more
about these settlements was washed away when the seas rose due to global
warming at the end of the last ice age approximately 17,000 years ago. The
warm and humid climate in the tropical zone has a disintegrating effect on
bamboo and other plant-like materials that were used by early inhabitants to
build their homes, make tools, and write. Different ethnolinguistic and
cultural groups have been unevenly studied by ethnographers. American
archaeologists of the colonial era (1898–1946) tended to interpret their
findings in terms of a continuous spread and overlay of human settlements
that reached into the distant past. In the south, the Sunda Shelf connected the
Philippines with the islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, with the entire
peninsula of Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia. Northern Luzon
was linked to Taiwan and formed the entryway to a broad land corridor
leading into China. We know that people lived in Java and China around the
mid-Pleistocene or during the ice age approximately 300,000 years ago as
their remains, along with stone implements and the bones of extinct animals,
were found. Similar sites of stone tools and fossil remains of large prehistoric
animals were found in the Cagayan Valley in northern Luzon. At the end of
the ice age, when the seas began to rise again, the Philippines became an
archipelago that is surrounded by water. It was already inhabited by small
groups of hunters and gatherers who were self-supporting and self-sufficient.
Approximately 7,000 years ago, food crops such as rice, millet, and legumes
began to be developed in northeastern India, Burma, Thailand, and China,
which is one of the earliest cradles of the Neolithic or agricultural revolution.
Linguists have studied the movement of these migrating populations by
tracing the spread of their language, that is, Austronesian, which refers to a
related group of languages spoken by the peoples of Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, and Taiwan, as well as in parts of Vietnam. It is also the language
of Polynesians found in the Micronesian islands and some of the Melanesian
groups. The recovery of the widely separated Austronesian language must
have a common source that preceded the discovery of the Indo-European
language family. Moving beyond Austro-Tai into Austronesian proper, the
reconstruction of linguistic prehistory, which is most widely used today, is
based on a family tree of subgroups and a hierarchy of protolanguages
extending from Proto-Austronesian. Reduced to its essentials, Blust’s (1984)
reconstruction favors a geographical expansion beginning in Taiwan (the
location of the oldest Austronesian languages, including PAn), then
encompassing the Philippines, Borneo and Sulawesi, and finally bifurcating,
one branch moving west to Java, Sumatra and Malaya, the other moving east
into Oceania. The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian vocabulary, which is
generally related to this early Taiwan-Luzon phase, indicates an economy that
is well-suited to marginal tropical latitudes with the cultivation of rice, millet,
and sugarcane; domestication of dogs and pigs; and the use of watercraft. As
a result of further colonizing movements through the Philippines into Borneo,
Sulawesi, and the Moluccas, the Malayo-Polynesian (MP) subgroup
eventually separated into several lower-order Western and Central-Eastern
branches. The break-up of the Central-Eastern MP probably occurred initially
in the Moluccas, and Eastern MP contains all the Austronesian languages of
the Pacific Islands apart from some in western Micronesia. The vocabulary of
Proto-MP, which is a linguistic entity that might have been located somewhere
in the Philippines, is of considerable interest because it contains several
tropical economic indicators that were absent in the earlier and more northerly
Proto-Austronesian stage (Bellwood, 2006).
Several proto-Austronesian speakers carried the rice culture across the sea to
northern Luzon, Philippines from Taiwan at approximately 3,000 B.C.E.
Essentially, rice is a tropical and subtropical crop whose cultivation depends
on water. Southeast Asia is in a monsoon zone and has soggy soil that is well
suited for rice farming. Rice can be cultivated in two ways, as follows. Dry rice
cultivation is a form of shifting agriculture that involves planting rice on the dry
ground either by sowing in the wind or planting seeds in holes punched by
digging sticks after the existing vegetation has been cut. Wet rice cultivation
involves the use of germinated seeds that are planted in a seedbed. When
these rice plants are approximately a foot high, they are transplanted. Fields
are often plowed with the help of a carabao, which is a buffalo-like animal in
the Philippines. Considering that wet rice irrigation and planting involve
remarkable cooperation between many groups of people, it expanded upon
the earlier settlement patterns and increased the population. Most of the
descendants of the MPs were seafarers, who carried their traditions through
the entire expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Many theories exist about the
movement of peoples of the Pacific from the coast of South Asia through the
major archipelago of Southeast Asia in the western borders of the Pacific in
Neolithic times. Most of these theories are based on the existence of cultural
traits or artifacts of material culture that exhibit similar characteristics as
reported from archaeological sites in these areas. The close relationship
between the early peoples of the Philippines and Polynesia is demonstrated
by the similarities in the types of stone tools and pottery they used. Other
similar artifacts made from shells have been found in profusion in the
archaeological sites of Oceana. Domesticated plant and animal evidence are
also conclusive. One of the oldest domesticated plants is the taro. The
differentiation and distribution of this plant have been traced by archaeologists
as moving from south Asia going north to Japan and south into New
Caledonia, New Zealand, and Fiji. Only three animals, that is, dog, pig, and
chicken, are domesticated from Southeast Asia to Polynesia. These animals
have originated from Southeast Asia. Thus, the early Southeast Asian
seafarers were highly skilled canoe builders and navigators who sailed across
the Pacific by using their bodily senses as their compass at a time when
almost all of the Europeans thought such travel was impossible. In the last
2,000 years, we can see archaeological and linguistic evidence for the
existence of a world maritime trade economy, which was similar to that of the
Mediterranean (only much larger in scale) and connected the Philippines to
China, India, and the Arab and Persian lands. Hindu, Buddhist, Taoist, and
Confucian influences were absorbed and transformed in the Philippines
through an interactive process of adoption and adaptation. At approximately
1,200 C.E., Islam began to spread to Southeast Asia as several sultanates
also developed in the Philippines, especially southern Mindanao.
Trade and Rise of Local Rulers
The warm and tropical monsoon winds, blowing from the northeast in northern
winter, and the southeast during the northern summer contributed to the
development of a prosperous and growing regional trade economy.
Considering that these winds have regularly reversed direction every season,
the early Southeast Asians learned to plan their seafaring journeys following
the changing winds. They could sail with relative ease across a large expanse
of ocean to visit trading partners and relatives. Then, after resting for a while,
they ride home with the wind. The relative ease and safety with which people
could travel encouraged increases in material and cultural exchanges. The
tropically rich vegetative cover and congenial topography of the islands made
it relatively comfortable to walk on foot or sail. Many islands around the
archipelago are interconnected by landfills and waterways with well-sheltered
bays and protected harbors. Trade over land and sea brought new people in
contact with one another, ranging from upland hunters and gatherers and
horticulturalists to the complex chiefdoms and states of South, Southeast, and
Northeast Asia. Maritime trade encouraged widespread social, cultural, and
economic changes throughout the region. It introduced new people to different
