Vibration Analysis for

Machinery Health Diagnosis

 How Vibration Data is Gathered and Processed for Analysis

Vibration analysis can identify these When evaluating any machine’s health, the analyst should:
and other problems: 1. Visually inspect each machine for overall condition while
„ Imbalance „ Flow problems onsite collecting data. Look for things such as leaking seals and
other damaged or incomplete components, cracked welds,
„ Belt problems „ Lubrication problems deterioration in the grouting, missing clamps and hold-downs.

„ Resonance „ Gear problems looseness 2. Ensure that the turning speed (TS) can be identified at the
measurement point location before any critical measurement
„ Oil whirl „ Rubs
is taken.
„ Vane pass „ Oil whip
3. Once TS is identified, determine TS harmonic relationships.
„ Cavitation „ Blade Pass
4. When harmonics of TS are determined, other vibration peaks of
„ Misalignment „ Pipe strain interest and other harmonic relationships may be identified
for analysis.
„ Electrical problems „ Rolling element
bearing defects
„ Sleeve bearing problems Line Frequencies
Line frequency related peaks commonly exist on every AC driven
Facts About Vibration machine and are present to some extent at 2x of line frequency.
For more discussion of electric motor issues, see Electric Motor
„ Vibration is movement relative to a reference position, such as
Problems and Diagnostic Techniques.
the center line of a shaft on rotating equipment

„ Vibration is a result of an excitation force or forcing function and

may be either random or periodic
FFT Signal Processing
„ Vibration analysis can often pinpoint a failing element of a
rotating machine in time to avoid catastrophic failure and costly
replacement of machinery as well as lengthy
production interruptions

„ Each machine fault generates a specific vibration pattern.

„ The frequency of the vibration is determined by the machine

geometry and operating speed

„ A single vibration measurement provides information about

multiple components

Captured Waveform Resulting Spectrum

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Vibration Plot Types
Both spectrum and waveform provide useful data. Machinery faults often occur at specific frequencies and are most easily identified in the
spectrum. Trend plots show changes in a measurement over time.

The Time Waveform shows random events,

periodic events and imapcting

Circle Plot or Roll Profile Plot Cascade spectrum plot shows

resonance over time, such as during
a startup

Basic Trend Plot displays growing defect and result of

maintenance action

Unfiltered Orbit Plot 1x Filtered Orbit Plot

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Transducer Mounting (Vibration Sensors)
„ Stud mounting is preferred but common only with inaccessible
situations and online systems

„ More care is necessary when mounting higher frequency

range accelerometers

„ Adhesive mounting is second in performance to

stud mounting

„ Magnetic mounting is most commonly used for

route-based monitoring
Typical displacement probe mounting on a large sleeve bearing
„ Hand-held probes yield poorest performance and are not
recommended but are sometimes necessary because of access
restrictions or safety concerns

Resonance
Every machine will vibrate when excited by a forcing function.
Each machine has one or more natural or resonant frequencies.
When any forcing function is near the natural frequency, the
resulting vibration will be significantly amplified and could cause
premature failure.

A critical speed occurs when the rotating element is turning at

a speed which excites resonance in the machine. Many times a
forcing function (such as from a rotating shaft) excites a resonance
frequency in another part of the same or nearby machine. This
resonance frequency may be identified by an impact test, typically
when the machine is ff; the machine structure may be “rung” like
Typical magnetic mounting of accelerometer
a bell. Changing a structure’s stiffness, mass, damping, operating
speed and/or reduction of the forcing function will affect the
resonance issue and may help solve the problem. Resonance is
becoming more of a problem in industry because:

„ New equipment is often built lighter

„ More variable speed machinery is being used in industry

„ Machines are now often run at higher speeds without properly

considering natural or resonant frequency
of equipment

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Analysis of the vibration spectrum can be
divided into 3 areas:
Sub-synchronous is less than 1x turning speed (TS) of the shaft and
can identify problems with: belts, oil whirl/whip, rubs,
loose roller bearing in housing, cage or train frequency of antifriction
bearing, primary belt frequency, defective tooth-to-tooth repeat Imbalance
frequency, surge, ignition or fuel problem on reciprocating source.
Frequency Banding allows
Synchronous is a 1x turning speed (TS) of the shaft and exact alarms to be created for
Misalignment
multiple integers of TS (energy is said to be “phase locked” to different fault types.

TS) and can identify problems with: imbalance, misalignment,

looseness, bent shaft, vane/blade pass, gear mesh, belt sheave pitch Looseness

Velocity
line runout, broken gear tooth, sleeve bearing, resonance.

Non-synchronous is not equal to any multiple of TS of the shaft and

can identify problems with: rolling element defects, electrical, other Bearing Band 1
components in the machine, one or more system resonances, belts, Bearing Band 2
noise, cavitation, other unusual sources, background vibration, pipe,
strain lubrication fault.

Electrical faults occur as a multiple of the frequency of the

supply/current.