religious and political backgrounds who shaped, as they were shaped by, the
development of local histories and hierarchies.
The geographical boundaries between these communities or mandalas were
porous and fluid; foreigners could become friends or even family if they marry
by engaging in trade or an apprenticeship to share sacred knowledge. New
leaders who recognized a potentially powerful trade partner who promised to
bring in prestige goods could arise. These rulers occasionally took Indic titles,
such as rajah, which was derived from Sanskrit, to distinguish their
descendants as members of a royal lineage. They traded valuable heirlooms,
such as legendary swords, icons, and relics that accorded a spiritual essence
that filled them and their people with sacred power. However, although rajahs
could pass down their titles and wealth to their children, they could be
usurped from power when strong leaders emerged. Thus, the office of rajah or
chief could be either inherited or achieved through competition in early
Philippine society. Kinship still played an integral role in the development of
local hierarchies. In contrast to Northeast Asia (e.g., China, Korea, and
Japan), a large and impersonal state bureaucracy never developed in the
Philippines; instead, numerous competing centers of power whose rulers
strove not to colonize their neighbors but to include them in their networks of
kith and kin were established. Communities of relatives and friends were
developed as children grew up and got married, thereby building their homes
adjacent to parents on either side of the family. The boundaries separating
these communities were in a state of fluidity and shifted as new alliances were
formed, histories coalesced, and new leaders emerged.
Local leaders were distinctive because they can entice followers who
cooperated in religious and scholarly, ritual, agricultural, commercial, and
military matters. Such leaders replaced or incorporated the previous ancestral
line of the community into their own by achieving the title of village ancestor.
These leaders cultivated followers by engaging in reciprocal exchanges. They
have divine spiritual energy that enabled them to keep social relations within
and between communities and between the earth and the cosmos in balance.
Social confusion resulting from a rupture in the network of reciprocity and
exchange or chaos occurring in times of natural calamity was indicative of a
ruler’s decline, at which people moved to follow a new authority. In Southeast
Asia, personal power was perceived by the local people differently than in the
Western worldview. Power was not an abstraction as it is in Western social
thought but an existential reality. Indigenous signs indicated a powerful ruler.
A powerful leader was perceived as pure not in a moralistic sense but rather
in terms of his or her ability to concentrate and diffuse power. A person’s inner
self and their capacity to control the environment are directly related. The
following are the apparent signs of a leader: one had “radiance” about them,
one who was sexually fertile, and one who had surrounded oneself with
sacred objects, and people who held unusual power to absorb it vicariously.
Leaders wore and distributed “magic” amulets, uttered formulaic prayers, and
believed that their weapons and personages, were invincible in times of battle.
Conversely, defeat in battle or the diminishment of a ruler’s wealth was
perceived by local people to be a sign of a leader’s dwindling inner strength.
Hence, the projection and recognition of charismatic leadership and authority
around the Philippine archipelago were a local matter. Social transformations
occurred as foreign influences were selectively reinvented, and they were
specific to the conventions of a particular community.
Indian and Chinese Influences
Some of the earliest known influences came from Hindu and Buddhist traders
and monks who exchanged textiles and other sacred gifts for local and
Chinese wares. They introduced new religious rituals and political forms of
behavior. However, the inhabitants of the Philippine islands did not blindly
accept the Hindu belief system and way of life; instead, they selectively
integrated what they perceived to be useful Hindu notions into their already
existing animistic beliefs and practices. Early local rulers adopted Hindu titles,
such as rajah, and accompanying accouterments to enhance their spiritual
and political power. The term Visaya (Vijaya), which seemed to refer to the
central group of the islands in the Philippines, is suggestive of her place in the
Hindu tributary system. Few known Hindu artifacts include the 1,790-gram 21-
karat gold Hindu goddess of Agusan, which is on display in the Chicago
Natural History Museum. The scarcity of ancient Hindu, Buddhist, or
shamanistic scripts and material remains may be attributed to the fact that
Spanish colonizers destroyed pagan icons and books in their wake. In
contrast to Bali, Indonesia, Hindu temple complexes were never built in stone
in the ancient Philippines. However, substantial archaeological and historical
evidence indicated the existence of many small trading centers that
specialized in the production of prestige goods (e.g., potteries, textiles,
medicinal plants, and decorative plumes) for trade and exchange as tributes.
One of the earliest known maritime Southeast Asian states to do business
with traders in the Philippines was the Sri-Vijaya Empire from Indonesia,
which controlled east-west trade through the Strait of Malacca for 400 years
from 700 C.E. to 1,100 C.E. Sri-Vijaya was close to southern Philippines and
located at the southernmost tip of Sumatra, inland along the Musi River, which
flows out into the Malacca Strait, at the crossroads of sea trade. The Sri-
Vijaya had a powerful navy that punished pirates and protected foreign ships
by allowing them safe passage through the straits. Sri-Vijaya became one of
the most important clearinghouse centers for exchange and export to the west.
The river provided inhabitants with access to a wide variety of products and
offered them a safe and secure harbor. At first, this community was self-
sufficient in food production. However, over time, the population multiplied
and expanded its territory further upriver to the coasts.
Sri-Vijayans formed a pact with the Javanese, who then supplied them with
rice. Although these two communities did not always agree with each other
and even fought occasionally, they mostly prospered together in peace and
harmony through marriage and trade alliances. The Sri-Vijaya Empire began
to decline in the 1400s when the Chinese came to dominate Southeast Asian
sea trade. A sudden increase in the population during the Ming dynasty
(1368–1644 C.E.) in combination with the frequent outbreaks of infectious
diseases, such as the measles and smallpox epidemics in 1407, 1410, 1411,
and 1413, may have further instigated the Chinese to search for additional
sources of supplies, especially medicinal herbs. Famous mariners, such as
General Zheng He, who commandeered the emperor’s fleet of 48 treasure
ships in 1409, began to develop an elaborate set of tributary networks through
the use of diplomacy; force, if needed; and the giving of tribute to local rulers,
who acknowledged China’s supremacy in return. Local ambassadors and
dignitaries were escorted back with the tribute missions to pay homage to the
Chinese emperor. They were treated with remarkable hospitality and
accorded the full dignity and splendor of their rank and title. Only local rulers
who were recognized by the Chinese emperor were allowed to participate in
its expanding network of trade and exchange. Thus, local and competing
Philippine leaders could build up their power and notoriety with their place in
the celestial order of the Middle Kingdom.
Coming of Islam
Islam was transmitted to Sumatra and Java by Arab and Persian traders and
missionaries in the 13th century, although earlier Muslim trading sites existed
in the region. As Islam began to spread rapidly after the death of Prophet
Muhammad in 632, Arabia emerged as one of the most important centers of
commerce and culture. Arab and other Muslim traders and sailors were the
intermediaries between Asian merchants and European traders. As these
Muslims converted local rulers and their retainers, their trade networks also
expanded. One of the earliest rulers to convert to Islam was the banished
prince of Palembang origin, Parameswara, who ran away from the Javanese
court to settle in a small fishing village on the island of Malacca. In 1405, he
swore his allegiance to the Chinese emperor, for which he had rewarded a
seal of investiture, thereby recognizing Malacca as an independent kingdom.
Parameswara’s maneuver infuriated the Javanese and Siamese; the latter
royal courts claimed that the island was their territory, but they felt helpless to
do anything about it for fear of antagonizing the powerful Chinese. Afterward,
Malacca became a favorite stopover for Muslim traders to sit out the long
monsoon season. In 1414, they encouraged the prince to adopt Islam and
form a marriage alliance with one of the Muslim princesses of Pasai. Malacca
soon became one of the greatest sea emporiums in Southeast Asia,
overshadowing its neighboring ports.
Courtly demeanors and the court language, that is, Malay, which once served
as the language of trade and communication throughout much of Southeast
Asia, began to be replaced by Arabic as Arabic beliefs and practices gained in
ascendance. However, the Vijayan courtly demeanor that is based on loyalty,
marriage alliances, and trade never went away but remained alongside new
Islamic forms. Therefore, one of the earliest sultanates to develop in the
Philippines was the Sulu island chain, which was off the coast of Borneo.
Islam was introduced there by early Chinese traders and Muslim missionaries
during the Ming dynasty in the 14th century. However, in 1450, the Sumatran
sultan, Sayyid Abu Bakhr, married a local princess that Sulu became a
prominent center of Muslim trade and culture. Rulers living across the sea on
Mindanao and elsewhere in the Philippines soon realized that they could
benefit by participating in the growing Muslim trade networks. They could gain
wealth and further solidify their power by surrounding themselves with large
armies and slaves, which strengthened their ability to collect tribute and build
new alliances. Although Muslim rulers believed that all were equal in the eyes
of one God and did not believe in slavery, and only debt bondage and freed
slaves once converted, they still believed they could capture and enslave non-
Muslims. While this created a new dichotomy between Muslims and non-
Muslims, the division between slaves and masters existed long before the
arrival of Islam in Southeast Asia.
Ancient Asian Slavery Systems
Diverse religious and philosophical traditions exerted influence over the
formation of different slavery systems in Southeast Asia. While the
institutionalization of slavery may have nothing to do with Buddhism and
Confucianism as envisioned by the founders, namely, Buddha and Confucius,
respectively, Confucianism and Buddhism still advocated a specific social
order of hierarchy, that is, that of serving the king. While Buddhism diverged
from Hinduism, it continued to be informed by Hindu cultural ideas and
practices. The Buddhist occupation with merit making and harmonious
coexistence with all life forms, coupled with Hindu notions of caste and
hierarchy, coalesced with the open system of slavery as practiced in ancient
Thailand. In comparison, the Chinese Confucian interest in following lines of
authority through kinship that ranked people according to age level and that
placed ancestors over the living, seniors over juniors, males over females,
and male scholars over commoners, fit with the closed system of slavery in
ancient Vietnam. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Chinese Confucianism influenced
the development of different Southeast Asian systems of slavery. This was
the case in the precolonial Philippines, where a mixture of Hindu/Buddhist,
Confucian, and Islamic notions was selectively integrated into already existing
systems of debt bondage. A basic understanding of the distinctive differences
between Buddhism and Confucianism, as illustrated by the way of ancient
Thailand and China, is important to understanding this chapter’s closing
discussion on the early Philippine system that already existed in contrast to
Spanish colonial Christianity.
Thai Buddhist Slavery
Thai history has long been influenced by Buddhist and Hindu social teachings.
In contrast to India or China, where genealogical links are largely traced
through the male lines, genealogies are traced bilaterally through the male
and female side of the family in Thailand. Thai daughters, not sons, are
expected to take care of their parents when they get old. This horizontal
status accorded to both sexes is offset thus far as Thai females always were
considered a property of either their father’s household or husband’s
household. Female slaves were definitively valued for their contribution to
sexual reproduction and as second wives and concubines, although a father
or husband who sold his daughter or wife into bondage in times of starvation
or financial hardship in former times could keep her at home as long as he
paid the interest on the loan. A free person previously had to demonstrate that
he was over his head in debt and desperately poor before he could legally sell
any member of his household or himself into slavery; otherwise, he would be
severely punished according to the law. Buddhism also mitigated some of the
harsher effects of slavery as it was viewed as meritorious, and slaves had
some rights against owners who transgressed the boundaries of their sexual
rights. Slaves could also possess private properties, some of which were
entrusted in positions of authority over other slaves and free clients.
Historically, Thais practiced an open-ended form of slavery that was
theologically oriented around Buddhist ideas of a galactic order, and even the
king of Siam was said to be a slave of Buddha. Similar to India, Thailand has
a philosophy of a coming of a just and righteous king. In times of judicious and
benevolent kingship, social life is said to be replete with a bountiful harvest
and harmonious relationships that produce a popular feeling of well-being.
Conversely, duplicitous, selfish kingships mark times of bad harvest and
social disruption. The ancient system of slavery in Thailand, similar to
precolonial Philippines albeit in a different guise, was a form of debt slavery;
men and women could “buy” their freedom.
Laws that guaranteed basic rights are in place. Free clients and slaves were
often perceived to be living on the same level in terms of status. Occasionally,
slaves (e.g., temple slaves) held substantially higher stations than those who
were free of bondage. The king held most slaves and divided them between
princes (and leading monks) in exchange for their loyal service in governing
the kingdom. Slaves were a symbol of luxury and wealth, but Thai society was
not oriented around slavery as an economic system because slaves worked
alongside free clients. Typically, freemen and their families were self-sufficient
subsistence farmers who worked the king’s land and who could be called,
within reasonable guidelines, by royal administrators to provide food and labor
on construction projects for the kingdom. The Thai system of slavery might be
“feudal” in nature. The slave had many of the same modes of entry into
slavery that were found in China, that of conquest, war, capture, and being
“sold,” but there is the added aspect of the debt slave, who may or may not be
redeemable. Being redeemable means that one’s debts might eventually
either be worked off or paid off, and the condition of slavery diminished, and
the slave freed. Other forms of slavery, such as judicial or temple slaves, are
not commonly found in China. The temple slaves were on occasion those who
placed themselves into service because the life of the temple slave might be
viewed as better than the life of the freed person occasionally. Slaves were
exempt from mandatory labor requirements, and those services they provide
were lighter than other forms of slavery. Regarding slaves of war and
conquest, such as tens of thousands that were taken by the Siamese in the
wars against the Khmer Empire in the 14th century, this was by far the most
common because population may decrease that only an outside infusion of
bodies could maintain the community. Frequent warfare was a form of
competition for a loyal following, not a territory, and helped reproduce the