Typical Sensors, Sensor Units and Applications for Vibration Analysis

Units*
Probe Type Frequency Range and
Display Units for Plotting
Typical Application
Metric English
Displacement Non-contact eddy current probe µ Pk-Pk Mils Pk-Pk 0-1kHz. Permanently or Displacement enhances low
(requires signal converter) semi-permanently mounted. frequency and is ma measure of
Measures shaft vibration relative motion expressed in thousandths
to machine casing. Commonly of an inch (1 mil – 0.001”) or in
used on turbo machinery metric units

Velocity Spring-loaded mass, sensitive Mm/s In/s 10Hz-1kHz. Accuracy dependent Velocity displays low and high
to heat and humidity (no power (RMS) (Peak) on temperature, humidity and frequency data equally and is a
required) position. Displays low and high measure of speed expressed I
frequency data equally inches per second or metric units
per second

Acceleration Piezoelectric crystal, extremely Peak g’s Peak g’s 0.5Hz-60kHz depending on Acceleration enhances high
robust (requires external power) design and mounting. 10Hz-3kHz frequency data and is a measure
typical. Very robust design. Ideal of the rate of change of speed (1g-
for monitoring rolling element 386 in/sec squared or metric units/
bearings and gear boxes second squared)

* These are typically accepted units, but may be user defined.

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 Imbalance and Misalignment

Imbalance is the condition of a rotating

component where the center of rotation is not
the same as the center of mass.
Common causes of imbalance:

„ Material buildup „ Little or no turning

speed harmonics
„ Wear
„ Simple, sinusoidal,
„ Broken or missing parts periodic waveform
„ Improper assembly or „ One event per
poor design shaft revolution
„ Thermal distortions „ Little or no impacting
„ Turning speed peak „ Presence of significant turning
amplitude increases with speed harmonics suggests
increase in speed other or additional defects
(looseness, etc.) Imbalance vibration is always 1 x TS
„ Little axial energy except with
overhung machines

Misalignment is when rotational center lines of

coupled shafts are not collinear.
Angular problem Centers of rotation are A combination of these
High 2xTS peak characterizes offset misalignment; a high 1xTS offset problems is most common
signifies angular misalignment, though both frequently combine to
cause1xTS and 3xTS in the spectrum. Highest amplitudes typically
occur in the radial direction for horizontally mounted equipment;
overhung motors may exhibit higher amplitudes in the axial plane.

Velocity waveform for misalignment is very periodic and repetitive

with one or two peaks (events) per revolution. Offset amplitudes
typically appear higher in the radial plane; angular misalignment
amplitudes typically appear higher in the axial plane.

Mechanical Looseness
Looseness is characterized by harmonics of TS with raised noise
floor. Waveform displays random impacting which may be in a
non-repetitive irregular pattern. Highest amplitudes typically occur
in the radial direction, specifically the vertical plane for horizontally
mounted equipment.

The number of turning speed harmonics and their amplitudes

increase with the severity of the problem. Unstable phase
characterizes looseness.

Fractional harmonics (1/4, 1/3, ½, ¾) may appear due to looseness.

7
Belt Defects

Worn or mismatched belts produce sub-synchronous and

sometimes non-synchronous peaks and harmonics. The 2x belt
frequency typically dominates, and multiples of the 2x appear
throughout the spectrum, because the defective belt passes over
2 sheaves. The highest amplitudes typically occur in the radial
direction, specifically in line with the belts.

„ To resolve belt frequency in the spectra, it is necessary that the

time block of data includes at least 6 revolutions of the belt
(further references are available in The Simplified Handbook of
Vibration Analysis by Art Crawford

„ An eccentric sheave produces radial vibration at 1xTS

of the sheave

„ Misaligned sheaves create axial vibration at 1xTS of the sheave

8
 Antifriction Bearing Faults

An imperfection in one or more of the contact surfaces of an Bearing spectrum characteristics:

antifriction or rolling element bearing is called a defect. The problem
Commonly first appear as high-frequency/low-amplitude
may be invisible even under a microscope, and may be more
non-synchronous peaks. Harmonics of the non-synchronous peaks
complex than a simple imperfection.
often show turning speed sidebands appearing around the race
Antifriction bearing problems are a major source of failure in defect frequency.
industrial machinery.
Broad energy “mounds” or “grass” indicate advanced degradation.
Some common causes of bearing defects or premature failure:

„ Excessive or „ Excessive load

inadequate lubrication
„ Age of bearing
„ Improper mounting methods
„ Improper storage & handling
„ Improper application
„ Manufacturing defects
„ Excessive vibration before
and/or after installation

Bearing defect frequencies will usually appear in this order

(highest to lowest):

„ BPFI „ BSF Cage

Inner
(Ball Pass Frequency Inner) (Ball Spin Frequency) Race
Rolling Outer
„ BPFO „ FTF Element Cage
(Ball Pass Frequency Outer) (Fundamental Train
Frequency)

View the spectrum in acceleration to see the high frequency peaks.

High frequency vibration analysis can detect lack of lubrication.