local population, which was often ravaged and depleted by the spread of
diseases such as malaria and smallpox, famines, floods, droughts, and raids.
These slaves were then redistributed among nobles according to their rank,
while some were donated to temple services. These slaves were
commissioned by the king to build new temples in distant and remote regions
to win the local community’s support and loyalty. Slaves served another
function as a form of exchange and tribute. Thus, the use of slaves became
more than the acquisition of a labor force and a replacement population.
However, a political and economic exchange that was used to pay off debts
influenced the political atmosphere. Thai slaves were mainly absorbed and
absolved instead of freed or made kin. While the entire subject is complicated,
the groundwork here is enough to distinguish the Thai system of slavery from
the Euro-colonial type. We now turn to a discussion on the ancient Chinese
and the Philippine systems of slavery.
Early Chinese Slavery
China has been long influenced by Confucian social teachings. In contrast to
Thailand, where the family tree is traced bilaterally through the male and
female lines, in China, genealogical links are recorded over the generations
through male ties. Chinese females are perceived as outsiders; they are
nameless in ancestral rites, and their primary role is to bear male heirs. A
female could enter into domestic household service as a maid or child servant.
In that case, she might be adopted as a younger sister and become part of
the family. Alternatively, she would be arranged into an exogamous marriage,
occasionally as a child bride. Meanwhile, the bride price for the first wife was
high, it was transformed into a dowry, and the marriage rite itself marked the
transference of certain rights and privileges to her. By contrast, the primary
role of second wives was to produce sons, while concubinage was for
pleasure. Matchmakers arranged the sale of maids, brides, concubines, and
prostitutes privately. Slaves in ancient China found themselves in a closed
system. As a rule, slaves in China were born as slaves or purchased as
children, in addition to the purchase of concubines by the wealthy. While the
potential for slaves to alter or change their status was open in Thailand, that
opportunity was extremely limited in China. Given that China is a strictly
patriarchal society, any inclusion of males into the lineage would constitute a
threat to existing heirs because this would cause further division of property at
the death of the clan head. Therefore, males who were not purchased as
children for replacement heirs (indicating the absence of other heirs) were
suspended in permanent slave status, although eunuchs were of high status
because they were loyal and powerful (e.g., they generally served the
emperors royal court). Watson explained that girls had more freedom than
boys did once they became slaves because boys would enter their new life
either as an heir or lifelong servant. Females had more tangible opportunities
for improving their situation through marriage. Chinese women were
considered as belonging to, rather than being in, the kinship line even when
they married within it. Given that they did not have any inheritance right that
would have been recognized or supported, they were not considered a threat.
Therefore, they had more social mobility than men did. China created its
supply of slaves from within by creating stratification within its social structure;
taking its slaves from within that created a “lower” class.
The stigma attached to the status of a slave did not only last a lifetime but for
subsequent generations of slaves. This phenomenon can be traced back to
the Chinese practice of ancestor worship. The Chinese viewed belonging to a
lineage as a requirement for being considered a civilized person. Given that
the males were carriers of the lineage, even the poorest farmers would resist
selling their sons until all the daughters and even the wife were sold. For
example, they would sell their sons to save them from dying from starvation.
This attitude resulted in a few males on the market. Thus, males were priced
high. This practice repeatedly disrupted the male slaves’ ancestral lines. Thus,
the slaves, in essence, never developed a family line, and their hereditary
relatives remained unknown. In some modern cases, the ancestral line might
be invented to conceal a lack of ancestry. This slave market system based on
use value and not exchange value was transformed when the European
colonizers came to China. The Europeans brought and introduced their habit
of buying and selling slaves as if they were only material objects, which was
an affront and contrary to ancient Asian codes, which provided slaves with
certain rights and social security.
Ancient Philippine Slavery
The Philippines experienced a mélange of religious and philosophical
influences before the colonial period. Underlying Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic
faiths were widespread and intermingled with indigenous beliefs and practices
that were informed by animistic nature “worship.” The economy was engaged
in a maritime trade economy that extended far beyond Southeast Asia. Local
communities were dispersed along estuaries of rivers and coastal shores, with
each settlement scattered to protect the residents from the possibility of
offshore slave raiders. Each community’s individual history was made up of a
complex of local histories wherein leaders were legitimated by their followers,
relative to even wider concentric networks or mandalas, of power. Chiefdoms
existed, that is, the office of the chief was ordinarily inherited, and a
redistributive system wherein slavery was a key component was in place.
However, as a check on their authority, the office of the chief (rajah or datu)
was also achieved, and the center of redistribution shifted as new leaders
emerged.
The system of slavery in the Philippines was a far-reaching and complex
system that differed dramatically from, and existed in utter contradistinction to,
the Euro-American transatlantic slave trade system. In contrast to the
European colonial system where slaves were supplied in the market, slaves in
the Philippines often shared the same ethnicity, language, and descent as
their masters. Parents frequently arranged the marriage of their young
children by turning over several slaves in good faith. Men often sold
themselves into slavery to their fathers-in-law as a form of bride price, which
was similar to what Jacob did for the hand of Rachel and Leah as told in the
Bible. Almost everyone was indebted to someone else to some degree, and
slavery in this sense was endemic. Generally, slaves took a good deal of
satisfaction in being attached to their masters. Various types of slaves ranged
from those captured for ransom in raids at one extreme to those who sold
themselves into slavery to someone for whom they felt a debt of gratitude
from the heart in other extremes. Except for those living inside their master’s
house, slaves were expected to support themselves, working part-time for
their owners, while the owners themselves were generally enslaved to other
masters. Kinship played an important role in the development of debt
bondage on the islands. Family networks and lineages were traced bilaterally
through both the female and male lines. This phenomenon diminished the
importance of status based on lineage connections to a single female or male
ancestor; instead, important genealogical claims were based on achieving a
founding line of descent and establishing fictive kin relations horizontally in the
present. This emphasis on the present had an impact on how the master-
slave bond emerged locally, where social relations, not private property, were
highly valued. Customary interactions between masters and slaves in this
context were mutually respectful. The coming of the Spanish colonizers to the
Philippines with their different habits and worldview was an affront to the
cultural ethos and common sense of mutual well-being. Spanish colonial
processes profoundly and irreversibly disrupted and altered local practices,
and the effect of this influence should not be underestimated. However, local
motifs and customary forms of behavior continued to re-emerge in new guises
and resisted the colonial design.
 02A Lesson Proper for Week 4