The following frequencies can be approximated with the

following formulae:

„ BPFO = # of rollers x shaft TS x „ BPFI = # of rollers x shaft TS x

0.4 (approx.) 0.6 (approx.)

Typical waveform characteristics:

„ Periodic but „ Periodic characteristic

non-sinusoidal impacting diminishes with
For rolling element defects, cage frequency sidebands are typically
advanced degradation
displayed in a spectrum centered around 1 or 2 times BSF fault
„ Excessive “g swing” with
frequency as illustrated in the plots above. These sidebands are
sharp impacting spikes often
caused by the defect passing in and out of the load zone at the TS of
resembling an angle
the cage. The associated waveform displays modulation at the cage
fish pattern
TS which appears as sidebands in the spectrum.

9
 An outer race defect normally shows little or no modulation in Running speed sidebands are typically displayed in an inner
the waveform, thus no sidebanding about the BPFO frquencies race defect spectrum about BPFI frquencies as illustrated in the
in the spectrum. plot. These sidebands are caused by the defect passing in and
out of the load zone at the shaft. The associated waveform dis-
plays modulation which appears as sidebands in the spectrum.

These plots demonstrate an advancing fault. The trend shows a deteriorating bearing defect. As it advances, increased high-frequency broadband
energy indicates rapid deterioration exhibited in the waveforms.

Bearing ID Interpretation
Bearings are built to world standards, ensuring consistent availability worldwide. Because most motor bearings are listed on motors tags
as AFBMA or ABMA numbers, you may be able to calculate the common bearing number from the equipment nameplate. Identification
resources are available from:

Interchange, Inc.
PO Box 234
Champlin MN 55316-0234
800.669.6208
Fax 800.729.0395 or 763.694.7117
[email protected]
www.interchangeinc.com

10
 Gear Boxes and Defects

Gears rotating together at a common tangent create gear mesh. Gear Monitoring Tips
Data collection on gear boxes can be challenging. Defects may
„ Gear mesh energy normally appears regardless of gear
include misalignment, chipped or broken teeth, looseness, stress
conditions; amount of energy depends on gear configuration
fractures, and worn gears or bearings.
and load
Gear box waveform characteristics:
„ Increase of gear mesh harmonics are an indication of normal
„ Gear mesh will appear (impacting indicates a problem). Since uniform wear
gear boxes are naturally energetic due to the gears meshing,
trending is very helpful „ Eccentric wear generates sidebands; frequency of the sidebands
are related to the problem gear
„ Very busy waveform
„ An increase in amplitudes of gear mesh sidebands
„ Pulses appear once per revolution with cracked or broken tooth indicates problems

Gear Mesh Frequency (GMF) = Rotation Speed (in Hz) X # of „ Spacing between sideband peaks can indicate which gear is bad
Gear Teeth
„ Gear natural resonance can be excited by gear defects; an
For example, a gear is rotating at 10 Hz with 72 teeth. increase in amplitude is a good indicator of potential problems
GMF = 10Hz X 72 = 720 Hz
„ Gear misalignment often appear as as 2xGMF in the spectrum
Causes of premature gear box failure include:
„ To analyze gear problems, set Fmax at 3.4xGMF to allow room
„ Improper lubrication „ Overheating
for sidebands
„ Wrong application „ Poor design or manufacture
„ Use at least 1600 lines of resolution if the Fmax is <2000Hz; use
„ Bearing failure „ Seal failure at least 3200 if the Fmax is >2000Hz. The objective is to resolved
the slowest shaft speed in mesh
„ Water intrusion
„ Mark gears to be reinstalled to allow same mesh.
Gear box spectrum characteristics:
„ Best to replace gears in sets
„ GMF will commonly exist and appears as high frequency
synchronous peaks „ Additional significant harmonics (3 and up)
can indicate looseness.
„ Defects can display harmonics of GMF and/or turning
speed sidebands Gear Ratio Calculation

„ Sideband amplitudes will normally increase as Knowing the ratio of th einput to output gears can be very helpful in
condition deteriorates determining the turning speed of the output shaft.

Ratio = Number of teeth on output gears can be very helpful in

determing the turning speed of the outp shaft.

For example, a gear box with 72 teeth on the input gear and 24 teeth
on the output gear would have a ratio of 72/24, or 3:1. If the input is
10Hz, the output would be 30Hz (TSxRatio).

11
The spectrum (expressed in orders) demonstrates extensive impacting at gear turning Other technologies to monitor gear boxes:
speed. Recurring periods of high spiking appear in the waveform each time the cracked „ Oil analysis
tooth passes through engagement.
„ Infrared thermography
„ Advanced Vibration Diagnostics such
as Autocorrelation and PeakVue®

Trend plot clearly shows increasing gear Gears demonstrating wear over time. Note changes in amplitude from early stage wear to
tooth wear over several months, despite more advanced tooth wear and increasing side bands. Cursors denote gear mesh frequency
readings taken under varying load. and its multiples.

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 Vibration Analysis is Used to Improve Profitability in Every Major Industry in the World

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