A Historian's Critical Questions

Students who study history sometimes confuse sources with evidence. Good
historical sources merely provide raw information that scholars can
reconstruct into evidence. Historians use reconstructed historical evidence to
make historical arguments about what happened in the past. To collect
evidence, historians examine sources by reading closely and asking critical
questions.

Students of history should also note that sources of history are subjective.
Meaning, persons who document and interpret history usually have his/her
unique point of view about what is happening.

We get historical information from primary and secondary sources. Analyzing

historical information includes answering the following:

o Who produced this source, and what is his/her background (i.e.,

viewpoints and personal experience) relevant to understanding the
source? Was the author biased or dishonest? Did he/she have a
plan/agenda?
o When and where was this source created? Is it similar to other
sources from the same period? In what ways is it a product of its
particular time, place, or context?
o Why did the author produce this source? Who was his/her
audience? Did the author make his/her purpose or argument explicit or
implicit? Was it for public or private use? Is it a work of scholarship,
fiction, art, or propaganda?
o How does this source compare with other sources you have
analyzed for the analysis? Is it biased toward a particular argument?
Incorporate or neglect significant pieces of evidence? Does it structure
its argument according to similar (or different) periods, geographies,
participants, themes, or events?

Sources of History
A. Primary Sources of History
Primary sources are materials produced in the period studied. They reflect the
immediate concerns and perspectives of those who are experiencing the
historical events studied. Typical examples of primary studies are diaries,
correspondence, dispatches, newspaper editorials, speeches, economic data,
literature, art, and film. This type of historical source allows the historian to
see the past through direct participants' points of view.

Primary sources come from the historical moment under examination. These
sources include witnesses and artifacts. Familiar primary sources include
newspapers, correspondence, memoirs, laws, official documents, and
published works.

(Mariano Peji and Filipino sailors at the U.S. Naval Academy posed in
basketball uniforms circa 1926, UMD Libraries Digital Collections Filipino
American Community Archives)

Looking at the primary source above, we can make assumptions about the
American Occupation in the Philippines. First, we can say that the sport
basketball has reached our shores. Another assumption we can make is
about how Filipinos dressed when playing sports. Lastly, we may be able to
assume some information based on the building behind the people in the
picture.

(The Royal Kandit, Villegas, 2004)

Non-text materials are also considered as primary sources of history if they
were made by people experiencing the historical events in question. The
golden Royal Kandit shown above is an artifact dating from between the
10th and 13th century and was found in Surigao. It is made of gold, about 74
centimeter, and weighs about a kilogram. If we analyze the information about
the golden belt, we may ask questions about how ancient Filipinos in Surigao
were able to craft and own ornate pieces of precious gold.

Evaluating Primary Sources

Like an investigative report, historical arguments try to establish how things
may have happened. Still, we have to be careful with interpreting primary
sources as these are not perfect documentations of historical events. Thus,
we should also compare sources with each other to check their credibility.

A fair reading of history involves asking questions about historical sources.

You can be a critical reader if you use your historical imagination and envision
what could have happened if historical characters were in different
circumstances. Primary source analysis will help you gather information about
details that can be put together to form an idea of a historical event or period.
Professor Patrick Rael, who was a Professor of History at Bowdoin College,
developed an acronym for evaluating primary source texts (PAPER) (Rael,
2004):
A. P – Purpose of the maker in preparing the source
Knowing the purpose of the author or maker of a primary source includes
finding out the role or place of that person in the society he/she lived in.
The social structure and culture of the maker will help us form a basis for
the development of the source.
B. A – Arguments and strategies used to achieve these goals
What ideas are the maker trying to convey by documenting a historical
event or period? You may also ask who the maker’s audience is and what
is the maker’s strategy in communicating to his/her audience. For
instance, Anne Frank, who lived in the Nazi Period in Germany, made a
dairy. The diary contents are most probably intended for her private
reading. At present, historian now know that Anne’s father edited some
pages to remove sensitive content. Knowing these details helps us read
between the lines and assume the “unwritten.” This analysis also enables
us to know how credible or reliable the source is.
 (Anne Frank's Diary, The History Channel, 2018)
C. P – Presuppositions and values
We can also analyze a primary source by examining how the beliefs of
the maker differ or are similar to ours. This process highlights the values
of the maker. At times, it may be uncomfortable to us to read about slave-
raiding of ancient Filipino tribes, but we consider their behavior as a
product of their time because they value different things (i.e. familial ties
and food production).
D. Epistemology
An epistemological reading of a primary source will give us information
that can be factually proven. These facts are not explicitly shown in the
material. For instance, we can date Anne Frank’s diary using the material
of the paper or the ink that was used.
E. R – Relate to other texts
We can infer some things from reading various primary sources from
different makers or writers. We can do this by highlighting repetitive
themes across sources. An example would be the current reading of
Ferdinand Magellan’s purpose in coming to the Philippines: some
historians suggest that he came for trade and not as a conquistador,
effectively dating the Spanish Colonization of the Philippines to 1565
instead of 1521. (Gerona, 2021)

Secondary Sources of History

Another source of history is secondary sources. If you tried to answer the
questions above or made intepretations about the primary sources in the
previous photos, the documentation of your ideas can be considered a
secondary source of history.
Secondary sources are materials produced after the period that is studiedand
is made by a person who did not experience the historical events he/she was
writing about. Typically, makers of secondary sources lived in the period being
studied but based their work on a primary source. Historians read secondary
sources to learn about how scholars have interpreted the past.

Historians using secondary sources consider the historical subject with ample
background of the sources' origin and generally select, analyze, and
incorporate evidence (derived from primary sources) to make an argument.
Works of scholars are the most common secondary sources.

(5000 Php Banknote with Lapulapu and the Philippine Eagle, Bangko Sentral
ng Pilipinas, 2021)

(Borrinaga, 2008)

A common secondary source of history are Philippine banknotes. The 5,000-

peso banknote shown above shows a realistic sketch of Lapulapu. The way
he looks in the banknote is informed by investigating the bodily adornment
customs and the physical characteristics of Visayans. It is NOT a photograph
of Lapulapu. In other words, the banknote does not give a perfecr picture of
what Lapulapu looks like because it is only a rendition.

The book cover in the photo shows a volume of secondary historical material
written by Rolando Borrinaga. He conducted a modern and Waraynon reading
of the correspondence among Waray, Bicolano, Tagalog, and Cebuano
revolutionaries in the Spanish and American Colonial Periods. His opinions
and inferences are informed by other primary sources such as maps, laws,
and photographs.

Secondary sources are also reliable sources of information, despite them

being mere copies of primary sources. They are reliable because they tend to
be informed by analysis of culture and historical periods. Secondary works
such as scholarly work usually show readers what part of the work are facts
and what are opinions or intelligent guesses. Secondary sources will alert you
to the debates, disagreements, or major questions that historians grapple with
a given topic. Additionally, makers of secondary sources are not emotionally
tied to the period they are examining.

Similar to primary sources, we need investigative skills in reading secondary

historical material. Secondary sources can be interpreted in different ways
since each reader will know a different set of information and will have a
different point of view. We need to think through the material and connect it to
other sources. We also need to be careful in distinguishing between scholarly
and non-scholarly secondary sources.

When we join history classes, we are usually asked by our teachers to explore
the discussions of other scholars by writing essays. Our historical essays can
be considered as secondary sources, as long as we provide enough
information about the following:

 Maker or writer of the source/material

 The maker’s or author’s expertise, training, and theoretical approach
 The maker’s or author’s explanation of why and how the events
happened
 The maker’s or author’s argument or point of view about the historical
period or event talked about
 The evidence that the maker or author cited to support his/her
argument
 The parts of the material that makes the argument weak
 The structure and form of the source (text, art, film, etc.)
 Any competing material that affects the way the material being studied
is structured
 How different or similar to works on the same topic is the material.
Credibility and Reliability
Aside from analying the content of sources, historians also examine the
credibility and reliability of historical sources.

A. Reliability
Reliable sources are those that are relay as facts those that can be
verified with evidence. For example, dates in historical material can be
corroborated by other materials such as laws or new reports.
B. Credibility
Credibe sources are those that are transparent about approaches, biases,
and points of view. Credible sources do this by highlighting what is not
known at the moment and what are accepted as facts while making
arguments.
 02A Lesson Proper for Week 5

A. Book or article
Bangka, Kaluluwa, at Katutubong Paniniwala
Maria Bernadette L. Abrera
“Bangka” is the general Philippine term for all kinds of seacraft, variously
classified since the sixteenth century as a small and light vessel to a large
commercial boat. This term is not found in the seventeenth century Visayan
and Bikol vocabularies and instead there appears its synonym, “baloto” whose
form and function are the same as that of the bangka.
The rituals involving the bangka reveal that it is more than a water vessel in
Philippine culture: it is a repository of an entire belief system in indigenous
society. From the selection of the tree, felling it, digging it out or hewing it into
planks, to the construction and until its launching into the sea, the entire
process is wrapped in rituals and religious meanings. The bangka mirrors
clearly and directly the indigenous animist belief system. The rituals involved
in burial and the use of the bangka as a vessel to transport the departed to
the next life are analyzed, revealing the worldview of Filipinos. These all
indicate the belief not just in the bangka as a “soul boat” but in a “soul of the
boat” itself.
Visit this site for full text:
https://bangkanixiao.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/abrera-bangka-kaluluwa-at-
katutubong-panininwa.pdf

Massive Balangay “Mother Boat” Unearthed in Butuan

By Timothy James Dimacali
Published August 9, 2013 4:04 pm | Updated August 16, 2013 12:00 am
Link: http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/321334/massive-
balangay-mother-boat-unearthed-in-butuan/story/
The largest sailing vessel of its kind yet discovered is being unearthed in
Butuan City in Mindanao, and it promises to rewrite Philippine maritime history
as we know it. Estimated to be around 800 years old, the plank vessel may be
centuries older than the ships used by European explorers in the 16th century
when they first came upon the archipelago later named after a Spanish king,
Las Islas Felipenas.
The find also underscores theories that the Philippines, and Butuan in
particular, was a major center for cultural, religious, and commercial relations
in Southeast Asia.
“Nails” the size of soda cans
National Museum archaeologist Dr. Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia, who leads
the research team at the site, says almost everything about the newly-
discovered "balangay" is massive.

She holds up her hand and curls her fingers into a circle, as if grasping a soda
can. "That's just one of the treenails used in its construction," Bolunia says.
An aptly descriptive term, a "treenail" is a wooden peg or dowel used in place
of iron nails in boatbuilding.
So, with "nails" that size, exactly how big is this boat?
Bolunia produces a piece of onionskin paper with a carefully-inked map of the
archeological site. On the upper corner is a roughly pea pod-shaped boat
wreck about 15 meters long, one of eight similarly-sized balangays discovered
at the site since the 1970's. But right next to it, discovered only in 2012, are
what seem to be the remains of a ninth balangay so wide that it could easily fit
the smaller craft into itself twice over – and that's just the part that's been
excavated so far.
Although the boat has yet to be fully excavated, it's estimated to be at least 25
meters long.
Aside from the treenails, the individual planks alone are each as broad as a
man's chest – roughly twice the width of those used in other balangays on the
site. The planks are so large that they can no longer be duplicated, because
there are no more trees today big enough to make boards that size, according
to Bolunia.
Visiting the site
GMA News visited the site on August 14, and found the excavation site
waterlogged pending further digging and study. However, Bolunia assured
that keeping the artifacts in this condition for now is actually beneficial for their
conservation. "We just let the water seep in and leave it at that because it's
more protected than if you dry it. If you expose it without proper conservation
then it will disintegrate," she told GMA News.
Jorge Absite, officer-in-charge of the Butuan Museum, is hopeful that the new
discovery will yield more insights about our Filipino ancestors. The Butuan
Museum is tasked with supervising the care and protection of the balangay
excavations and any artifacts found therein.
"Ito ang kasagutan sa 'missing link' ng kultura natin, kung ano ba talaga ang
uring pamumuhay meron ang mga ninuno natin (This is the answer to a
'missing link' in our culture, on what kind of life our ancestors really had),"
Absite said.
"(Filipinos') ability to construct or build big boats is not something new... Even
before the Chinese came to the Philippines, the Filipinos went to China
through the Butuanons," Bolunia underscored.
Proceeding with caution
Historians, and Bolunia herself, caution that much work still needs to be done
before the boat can be conclusively dated and identified.
"(The newly-discovered boat) will need more technical verification to establish
its connection and relationship with the other boats already excavated, so that
we can know its date, boat typology, and technology," said Dr. Maria
Bernadette L. Abrera, professor and chairperson of the Department of History
at the University of the Philippines-Diliman, in an email interview.
"We have to be careful," said Ramon Villegas, a scholar who has done
extensive research on pre-colonial Philippine history. "There has not been
enough time to study (the artifacts). It could be a Spanish boat or Chinese
junk."
Aside from carbon dating to determine the age of the wood, the construction
techniques used and even the type of wood itself need to be ascertained
before anyone can come to a definitive conclusion.
"Everything depends on the construction, on how the boat was built, before
you can properly call it a 'balangay'," explains archeologist and anthropologist
Dr. Jesus Peralta. He said he has yet to see the newfound boat for himself.
Nevertheless, the boat's proximity to previous sites of buried balangays
promises to send ripples through the academic world.
"It's a 'mother boat'," Bolunia says with little hesitation, "and it's changing the
way we think about ancient Filipino seafarers."
Rewriting Philippine history
It has long been established that Filipinos travelled across Southeast Asia as
early as the 10th century, reaching as far as Champa – what is now the
eastern coast of Vietnam – in groups of balangays.
These groups or flotillas have always been thought to consist of similarly-
sized small vessels, an idea perpetuated by the term "barangay" – the
smallest administrative division of the present-day Philippine government.
But, according to Bolunia, this new discovery suggests that these may just
have been support vessels for a much larger main boat, where trade goods
and other supplies were likely to have been held for safekeeping.
The discovery also suggests that seafaring Filipinos were much more
organized and centralized than previously thought.
Butuan as a major center of culture and trade
"This balangay reinforces the findings of the earlier excavations about the role
of Butuan as a commercial and population center in precolonial Philippines,"
Abrera told GMA News.
"Butuan seaport had long-time trade links with Champa and Guandong
(China). You can retrace the importance of (the newly-discovered boat) by
utilizing it as an archeological key to that period when Butuan was a busy link
to the pan-Asian cultural and commercial intercourse," historian Arnold M.
Azurin told GMA News via Facebook chat.
In fact, Filipino seafarers from Butuan were already exploring Asia over a
thousand years ago, well ahead of our Chinese neighbors: as early as 1001,
the Song Dynasty recorded the arrival of a diplomatic mission from the
"Kingdom of Butuan."
"In 1003 AD, a Butuan chieftain petitioned the Chinese Imperial Court to allow
it to bring its products direct to Guandong—instead of using Champa as the
entrepôt (main trading post)," Azurin added.
However, according to Azurin, the petition was declined because the Court
insisted on regulating trade via Champa.
He also says that Butuan may also have played a major role in the spread of
culture and religion in the Philippines long before Christianity and even Islam
came to the islands.
"The boat's possible deeper significance is that it may be one of the carriers of
Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence in the Philippine Archipelago long before
Islam and Christianity arrived here. Many scholars also say that the baybayin
script arrived here through the same connection with Champa. Hence, you
can deepen the cultural legacy of our ancestors," Azurin said.
Older than Magellan and Jung He
While the newfound boat has yet to be accurately dated, its construction and
position directly alongside a balangay from the 1200's strongly suggest that it
is also a balangay from the same time period.
If so, then the boat predates by hundreds of years Magellan's arrival, and
death, in the Philippines in 1521 and even the Chinese explorer Zheng He's
expedition across Asia in 1400.
"For more than a thousand years, the trade and settlement patterns and
routes across Asia connected certain islands (of the Philippines), especially
those with good harbors and steady supply of local products," Azurin said.
"Highly interesting is the mention of slaves-for-sale in (Magellan's chronicler)
Pigafetta's account of the first circumnaviation: Raja Humabon boasted to
Magellan that some boatloads of slaves had just left Cebu for Cambodia and
Champa—likely in need of warm bodies for their wars of succession, or for
new stonecutters for their megalithic shrines," he added.
Could Filipino craftsmen, sent abroad on balangays, have helped build
ancient Asian monuments like Angkor Wat?
"That's a possible conjecture, considering that archeologists like Robert Fox,
H. Otley Beyer and others have pointed out that some islands in southern
Philippines had communities linked to (these places)," he said.
Continuing a seaworthy tradition
In any case, the "mother boat" and the smaller balangays in Butuan were
definitely made for exploring the high seas, according to Dr.Bolunia.
She says their overall shape and construction are suited to navigating deep
ocean waters more than shallow rivers. The presence of a quarter rudder and
sails would also indicate a sea-going vessel, although these have yet to be
found, Dr.Bolunia says.
"That's especially true for a boat this size," she says of the giant balangay.
Even today, the Sama-Badjao of Sulu still practice boatbuilding techniques
that are strikingly similar to those used in constructing the Butuan boats.
In 2010, replica balangays built by Sama-Badjao craftsmen and manned by
Filipino adventurers completed a 14,000-km journey across Southeast Asia,
proving the seaworthiness of the original balangays and the traditional
woodcraft used to construct them.
One of the boats, the 15-meter-long "DiwatangLahi," is now on permanent
display outside the National Museum in Manila.

AUTHOR’S ARGUMENT AND POINT OF VIEW

 An author’s argument is the opinion or belief that he or she wants to

persuade readers to believe.

Identify the Issue

 Issue means the controversial topic that the author is discussing.

Examples of controversial issues include the death penalty, gun control,

foreign policy, and abortion.

 Ask yourself, “Is the author writing about a controversial issue?”

Determine the Author’s Argument

 The author’s argument is his or her point of view on an issue.

 Ask yourself, “what is the author’s position on the issue?”

Step 1: Identify the Author’s Assumptions

 The author’s assumptions consist of things the author takes for

granted without presenting any proof (in other words, what the author
believes or accepts as true and bases the argument on).
 Ask yourself, “what does the author take for granted?”
 If the author’s assumptions are illogical or incorrect, then the entire
argument will be flawed. Readers may be misled unless they identify the
author’s assumptions.

Step 2: Identify the Types of Support

 Types of support refer to the kind of evidence the author uses to
back up the argument.
 Ask yourself, “what kind of support does the author present to back the
argument?”
 Support can include research findings, case studies, personal
experience or observation, examples, facts, comparisons, expert
testimony, and opinions.

Step 3: Determine the Relevance of the Support

 Relevance means the support is directly related to the argument.

 Ask yourself, “is the support directly related to the argument?”
 Unless the author is an expert, his or her opinion or personal
experience may not be particularly relevant.

Step 4: Determine the Author’s Objectivity

 The author’s argument has objectivity when the support consists

of facts and other clear evidence.
 Ask yourself, “does the author present facts and clear evidence as
support?”

Step 5: Determine the Argument’s Completeness

 An argument is complete if the author presents adequate support

and overcomes opposing points.
 Authors occasionally do not give enough support.
 Authors occasionally leave out information that would weaken their
argument. Their argument would be stronger if they presented it and
countered it.

Step 6: Determine if the Argument Is Valid

 An argument is valid (has validity) if it is logical.

 Ask yourself, “is the argument logical (well-reasoned)?”

Step 7: Decide if the Argument Is Credible

 An argument has credibility if it is believable (convincing).

 Ask yourself, “is the author’s argument believable?”
 Validity and credibility are closely related because an argument that is
not valid will not be credible.